Journal articles on the topic 'Factors affecting M-commerce'

Mobile commerce is a worldwide innovation. However, in Lebanon, several factors are hindering its development. Therefore, our objective is to find the factors influencing the consumer’s attitude toward the use of mobile commerce and to create a research model reflecting our findings. This research revises the basic theories of technology adoption and studies conducted in m-commerce, e-commerce, and related fields. An exploratory study of deep interviews with 14 consumers and experts was held, and a content analysis by themes was performed to show the consistent variables for our conceptual framework. New derived variables, the situational factor and digital culture tend to moderate the relations between independent and dependent variables. Service availability, self-efficacy and social-influence significantly influence the consumer’s attitude toward the use of m-commerce, while cost is negatively affected. This study has both theoretical and managerial implications, it presents a new research model compared to prior studies in online service technologies, especially in mobile commerce. In addition, results provide online businesses with many trusted recommendations for their strategic plans based on analyzed and accurate data.

The study at hand is aimed at finding the factors that affect the intention of customers to adopt m-commerce for their routine behavior. We measured how trust, brand equity, and social influence affect the “intention to adopt m-commerce”. The data was collected from consumers which were part of the University of Punjab and have mobile for use in social and commercial activities. The results reveal that we can use m-commerce for different activities and trust and brand equity affect on it. Social influence mediates the relationship between trust, brand equity, and dependent variables. Future directions are given.

Objective – The purpose of this study is to present a conceptual framework for implementing mobile commerce utilising the TAM model and the application of Individual-Collectivism at the Individual Level (ICAIL) as a moderating variable in the context of mobile commerce in Malaysia. Methodology – The data for this study were collected from 550 randomly selected students from four Malaysian institutions using a self-administered questionnaire. Findings – The study found that images significantly correlate with the perceived usefulness variable. In contrast, the relationships between subjective norm, output quality, and outcome demonstrability are not significant, and anxiety has a weak relationship with perceived ease of use, playfulness, perception of external control, and self-efficacy indicates significant relationships. Novelty – Subjective norm is related to the image in a substantial way, whereas perceived utility does not affect behaviour. Furthermore, no significant link was found between the moderating variable, ICAIL, and perceived utility, perceived ease of use, subjective norm, or behavioural intention. This study investigated mobile commerce and the use of the ICAIL, which provides information progress for mobile commerce enterprises, service providers, financial institutions, and governments. Type of Paper: Empirical JEL Classification: F1, F10, F19. Keywords: M-commerce; Technology Acceptance Model; Individual-Collectivism at Individual level; Perceived Ease of Use; Perceived Usefulness Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Rahman, N.L.A; Azizan, F.L; Hassan, S; Ibrahim, D. (2022). Exploring Factors Affecting the Mobile Commerce Adoption Among University Students in Malaysia, J. Bus. Econ. Review, 7(3), 160–168. https://doi.org/10.35609/jber.2022.7.3(1)

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify and develop a hierarchical model for the barriers affecting the growth of mobile commerce (M-commerce). Based on the model developed, the authors’ objective is to identify those variables that are of strategic nature and are the root cause of the issue. Design/methodology/approach – Variables considered as barriers are identified, and utilizing the interpretive structural model approach, a relationship model is developed. Further, the impact matrix cross-reference multiplication applied to a classification approach is used to analyze the effect and dependence among these factors. Findings – The research in the area of M-commerce in the Arab world and related to the strategic aspect is limited in the extant literature. The present study tries to fill this gap by investigating the variables that inhibit the growth of M-commerce in Qatar. The research shows that there exists a group of barriers having a high driving power and low dependence requiring maximum attention and of strategic importance, while another group consists of those variables that have high dependence and are the resultant actions. Practical implications – There is a growing concern that although the numbers of mobile subscribers are increasing at a very fast pace in Qatar, actual M-commerce activities in the country remain low. The findings of this study can be used to understand the differences between the independent and dependent variables and their mutual relationships. The study would also help the policy makers to develop suitable strategies to facilitate growth of M-commerce in the country. Originality/value – This research was the first attempt to investigate the relationships among the variables inhibiting the growth of M-commerce in a fast-growing economy in a Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region. Given that there is limited research on M-commerce in the GCC context, the study can be viewed as an investigation that provides a good understanding of the variables and their interrelationships affecting M-commerce proliferation.

Abstract - The evolution of digital technology has led to a dramatic rise in mobile commerce (M-commerce), enabling users to conduct financial and commercial transactions seamlessly through mobile devices. While M-commerce offers unmatched convenience and accessibility, it also introduces a spectrum of security threats including data breaches, unauthorized access, identity theft, and lack of user trust. These risks underscore the urgent need for a secure and user-centric framework that safeguards customer data and fosters confidence in mobile transactions. This research paper aims to explore, analyze, and propose a comprehensive M-commerce security framework tailored specifically to customer requirements. The study investigates the core components of M-commerce security—such as authentication mechanisms, secure communication protocols, encryption practices, and user data privacy—and emphasizes the integration of these elements into a multi-layered framework. The research employs a quantitative methodology, using structured questionnaires to gather data from a sample of 44 respondents. The analysis reveals key factors affecting consumer behavior, perceptions about mobile security, preferred payment methods, and trust-related issues. The proposed framework not only addresses technical vulnerabilities but also focuses on enhancing user awareness, supporting secure app development practices, and implementing regular updates and security assessments. By incorporating both preventive and detective controls, the framework ensures protection of data integrity, confidentiality, and system availability. This study offers valuable insights for businesses, developers, and policymakers seeking to strengthen the digital commerce environment. It contributes to the academic discourse on cybersecurity in mobile platforms and serves as a foundational reference for future innovations in secure mobile commerce ecosystems. Keywords: M-Commerce, Mobile Security, Data Privacy, Authentication, User Trust, Digital Transactions, India

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of the mobile shopping (m-shopping) acceptance literature to bring international marketing and consumer research attention to m-shopping acceptance factors and limitations in current understandings to propose recommendations for further academic and retailing attention. Design/methodology/approach Keyword searches identified the consumer-focused literature across mobile commerce, m-shopping, mobile browsing and mobile purchasing, published in English language journals. A classification framework is created and a time frame is established to provide a more focused direction for research. Findings Despite the growing popularity of consumers adopting m-shopping activities and the increasing academic attention, consumer m-shopping utilisation remains low and research into its causes remains in its infancy. This paper has subsequently identified a variety of recommendations for further research, including further insights into perceived risk, user vs non-user behaviours, the multi-stage shopping process, incorporation of time considerations and theoretical development. Originality/value There has yet been a review of the m-shopping literature collaborating literary findings and limitations in the consumer m-shopping environment. Three major themes arise in this paper. First, there are a variety of factors affecting consumer willingness to accept m-shopping which are often incorporated in existing theory in a sporadic manner. Second, factors can create positive and/or negative consumer perceptions, requiring further insight. Finally, research limitations predominantly surround theoretical and methodological constraints, prompting for wider geographical and more longitudinal approaches to research.

<strong>Abstract:</strong> Waiting time is an emergency department is considerable issue in money countries in the world. This study aims to investigate the factors affecting waiting time (WT) in accident &amp;emergency (A&amp;E) units and to formulate strategies for improvement. Preliminary care units in Sri Lanka are similar to A&amp;E department in other countries. Objective: To describe the factors affecting waiting time in the accident and emergency patient attending to Preliminary Care Unit of selected Base Hospital in Western Province Sri Lanka. Methodology: This was a cross sectional observational study conducted in three Base Hospital in Western province the period of three months and total 425 patients were interviewed. This study was conducted at primary care units in three Base Hospital in Western Province Sri Lanka. Patients, consultants, medical officers, nursing officers, Health care assistance and other administrative staff participated to the study. Results: The most congested time period was 10a, m to 1p.m. most affected age group was 15- 24yrs.There were more significant association between type of injuries and waiting time(P=0.001). Majority of the patients were registered within 15 minutes (97.6%) and the average waiting time to seeing a doctor was less than 15 minutes. Ninety-nine percentages of patients waited less than 15 minutes to get their treatment. Conclusion and recommendation: RTA, animal bite, snake bite and falls were the commonest causes for admission. Surgical and JMO referral were delay due to un availability of medical staff. Shortage of heath staff, lack of in-service training program and poor monitoring and evaluation were noticed. <strong>Keywords:</strong> waiting time, primary care unit, accident &amp;emergency. <strong>Title:</strong> Factors affecting waiting time in accident and emergency patients attending to preliminary care units in selected Base Hospital in Western province, Sri Lanka <strong>Author:</strong> Alahapperuma. D <strong>International Journal of Recent Research in Commerce Economics and Management (IJRRCEM)</strong> <strong>ISSN 2349-7807</strong> <strong>Vol. 9, Issue 3, July 2022 - September 2022</strong> <strong>Page No: 7-15</strong> <strong>Paper Publications&nbsp; </strong> <strong>Website: www.paperpublications.org</strong> <strong>Published Date: 06-July-2022</strong> <strong>DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6802494</strong> <strong>Paper Download Link (Source)</strong> <strong>https://www.paperpublications.org/upload/book/Factors%20affecting%20waiting%20time-06072022-1.pdf</strong>

ABSTRACT This study aimed to analyze the influence of variable factors in the UTAUT2 (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) model on behavioral intention to use CWM (Crowdfunding-Waqf Model) in the Kitabisa.com application. The population used in this study were active users of the Kitabisa.com application, which are spread throughout Indonesia. Data collection techniques in this study used survey techniques by distributing questionnaires online to 174 respondents. The sampling technique used in this study was purposive sampling, which is a sampling technique with certain criteria. This study used the SEM-PLS analysis technique. The results of this study indicate that the Effort Expectancy (EE) and Habit (HB) variables have a significant positive effect on behavioral intention to use CWM (Crowdfunding-Waqf Model) in the Kitabisa.com application, thus wakif really considers the ease of use of technology and habits as a determining factor in the adoption of a technology, while 5 other variables, namely Performance Expectancy (PE), Price Value (PV), Social Influence (SI), Hedonic Motivation (HM), and Facilitating Condition (FC) variables have no significant positive effect on behavioral intention to use CWM (Crowdfunding-Waqf Model). The reason of these 5 variables are not significant is because the test results from the Hypothesis Test showed a number that was greater than the significance level of 5% or 0.05. Thus, the dependent variable in the form of Behavioral Intention to Use is only influenced by the Effort Expectancy (EE) and Habit (HB) variables. The contribution of this research is to encourage the policy makers to make policies or laws and regulations that can optimize the benefits of developing the waqf crowdfunding model (CWM) and protect all processes related to the use of productive waqf assets whose funds are collected from the Kitabisa.com application. Keywords: Crowdfunding Waqf Model, Kitabisa.com Application, Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, Productive Waqf ABSTRAK Peneltian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh faktor variabel di dalam model UTAUT2 (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) terhadap behvioral intention to use CWM (Crowdfunding-Waqf Model) pada aplikasi Kitabisa.com. Populasi yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah pengguna aktif aplikasi KitaBisa.com yang tersebar di seluruh Indonesia. Teknik pengumpulan data pada penelitian ini menggunakan Teknik survey dengan membagikan kuesioner secara online kepada 174 responden. Jenis pengambilan sampel yang digunakan Purposive sampling yaitu teknik penentuan sampel dengan kriteria tertentu. Penelitian ini menggunakan Teknik analisis SEM-PLS. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa variabel Effort Expectancy (EE) dan variabel Habit (HB) berpengaruh positif signifikan terhadap behvioral intention to use CWM (Crowdfunding-Waqf Model) dalam aplikasi Kitabisa.com, dengan demikian wakif sangat mempertimbangkan kemudahan dalam penggunaan suatu teknologi dan kebiasaan merupakan faktor penentu dalam adopsi suatu teknologi, sementara 5 variabel lainnya yaitu variabel Performace Expectancy (PE), Price Value (PV), Social Influence (SI), Hedonic Motivation (HM), dan variabel Facilitating Condition (FC) tidak berpengaruh positif signifikan terhadap behvioral intention to use CWM (Crowdfunding-Waqf Model). Adapun alasan 5 variabel tersebut tidak signifikan adalah karena hasil pengujian dari Uji Hipotesis menunjukkan angka yang lebih besardari tingkat signifikansi 5% atau 0.05. Dengan demikian, variabel dependen berupa Behavioral Intention to Use hanya dipengaruhi oleh variabel Effort Expectancy (EE) dan variabel Habit (HB) di dalam penelitian ini. Kontribusi dari adanya penelitian ini bagi para policy maker adalah dapat membuat kebijakan atau peraturan perundang-undangan yang dapat mengoptimalkan manfaat dari pengembangan Crowdfunding wakaf model (CWM) dan melindungi segala proses terkait pemanfaatan asset-aset wakaf produktif dan dana yang dikumpulkan dari aplikasi Kitabisa.com. Kata Kunci: Crowdfunding Wakaf Model, Aplikasi Kitabisa.com, Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, Wakaf Produktif REFERENCES Alalwan, A. A. (2020). Mobile food ordering apps: An empirical study of the factors affecting customer e-satisfaction and continued intention to reuse. 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ABSTRAK Sektor kosmetik halal saat ini dianggap sebagai sektor dengan potensi tertinggi secara global. Berkembangnya tren penggunaan kosmetik halal dipengaruhi oleh tren hijrah dan gaya hidup umat Muslim yang sadar dengan urgensi penggunaan produk halal. Ketersediaan produk kosmetik halal yang beragam di pasaran mendorong konsumen lebih diskriminatif dalam pemilihan merek kosmetiknya. Perusahaan perlu merumuskan strategi pemasaran yang tepat agar produknya dapat bertahan dan bersaing dengan kompetitor, salah satunya melalui rekomendasi atas suatu produk tertentu. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis faktor yang mempengaruhi intensi konsumen untuk merekomendasikan produk kosmetik halal. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian yaitu Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) dengan alat analisis SmartPLS 3. Data primer diperoleh melalui kuesioner dengan 180 sampel masyarakat di Kota Tangerang Selatan. Hasil penelitian mengungkapkan bahwa customer satisfaction, product quality, dan customer experience berpengaruh secara positif dan signifikan terhadap intention to recommend produk kosmetik halal, sedangkan trust tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan terhadap intention to recommend produk kosmetik halal. Kata kunci: Kosmetik halal, customer satisfaction, trust, product quality, customer experience, intention to recommend. ABSTRACT The halal cosmetics sector is currently considered the sector with the highest potential in the world. The growing trend of using halal cosmetics is influenced by the migration trend and lifestyle of Muslims who are aware of the importance of using halal products. The presence of various halal cosmetic products on the market encourages consumers to be more selective in their choice of cosmetic brands. 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ABSTRAK Strategi penghimpunan shadaqah di era modern harus menyesuaikan dengan kemajuan teknologi dan preferensi generasi milenial. Kitabisa.com merupakan platform donasi berbasis online yang terus mengalami pertumbuhan pengumpulan donasi dan banyak digunakan masyarakat muslim milenial. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menganalisis faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keputusan penggunaan platform kitabisa.com melalui pendekatan Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) dan Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Penelitian ini menggunakan teknik sampling purposive sampling. Proses pengkolektifan data dilakukan melalui pengisian kuesioner oleh 270 responden, dimana responden merupakan masyarakat muslim milenial yang pernah menggunakan platform kitabisa.com. Penelitian ini dianalisis dengan menggunakan Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) melalui aplikasi SmartPLS versi 3.0. Hasil analisis memperlihatkan bahwa variabel yang diadopsi dari TPB yaitu Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC), variabel sikap dan norma subjektif berpengaruh secara positif serta signifikan terhadap minat penggunaan platform kitabisa.com. Variabel yang diadopsi dari TAM yaitu Perceived ease of use memiliki pengaruh positif dan signifikan, sedangkan Perceived usefulness tidak berpengaruh terhadap minat penggunaan platform kitabisa.com. Kemudian, minat menggunakan platform kitabisa.com memiliki pengaruh positif serta signifikan terhadap keputusan penggunaan platform kitabisa.com. Implikasi dari penelitian ini adalah agar lembaga penghimpun sedekah online memiliki evaluasi atau penilaian untuk memperbaiki dan mengembangkan platform sedekah berbasis online bagi masyarakat muslim milenial maupun masyarakat secara umum yang akan melakukan sedekah secara online. Kata Kunci: Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Minat Penggunaan, Keputusan Penggunaan. ABSTRACT The strategy of collecting shadaqah (almsgiving) must be aligned with technological developments and millennial societies. Kitabisa.com is an online shadaqah platform that continues to grow in collecting shadaqahs and is widely used by the millennial Muslim society. The purpose of this research was to analyze the factors that influence the use behavior of kitabisa.com with the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) approaches. The sampling technique in this study was taken using purposive sampling. The data collection process was carried out through filling out questionnaires by 270 respondents, of which the respondents were millennial who had used the Kitabisa.com platform. The analytical technique used is Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) using the SmartPLS version 3.0 application. The results of the analysis show that the variables adopted from TPB, namely Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC), attitudes towards use and subjective norms have a positive and significant influence on intention to use the kitabisa.com platform. While the variables adopted from TAM, Perceived ease of use has a positive and significant effect, while Perceived usefulness has no influence on intention to use the kitabisa.com platform. Then, intention to use the kitabisa.com platform has a positive and significant impact on the use behavior the kitabisa.com platform. The implication of this research is that online shadaqah collecting institutions have an evaluation or assessment to improve and develop an online-based shadaqah platform for millennial Muslim communities and the general public who will do shadaqah online. Keywords: Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Intention to Use, Behavior of use. REFERENCES Abdullah, P. M. (2015). 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Amidst the ever-changing landscape of English language education, where virtual platforms shape new learning paradigms, this research determines the revolutionary potential of ChatGPT to foster English language acquisition in Pakistan. English is a second language in Pakistan and the learners face multiple challenges in its acquisition. To understand the influence of ChatGPT on English language students, the study relied on quantitative data, using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) along with social impact. To test the hypothesized relationships, the study gathered 400 valid responses from English-language students studying at various universities in the southern districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province via purposive sampling. For data analysis, the study applied structure equation modelling through Smart-PLS and found that social influence, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use stimulate students’ intentions to use ChatGPT for English language learning. 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The multiple factors that define and relate service quality and customer or consumer satisfaction have served as the basis for the development of several multidimensional models that have allowed the study of this important issue. The level of research that will be used in this work is the explanatory levelbecause it is intended to evaluate the role of innovation in the design of the service quality improvement plan and its impact on customer satisfaction. As a case study, the M7D model was applied to two national banks. Among other results, national banks obtained 83.5% compliance with the M7D model, the dimensions with the best performance are customer satisfaction, organization, processes and social responsibility. While, medium-sized banks have a compliance level of 62.7% with the M7D model, the dimensions with the best performance are customer satisfaction, Social responsibility and leadership. 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ABSTRACT This study aimed to analyze the impact of social media marketing activities on the intention to buy halal skin care products because previous studies showed that there were still inconsistencies in the findings regarding what factors can influence consumer buying interest. This study used a quantitative approach with purposive sampling technique. the sample criteria of this study was social media users who follow halal cosmetic’s account with a total of 200 respondents. The data analysis technique used in this study was the PLS-SEM method. The variables in this study were social media marketing activities, brand equity, electronic Word Of Mouth, and purchase intention. The results of this study indicate that social media marketing activities have a positive effect on brand equity, brand equity has a positive effect on electronic word of mouth, and the relationship between electronic word of mouth is stated to be positive on purchase intention. However, social media marketing activities do not significantly affect purchase intentions. The contribution of this research is that entrepreneurs can be encouraged to pay attention to the potential of social media marketing activities in forming patterns of developing marketing strategies because they can affect brand equity, electronic word of mouth, which in turn can encourage purchase intentions for halal skin care products. Keywords: Social Media Marketing Activity, Brand Equity, electronic Word Of Mouth (e-WOM), Purchase Intention. ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis dampak aktivitas pemasaran media sosial pada niat beli produk perawatan kulit halal karena pada penelitian-penelitian sebelumnya masih terdapat ketidakkonsistenan pada hasil temuan mengenai faktor apa saja yang dapat mempengaruhi minat beli konsumen. Metode dalam penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif. Dengan teknik sampel purposive, sampel penelitian ini adalah pengguna media sosial yang mengikuti media sosial produk perawatan kulit halal dengan jumlah 200 responden. Teknik analisis data yang digunakan penelitian ini memakai metode PLS-SEM. Variabel pada penelitian ini yakni aktivitas pemasaran media sosial, ekuitas merek, electronic Word Of Mouth, dan niat beli. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa aktivitas pemasaran media sosial berpengaruh positif terhadap ekuitas merek, ekuitas merek terhadap electronic word of mouth memiliki pengaruh positif. Hubungan antara electronic word of mouth dinyatakan positif terhadap niat beli. Akan tetapi, pengaruh aktivitas pemasaran media sosial tidak signifikan mempengaruhi niat beli. Kontribusi penelitian ini agar pelaku bisnis memperhatikan potensi aktivitas pemasaran media sosial dalam membentuk pola pengembangan strategi pemasaran karena dapat mempengaruhi ekuitas merek, electronic word of mouth, yang pada akhirnya dapat mendorong niat beli pada produk perawatan kulit halal. Kata Kunci: Aktivitas Pemasaran Media Sosial, Ekuitas Merek, electronic Word Of Mouth (e-WOM), Niat Beli REFERENSI Abdillah, W. (2018). Metode penelitian terpadu sistem informasi: permodelan teoritis, pengukuran dan pengujian statistis. Yogyakarta: Andi Adriani, L. (2020). Pengaruh Islamic Religiosity dan Halal Knowledge terhadap purchase intention kosmetik halal dimediasi oleh attitude terhadap produk halal di Indonesia. AL-MUZARA’AH, 8(1), 57–72. Ahmad, F., &amp; Guzman, F. (2021). Brand equity, online reviews, and message trust: The moderating role of persuasion knowledge. 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ABSTRAKTujuan dari Penelitian ini adalah menguji pengaruh kepercayaan dan citra website yang diintegrasikan dengan persepsi kemudahan penggunaan dan persepsi kebermanfaatan pada niatan seorang mahasiswa dalam membayar wakaf secara online, yang menjadikan penelitian ini berbeda dengan penelitian sebelumnya adalah penggunaan citra website sebagai determinan niatan mahasiswa dalam menggunakan layanan wakaf online ini. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan metode SEM-PLS serta melibatkan responden sebesar 100 responden dengan menggunakan Purposive Sampling dengan kriteria seorang muslim usia 18-35 dan seorang mahasiswa. Software analisis untuk mengolah data dalam penelitian ini menggunakan Smartpls 3.3, untuk data diperoleh dengan menggunakan kuesioner online menggunakan skala likert 1 sampai 5, dengan keterangan sangat setuju hingga tidak setuju. Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa kepercayaan, citra website, kebermanfaatan aplikasi, dan kemudahan penggunaan berhubungan signifikan terhadap niat penggunaan wakaf online. Implikasi hasil penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikan tambahan pengetahuan terutama dalam ilmu pemasaran Islam terkait penggunaan behavioral intention dalam penggunaan layanan wakaf online, serta diharapkan penelitian ini dapat memberikan masukan bagi manajemen lembaga donasi terutama nazir untuk lebih memperhatikan kemudahan penggunaan konsumen, manfaat yang dirasakan, kepercayaan lembaga, citra perusahaan serta niat dalam menggunakan layanan wakaf secara online.Kata kunci: Wakaf online, technology acceptance model, trust, image. ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to examine the effect of trust and website image, which is integrated with perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness, on a student's intention to pay waqf online. What makes this research different from previous research is using website images to determine student intention in using this online waqf service. This study uses a quantitative approach with the SEM-PLS method and involves 100 respondents using purposive sampling with the criteria of a Muslim aged 18-35 and a student. The analysis software to process data in this study used Smartpls 3.3 for data obtained using an online questionnaire using a Likert scale of 1 to 5, with statements strongly agreeing to disagree. This study indicates that trust, website image, application usefulness, and ease of use are significantly related to the intention to use online waqf. The implications of the results of this study are expected to provide additional knowledge, especially in Islamic marketing related to the use of behavioral intention in the use of online waqf services. It is hoped that this research can provide input for the management of donation institutions, especially Nazir, to pay more attention to consumers' ease of use, perceived benefits, and institutional trust., corporate image and intention to use online waqf services.Keywords: online waqf, technology acceptance model, trust, image. DAFTAR PUSTAKAAbdul Shukor, S., Johari, F., Abd Wahab, K., Kefeli Zulkefli, Z., Ahmad, N., Haji Alias, M., Abdul Rahman, A., Mohd Orip, N. M., Ibrahim, P., &amp; Abu-Hussin, M. F. (2019). Trust on awqaf institutions: evidence from Malaysia. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 10(2), 511–524. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-05-2017-0054Ahn, J. chang, Sura, S., &amp; An, J. C. (2018). Intention to donate via social network sites (SNSs): A comparison study between Malaysian and South Korean users. Information Technology and People, 31(4), 910–926. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-12-2015-0307Aldeen, K. N., Ratih, I. S., &amp; Herianingrum, S. (2020). 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Empirical studies proved that good corporate governance had a positive link to the success of an organization. Good in directing and managing organizational processes, structures, and information mean satisfaction guaranteed was given to all stakeholders. Essential factor like working atmosphere may be considered when looking into corporate governance as well as organizational success. However, limited literature focused on the importance of communication climate and its connection to corporate governance and organizational success. Hence, this study looked into the predicting effect of communication climate to perceived corporate governance and organizational success. A total of ninety-eight rank and file employees voluntarily participated in accomplishing three questionnaires such as the Communication Climate Inventory by Costigen &amp; Schiedler; Corporate Governance Survey adapted from Wickramanayake’s Seven Characteristics of Corporate Governance; and Organizational Success Survey adapted from Ilyas &amp; Rafig used to measure communication climate, corporate governance, and organizational success respectively. Results revealed that communication climate was a predictor of perceived corporate governance and organizational success. This implied that the role of supervisors in setting work conditions was essential on how rank and file employees perceived corporate governance and organizational success.ReferencesAbdu Rashid, M., Azman bin Othman, M., Zainudin bin Othman, M., Ain bt Arshad, F. (2015). The influence of work environment on employees job performance: a case study of Administrative staff in a manufacturing industry. 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India seems to lead the shift from e-commerce to mobile commerce adoption. Apps and mobile websites are offered in various areas of health, travel, shopping, ticketing, and lifestyle, promising enormous opportunities for consumers and businesses. This study identifies the critical factors affecting m-commerce transaction decisions and explaining their relevance. The significant moderating effect of demographics and types of mobile commerce services namely: banking, ticket booking and shopping services are analyzed on users’ behavioral intention in a single framework. The data collection done through questionnaire required the respondents to describe their behavior during their most recent online transactions, in terms of UTAUT model dimensions in three specific areas m-banking, m-ticketing, and m-shopping. Structured equational modeling was employed to analyze the causal association between variables. The research implications will help in understanding the factors affecting the acceptance levels of various m-commerce services by the consumers in India.

The advancement in mobile technologies has influenced many countries to adopt mobile services in their private and public organizations including Oman. M-commerce services are growing rapidly with the exponential growth of mobile devices, technologies and networks. Hence, many business organizations private or public use them to improve revenue, reduce costs, maintain their competitive edge and achieve a level of high efficiency. Although there were many M-commerce services introduced, it was hard to find evidence of any study conducted to determine their successes or failures. This study is an attempt to explore the factors affecting the adoption of M-commerce services in Oman using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) approach.

This research aims to determine the factors that influence users in using e-commerce/m-commerce using the modified UTAUT2 model. The type of research used in this study is descriptive quantitative research. The population studied was e-commerce/m-commerce users in Bandung. This research used a sample of 204 e-commerce/m-commerce users that lived in Bandung. The data collection instrument in this study used a questionnaire and was tested using the Partial Least Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS SEM) technique. The software used to carry out data analysis is SmartPLS version 2.0. The result shows that Facilitating Condition has a significant effect on Behavioral Intention to use e-commerce. The analysis also showed that Website Quality and Behavioral Intention has a significant effect on Usage Behavior. Other variables such as Performance Expectancy, Effort Expectancy, Social Influence, Hedonic Motivation, Price Value and Habit don’t have significant effect on Behavioral Intention. Facilitating Condition also doesn’t have a significant effect on Usage Behavior.

M-commerce, or mobile commerce, refers to smartphone shopping and plays an increasingly large role within e-commerce. Past research in the field of information systems (IS) success has primarily consisted of quantitative studies. Little research has been conducted in an m-commerce context. Furthermore, few qualitative works on the intersection of success factors from firms' perspective and m-commerce exist. In fact, there is a knowledge gap regarding how business practitioners can increase their website usability in an m-commerce setting. Based on the mapping of usability attributes by Kuan et al., which elaborates on DeLone and McLean's IS Success Model, this paper aims to identify the most important website usability attributes by generating new insights about mobile consumers' behaviour. This is obtained via a qualitative approach, using data about consumer behaviour on four Nordic m-commerce webshops within the baby products industry. Eight respondents completed a smartphone task while verbalising their thoughts. This data was supplemented with eye-tracking information. The theoretical model was operationalised via creating 19 codes corresponding to 19 usability attributes. As such, this paper took a deductive approach, coding the data in NVivo by tagging labels to categorical labels. Based on the number of references for each categorical label, three salient attributes were identified to increase m-commerce website usability: ‘ease of navigation’, ‘relevance’ and ‘effectiveness of product search and comparison’. The managerial implications include recommendations for these three attributes, including the use of categorisation and filtering systems, avoiding uncertainty and minimising the potential negative consequences related to the purchase intention and enabling on-page product and consumer product experience comparisons. While this study is based on a small data sample, and represents a minor exploration into a niche market, it nonetheless provides a starting point for business practitioners who have the goal of increasing usability in an m-commerce context.

&lt;p class="MsoBodyText3" style="text-justify: inter-ideograph; text-align: justify; margin: 0in 0.5in 0pt;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: 10pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"&gt;Mobile Commerce (m-commerce) relies on &amp;ldquo;customer or user interactions&amp;rdquo; via a mobile device and telecommunications infrastructure for the purpose of interacting, advertising, promoting, and selling products and services. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: 10pt;"&gt;The author of&lt;span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"&gt; this study explored user attitudes and behavior toward m-commerce in the U.S. vs. Korea. In this paper, the author investigated comparison analysis for the U.S. vs. Korea for the following issues:&lt;/span&gt; 1) the factors affecting user attitudes toward mobile phone business; 2) how those factors affect perceived ease of use (EOU) and usefulness (U); 3) the effects of perceived ease of use (EOU) and usefulness (U) on overall attitudes toward the mobile phone business; and 4) how overall attitudes toward mobile phone business affect user/customer satisfaction.&lt;span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"&gt; Surveys were conducted in two countries and the results reveal the different aspects affecting mobile phone usage in the U.S. vs. Korea. This study also found that user attitudes toward the mobile phone business significantly impact the level of m-satisfaction. Furthermore, this study provides managerial implications and offers suggestions to m-businesses. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

Purpose This study aims to identify factors affecting generation Z as the early adopters of mobile commerce (m-commerce). The research seeks to explore their behavioral intention to adopt m-commerce in India with consideration of gender differences while providing empirical validation for the theory of planned behavior (TPB). Design/methodology/approach In this study, a modified TPB model has been used to explain generation Z’s intention to adopt m-commerce. The proposed model was tested using a survey method with a sample of 245 students from a private university in Northern India. Subgroup analysis was performed to find gender differences in the process of adopting m-commerce. Findings All three independent constructs have a positive influence on the behavioral intention of generation Z to adopt m-commerce. Further, the male subgroup has a lower beta value for attitude and higher beta value for subjective norm in comparison to the female subgroup. For perceived behavioral control, no significant difference in beta value across gender could be established. Practical implications A better understanding of generation Z behavioral intentions will be of great use to telecom companies, marketers and electronic commerce companies to formulate strategies to expedite the use of m-commerce. As gender plays an important role in attitude and subjective norms, companies are advised to target their communication tactics in accordance to gender. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is one of the first to test TPB and generation Z association in the context of m-commerce adoption in India. Data regarding the difference between the two genders has also shed light on the uniqueness of the context.

This research examines the factors affecting consumers’ mobile shopping (m-shopping) intentions in China and the United States. Drawing on the hedonic-motivation system adoption model (HMSAM), it is proposed that perceived ease of use affects m-shopping intentions; furthermore, this relationship is mediated by perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, and control. A survey-based cross-sectional analysis involving a total of 720 respondents constitutes the methodology of this study. In the United States, 409 responses from American citizens or residents were obtained from surveys administered online by MTurk. In China, 311 responses from Chinese consumers were obtained from surveys administered online by Sojump. Perceived usefulness, an extrinsic motive, directly affects behavioral intentions, especially for Chinese consumers, and this effect is also much stronger and complemented by an indirect effect for the Chinese (relative to American) consumers. In contrast, intrinsic motives of joy and control, which are strongly affected by perceived ease of use, do not influence intentions in either market. However, joy exerts an indirect influence on m-shopping intentions, but only for Chinese consumers. These results pertain to the specific context of m-shopping and establish further the importance of distinguishing between utilitarian and hedonic factors, especially across different markets.

PurposeThis study aims to integrate and extend leading contemporary underpinning frameworks such as the Stimulus Organism Response (S-O-R) model, Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) to assess the determinants of M-commerce usage during COVID-19 times. Besides direct effects, the study examines the mediating role of behavioral intention in affecting the relationship between a few external stimuli, internal states (of the organism) and M-commerce usage (the response). The study has also examined the moderating role of habitual behavior in the relationship between behavioral intention and M-commerce usage.Design/methodology/approachData were gathered from 312 customers through an online survey using a structured questionnaire. PLS-based SEM, using Smart PLS 4.0, was employed to calibrate the measurement and structural models.FindingsThe study found that stimuli like social influence, perceived ease of use and perceived value substantially affected M-commerce usage. Behavioral intention has been found to mediate these cause-and-effect relationships partially or fully among the subject constructs. Additionally, a significant negative but weak moderating impact of habit (or habitual behavior) on the relationship between behavioral intentions and M-commerce usage has been corroborated.Originality/valueSeveral studies have investigated the factors influencing the adoption and continued usage of M-commerce services while appealing to diverse theoretical frameworks. However, more research has yet to be expended to arrive at an integrated explanation grounded in these theoretical frameworks to examine the dynamics of M-commerce usage in tempestuous times like the COVID-19 outbreak. The most significant (counterintuitive) findings have been suppressing the effects of otherwise crucial elements like perceived security and habit in prompting M-commerce usage in the face of the socio-psychological pressures stemming from COVID-19 restrictions and consumers' lack of digital readiness. The study's outcomes offer several theoretical and practical implications for researchers, managers, practitioners, businesses and policymakers to develop effective strategies to mature M-commerce usage among the masses, especially during unusual times like COVID-19.

Mobile Commerce (m-commerce), as a medium, plays an important role in everyday human life by setting up a hyper media environment that provides a higher level of interactive services. Due to various reasons, including service availability and, personal needs, customers attitudes and level of satisfaction concerning the mobile phone service are diverse. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate factors that affect customer satisfaction with the mobile phone services. In particular, this study measured customer attitudes toward the basic services vs. value-added services. For the attitudes toward the basic services, this study explored the effects of perception on i) the use of various functions; ii) convenience; iii) ease of connection; and iv) the entertainment factor with basic services, in relation to m-satisfaction. For the attitudes toward the value-added services, this study measured i) customers expectations and satisfaction in relation to their future usage in the U.S. market and ii) customers satisfaction with the current usage of such functions in the Korean market. Surveys were conducted in both countries and the results revealed the different attitudes affecting mobile phone usage in the U.S. vs. Korea. This study also found that user attitudes toward the mobile phone business significantly impact the level of m-satisfaction. This study then identifies some managerial implications and offers suggestions to m-businesses.

PurposeThe rapid development of e-commerce has brought not only great convenience to people but a great challenge to online stores. Phenomenon such as out of stock and slow sales has been common in recent years. These issues can be managed only when the occurrence of the sales volume is predicted in advance, and sufficient warnings can be executed in time. Thus, keeping in mind the importance of the sales prediction system, the purpose of this paper is to propose an effective sales prediction model and make digital marketing strategies with the machine learning model.Design/methodology/approachBased on the consumer purchasing behavior decision theory, we discuss the factors affecting product sales, including external factors, consumer perception, consumer potential purchase behavior and consumer traffic. Then we propose a sales prediction model, M-GNA-XGBOOST, using the time-series prediction that ensures the effective prediction of sales about each product in a short time on online stores based on the sales data in the previous term or month or year. The proposed M-GNA-XGBOOST model serves as an adaptive prediction model, for which the instant factors and the sales data of the previous period are the input, and the optimal computation is based on the proposed methodology. The adaptive prediction using the proposed model is developed based on the LSTM (Long Short-Term Memory), GAN (Generative Adversarial Networks) and XGBOOST (eXtreme Gradient Boosting). The model inherits the advantages among the algorithms with better accuracy and forecasts the sales of each product in the store with instant data characteristics for the first time.FindingsThe analysis using Jingdong dataset proves the effectiveness of the proposed prediction method. The effectiveness of the proposed method is enhanced and the accuracy that instant data as input is found to be better compared with the model that lagged data as input. The root means squared error and mean absolute error of the proposed model are found to be around 11.9 and 8.23. According to the sales prediction of each product, the resource can be arranged in advance, and the marketing strategy of product positioning, product display optimization, inventory management and product promotion is designed for online stores.Originality/valueThe paper proposes and implements a new model, M-GNA-XGBOOST, to predict sales of each product for online stores. Our work provides reference and enlightenment for the establishment of accurate sales-based digital marketing strategies for online stores.

This study explores the factors influencing the quality of telecommunication services in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. By conducting an online survey of 413 office workers, the results indicate that among the five components of the perceived quality of telecommunications services, reliability, assurance, and empathy are Key factors affecting consumer satisfaction in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. The findings of this research help mobile service providers to understand how consumers perceive the quality of mobile services. Thus, mobile service providers would effectively design marketing strategy to improve customer loyalty as well as enter new markets.&#x0D; Keywords: Mobile service, service quality, online survey, empirical study, Vietnam.&#x0D; References&#x0D; [1] Boohene, R., &amp; Agyapong, G., “Analysis of the antecedents of customer loyalty of telecommunication industry in Ghana: The case of Vodafone (Ghana)”, International Business Research, 4 (2011) 1, 229-240.[2] Leelakulthanit, O., &amp; Hongcharu, B., “Factors that impact customers satisfaction: Evidence from the Thailand mobile cellular network industry”, International Journal of Management and Marketing Research, 4 (2011) 2, 67-76.[3] Eugenia Y. Huang, Sheng-Wei Lin, Ya-Chu Fan, “M-S-Qual: Mobile service quality measurement”, Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 14 (2015), 126-142, http://dx.doi.org/10.2016/j.elerap.2015.01.003[4] Omotayo, O., &amp; Abiodun, A., “Service quality, value offer, satisfaction, and loyalty: An empirical relationship in the Nigerian telecom industry”, Contemporary Management Research, 5 (2011) 2, 14-23.[5] Lee, Roy Chun, “Telecommunications in Vietnam”, Chung-Hua Institution for Economic Research (CIER). Chinese Taipei WTO Center, C.20 (2011), p.1.[6] Agarwal, S., M. Erramilli, et al., “Market orientation and performance in service firms: role of innovation”, Journal of Services Marketing 17 (2003) 1, 68-82.[7] Agyapong, G., “The effect of service quality on customer satisfaction in the utility industry: A case of Vodafone (Ghana)”, International Journal of Business and Management, 6 (2011) 5, 203-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v6n5p203[8] Yee, R. W. Y., Yeung, A. C. L. &amp; Cheng, T. C. E., “An empirical study of employee loyalty, service quality and firm performance in the service industry”, International Journal of Production Economics, 124 (2010) 1, 109-120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2009.10.015[9] Le The Gioi and Nguyen Minh Duan, “Improving the competitiveness of VMS-MOBIFONE on mobile communication market”, Journal of Science and Technology, University of Da Nang, 2 (2007) 19, 68-72.[10] Dinh Thi Hong Thuy, “Research the factors affecting on the decision for mobile telecommunications of students in Ho Chi Minh City”, Master Thesis, (2008).[11] Le Thi Tuyet Trinh, “Research the customer satisfaction in using Vinaphone mobile service in Binh Dinh province”, Master Thesis, 2012.[12] Bui Van Trinh and Luu Ngoc Mai Anh, “Research the customer satisfaction in using Viettel mobile service in Hai Giang province”, Master Thesis, 2013.[13] Pizam, A., Ellis, T., “Customer satisfaction and its measurement in hospitality enterprises”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 11 (1999) 7, p. 326-339, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596119910293231[14] A. Parasuraman, Valarie A. Zeithaml, Leonard L. Berry, “A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and Its Implications for Future Research”, The Journal of Marketing, Vol. 49, No. 4 (1985), pp. 41-50[15] Cronin Jr, J. J., &amp; Taylor, S. A. “SERVPERF versus SERVQUAL: reconciling performance-based and perceptions-minus-expectations measurement of service quality”. The Journal of Marketing, 58 (1994). 125-131.[16] Aydin, S. and G. Ozer, “National Customer Satisfaction Indices: An Implementation in the Turkish Mobile Telephone Market”, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 23 (2005) 5, 486-504.[17] Mishra, R.C and Sandilya, A., Reliability and Quality Management, New Age International Publishers, 2009.[18] Torsten J. Gerpott, Ilknur Bicak, “Telecommunication service choice and use among migrants: The case of German-Turkish consumers”, Computers in Human Behavior, 6 (2016), 584-596, http://dx.doi.org/10.2016/j.chb.2016.03.018[19] Uddin, M. B., Akhter, B., “Customer satisfaction in mobile phone services in Bangladesh: A survey research”, Management &amp; Marketing X (1) (2012), 20-36.

In recent years, electric two-wheeled vehicles (E2Ws) including electric bicycles and electric motorcycles have been used widely in Vietnam. Currently, the total number of E2Ws used is 3 million and with an average growth rate of 13.33% an estimated 6 million E2Ws will be used in 2024. E2Ws have been used widely among Vietnam’s youth. Based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) of Ajzen (2005, 2016) [1, 2], the main purpose of this research is to identify factors affecting the attitude to and intention of high school students in Hanoi city towards E2W usage and their affected level. The analytical results show that the attitude towards E2W usage is influenced respectively in descending order by (i) perceptions of economic benefit, (ii) usage convenience, (iii) friendly environmental awareness, (iv) stylish design. Usage intention towards E2Ws is determined respectively in descending order by (i) subjective norm, (ii) attitude toward E2W usage, (iii) the attraction of motorcycles. Based on the research results, some proposals for producers, authorities and policy-makers have been recommended.&#x0D; Keywords&#x0D; Electric two-wheeled vehicle, intention, attitude toward E2W usage, perception, emission, battery&#x0D; References&#x0D; [1] I. Ajzen, Attitude, personality and behavior, 2nd Edition, England: Berkshire, 2005.[2] I. Ajzen, The Theory of Planned Behavior. https://people.umass.edu/ aizen/pdf.html/, 2016..[3] R.C. Christopher, Electric Two-Wheelers in China: Analysis of Environmental, Safety, and Mobility Impacts, PhD Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, Spring 2007.[4] Chu Tien Dat, “Consumer behavior and marketing - mix strategy of mobile communication businesses in Vietnam”, Doctorate Dissertation, National Economic University, 2014.[5] Dang Thi Ngoc Dung, “Factors Affect Intention Usage Toward Metro System in Ho Chi Minh City” Master Thesis, Ho Chi Minh Economics University, 2012.[6] Government website, http://vanban.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/portal/chinhphu/hethongvanban. [7] Hanoi Department of Transport, “Scheme on strengthening management of road transport means to reduce traffic congestion and environmental pollution in Hanoi city, period 2017-2020, a vision to 2030”, General report, Hanoi People’s Committee, 2017. [8] Hoang Trong, Chu Nguyen Mong Ngoc, Data Analysis with SPSS, Hong Duc Publishing House, Ho Chi Minh City, 2008.[9] Ho Chi Minh Department of Transport, General Report: “Scheme on strengthening management of road transport means to reduce traffic congestion and environmental pollution in Hanoi city, period 2017-2020, a vision to 2030”, General report, Hochiminh People’s Committee, Department of Transportation, 2017.[10] D.W. Hoyer et al., Consumer Behaviour, 6th Edition, South Western Cengage Learning, 2013.[11] D. Jennifer, R. Geoffrey, “Electric Bikes and Transportation Policy: Insights from Early Adopters”, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 2314, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 2012, pp. 1-6. [12] Jica, Data Collection Survey on Railway in Main Urbans of Vietnam, final report, Part 2, Hanoi area, November, 2015.[13] X.W. Jonathan, The Rise of Electric Two-wheelers in China: Factors for their Success and Implications for the Future, Doctor of Philosophy In Transportation Technology and Policy, University of California, 2007.[14] P. Kotler, G. Amstrong, Principles of Marketing, 15th Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2014.[15] Le Quan Hoang, Toshiyuki Okamura, “Influences of Motorcycle Use on Travel Intentions in Developing Countries: A case of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam”, Journal of Eastern Asia Society of Transportation Studies. 11 (2015) Số trang.[16] R. Luke et al, “The effect of incentives and technology on the adoption of electric motorcycles: A stated choice experiment in Vietnam”, Transportation Research Part A 57, 2013.[17] National Traffic Safety Committee, “The study on the traffic safety of highschool students in Hanoi and some proposed solutions”, Final Report, Vietnam Association of Motorcycle Manufacturers VAMM, 2017. [18] Nguyen Minh Tam, “Planning Orientation of Hanoi’s Urban Railway System to 2030 and Vision to 2050”, International workshop report, Hanoi Planning and Architecture Department, 2017.[19] Nguyen Ngoc Quang, “Qualitative Methods in Research on Consumer’s Behavior Toward Motorcycle in Vietnam”, Doctorate Dissertation, Hanoi National Economic University, 2008.[20] W. Ning, L. Yafei, “Key factors influencing consumers’ willingness to purchase electric vehicles in China”, School of Automotive Studies, Tongji University. Volume II, November (2015) 911-955.[21] R. Pranav, B. Yuvraj, S. Razia, “Assessment of consumer buying behavior toward electric scooters in Punjab”, International Journal of Research in Commerce and Management. 4 (2013) 7-15.[22] K. Rattanaporn, S. Wichuda, J. Sittha, S. Thaned, “Psychological factors influencing intentions to use Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in Khon Kaen, Thailand”, Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies. 10 (2015) số trang đầu và cuối.[23] M. Ronald, T. Debasis, “A Study on consumer buying behavior toward two wheeler bikes in context to Indian market”, International Journal of Advanced Research in Management (IJARM). 4 (2013) 65-số trang cuối. [24] S. Sheetal, S. Abhishek, “Consumer Behavior towards Two-Wheeler Bikes - A Comparative Study of Rural and Urban Consumers of Jodhpur District of Rajasthan, India”, Research Paper, Global Research Analysis. 1 (2012) 91-92.[25] M.R. Solomon, Behaviour - Buying, Having, Being, 10th Edition, Pearson Education, Inc., 2013.[26] Statistic Office of Hanoi. http://thongkehanoi.gov.vn/, 2018.[27] Tran Thuy, “Located fuel motorcycles, remote controls, and accident notices: a mother buys to supervise her child”. https://vietnamnet.vn/vn/kinh-doanh/dau-tu/xe-may-dien-ban-ra-nua-trieu-chiec-dai-gia-them-muon-475551.html/, 2018.[28] Trinh Thu Thuy, “Factors affects consumer’s behavior towards two-wheeled vehicles in Hanoi city”, Doctorate Dissertation, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, 2018.[29] S. William et al., “The influence of financial incentives and other socio-economic factors on electric vehicle adoption”, Journal of Energy Policy. 68 (2014) 183-194. Ch. Yi-Chang, T. Gwo-Hshiung, “The market acceptance of electric motorcycles in Taiwan experience through a stated preference analysis”, Transportation Research, Pergamon, Part D 4, January 9, 1999, pp. 127-146 (Published by Elsevier Science Ltd).&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

<strong>R&eacute;sum&eacute; </strong> La faillite d'une entreprise engendre des co&ucirc;ts psychologiques consid&eacute;rables qui affectent profond&eacute;ment la sant&eacute; mentale et le bien-&ecirc;tre des individus impliqu&eacute;s. Les r&eacute;sultats d'un sondage men&eacute; par le Centre d'intervention budg&eacute;taire et sociale de la Mauricie (CIBES) mettent en lumi&egrave;re l'&eacute;tendue de ces impacts : 95 % des personnes confront&eacute;es &agrave; un revers professionnel signalent des sympt&ocirc;mes d'anxi&eacute;t&eacute;, tandis que 94 % rapportent des probl&egrave;mes de sant&eacute; physique. De plus, pr&egrave;s de la moiti&eacute; (47 %) admettent avoir eu des pens&eacute;es suicidaires. Les manifestations les plus courantes de ce stress intense incluent l'insomnie, les douleurs lombaires et une fatigue persistante. Notre objectif &agrave; travers cette &eacute;tude empirique est double. Il s&rsquo;agit d&rsquo;une part, d&rsquo;analyser les caract&eacute;ristiques quantitatives des entreprises marocaines en situation de d&eacute;faillance et d&rsquo;autre part, de mettre le point sur les couts de la d&eacute;faillance des entreprises marocaines. Pour r&eacute;pondre &agrave; ces objectifs, nous devons d&rsquo;une part, disposer de toutes les informations n&eacute;cessaires des entreprises composant notre base de donn&eacute;es d&rsquo;analyse et cela pour une dur&eacute;e minimale de trois ans avant que le tribunal de commerce ne d&eacute;clare l&rsquo;entreprise en situation de d&eacute;faillance. L&rsquo;objectif &eacute;tant d&rsquo;analyser l&rsquo;&eacute;volution de la situation &eacute;conomique et financi&egrave;re de ces entreprises et surtout de d&eacute;tecter les facteurs psychologiques du dirigeant qui ont favoris&eacute; leur d&eacute;faillance. Afin d&rsquo;atteindre nos objectifs fix&eacute;s au d&eacute;part, il fallait disposer d&rsquo;une base de donn&eacute;es, compos&eacute;e d&rsquo;entreprises en situation de d&eacute;faillance. Nous avons donc choisi notre &eacute;chantillon parmi une population ayant des cr&eacute;ances en souffrance douteuses &agrave; cause du d&eacute;faut de paiement. Suite de notre &eacute;chantillon, nous voulons chercher le maximum de repr&eacute;sentativit&eacute; en termes de r&eacute;gions du Maroc, de secteurs d&rsquo;activit&eacute; et aussi de taille et de type d&rsquo;entreprises. Nous avons donc utilis&eacute; la m&eacute;thode d&rsquo;enqu&ecirc;te &agrave; travers un questionnaire distribu&eacute; &agrave; un &eacute;chantillon de 200 soci&eacute;t&eacute;s d&eacute;faillantes d&eacute;livr&eacute; par le tribunal de commerce. A la fin, nous nous sommes retrouv&eacute;s avec un &eacute;chantillon final compos&eacute; de 80 entreprises, dont on dispose de toutes les informations n&eacute;cessaires recueillies &agrave; travers le questionnaire. Ces entreprises sont divis&eacute;es en deux sous-&eacute;chantillons. Concernant les premi&egrave;res, ce sont des entreprises qui valident leur d&eacute;faillance par des co&ucirc;ts &eacute;conomiques. Pour ce qui est des autres, ce sont des entreprises qui valident leur d&eacute;faillance par des co&ucirc;ts psychologiques. &nbsp; <strong>Mots cl&eacute;s&nbsp;: </strong> D&eacute;faillance des entreprises, co&ucirc;ts psychologiques, difficult&eacute; financi&egrave;re, aspect &eacute;motionnel. &nbsp; <strong>Abstract </strong> Business failure incurs considerable psychological costs that profoundly affect the mental health and well-being of the individuals involved. The results of a survey conducted by the Mauricie Budgetary and Social Intervention Center (CIBES) highlight the extent of these impacts: 95% of people faced with a professional setback report symptoms of anxiety, while 94% report physical health problems. Additionally, almost half (47%) admit to having had suicidal thoughts. The most common manifestations of this intense stress include insomnia, lower back pain and persistent fatigue. Our objective through this empirical study is twofold. On the one hand, it is a question of analyzing the quantitative characteristics of Moroccan companies in a situation of failure and on the other hand, of taking stock of the costs of failure of Moroccan companies. To meet these objectives, we must, on the one hand, have all the necessary information from the companies making up our analysis database and this for a minimum period of three years before the commercial court declares the company in failure situation. The objective being to analyze the evolution of the economic and financial situation of these companies and above all to detect the psychological factors of the manager, which favored their failure. In order to achieve our objectives set at the outset, we needed to have a database made up of companies in a failing situation. We therefore chose our sample from a population with doubtful overdue debts due to non-payment. Following our sample, we want to seek maximum representativeness in terms of regions of Morocco, sectors of activity and also size and type of companies. We therefore used the survey method through a questionnaire distributed to a sample of 200 failing companies issued by the commercial court. In the end, we ended up with a final sample consisting of 80 companies, from which we have all the necessary information collected through the questionnaire. These companies are divided into two sub-samples. Concerning the first, these are companies, which validate their failure by economic costs. As for the others, these companies validate their failure with psychological costs. <strong>Keywords </strong> Business failure, psychological costs, financial difficulty, emotional aspect.

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; In the third episode of the British sci-fi/thriller television series Torchwood (BBC3, 2007-) the team are investigating a portable ‘ghost machine’, which allows its users to see events which occurred in the past. After visiting an old man whose younger self the device may have allowed them to witness, the team’s medic, Owen Harper, spots Bernie Harris, who’d previously been in possession of the machine. A chase ensues; they run past a park, between a gang of kids playing football, over a railway bridge, through a housing estate, and eventually Bernie is cornered in a back garden and taken away for questioning. The scene demonstrates the series’ intention to be a fast-paced, modern, glossy thriller, with loud incidental music, fast cuts, and energetic camerawork. Yet for me the scene has quite a different meaning. The housing estate they run through is the one in which I used to live; the railway bridge they run over is the one I crossed every day on my way to and from work; the street they run down is my street; and there, in the background, clear and apparent and obvious for all to see, is my home. Yes; my house was on Torchwood. As Blunt and Dowling note, “home does not simply exist, but is made … [and] … this process has both material and imaginative elements” (23). It is through such imaginative elements that we turn ‘spaces’ that are “unnamed, unhistoried, unnarativized” into ‘places’ that are “indubitably bound up with personal experience” (Darby 50). Such experiences may be ‘real’ (as in things that actually happened there) or ‘representational’ (as in seen on television); my relationship to ‘home’ is here being inflected through the “indexical bond” (Kilborn and Izod 29) that links both of these strategies. In using a scene from Torchwood to say something about my personal history, I’m taking what is, in essence, a televisual ‘space’ and converting it into a ‘place’ which is not only defined by my “profilmic” (Ward 8) relationship to it, but also helps express that relationship. Telling everyone that my house was on Torchwood certainly says something about the programme; but more fundamentally I’m engaging in a process intended to say something about me. A bit of autobiography. The house is in Splott, a residential area of Cardiff, the capital of Wales, where Torchwood is set and filmed. I lived in Cardiff from 2000 to 2006, when I worked at the University of Glamorgan. For much of that time I lived in rented accommodation in Cathays, the student area of Cardiff. But in 2005 I bought a house in Splott, and this was the first property I ever owned. A year later I moved to Norwich (virtually the other side of the UK from Cardiff) to take a job at the University of East Anglia, but I kept the house in Cardiff and now rent it out. It was while living in Norwich that my house appeared on Torchwood, and I had no idea that the programme had been filming in that area. This means that, strictly speaking, at the time it was on television the property was no longer my ‘home’, but was instead my tenants’. Yet what I want to examine here is the “geography of feeling and emotion” (Rodaway 263) which is central to the idea of ‘home’, and which has been kick-started in me since some fictional television characters ran down the street I used to live in and the ‘real’ and the ‘representational’ began to intersect. There certainly is something personal which is required in order to turn a ‘space’ into a ‘place’, but what is it that then transforms it into ‘home’? That is, for me Cardiff is more than a ‘place’ which I know. Owning a property there makes a difference, but that is to too easily equate a commercial transaction with an emotive sense of feeling. Indeed, Cardiff felt like ‘home’ before I’d bought a house, and the majority of my memories of the city are connected to other properties I’ve lived in. In a capitalist society it’s tempting to equate ‘home’ with the property we own, and this probably is the case for the majority of people (Morley 19). Nevertheless, something emotive stirred in me when I saw my house in a chase sequence on a science-fiction television programme when I live in an entirely different city. Tuan defines this as ‘topophilia’, which is “the affective bond between people and place or setting” (Topophilia 4), and it’s clear that such bonds can be highly emotionally charged and a significant aspect of one’s sense of self. This is noticeable because of the ways in which I’ve used my house’s appearance on television. I’ve not been quiet about it; I was telling everyone at work the day after it appeared. Whenever people mention Torchwood it’s something I point out. This might not sound as if that is likely to occur very often, but considering the programme is a spin-off from the highly successful revival of Doctor Who (BBC1, 1963-89, 1996, 2005-) it is part of a well-known media landscape. Both Doctor Who and Torchwood are predominantly filmed in Cardiff and the surrounding areas of South Wales, but whereas Torchwood is also narratively set in Cardiff, Doctor Who merely uses the locations to represent other places, most often London. Yet many of these places are distinctive and therefore obviously Cardiff for those who know the area. For example, the hospital in the episode ‘New Earth’ (2006) is recognisably the interior of the Wales Millennium Centre, just as the exterior location where the Tardis lands at the beginning of the episode is clearly Rhossili on the Gower Peninsula. Inevitably, the use of such locations has often disrupted my understanding of the story being told. That is, it’s hard to accept that this episode is taking place on a planet at the other end of the galaxy thousands of years into the future if the characters are standing on a cliff you recognise because you’ve been camping there. Of course, the use of locations to represent other places is necessary in media fictions, and I’m not trying to carry out some kind of trainspotter location identification in an attempt to undermine the programme’s diegesis. But it is important to note that while “remembering is a process that today is increasingly media-afflicted” (Hoskins 110), media texts can also be affected by the memories, whether communal or individual, that we bring to bear on them. A ‘real’ relationship with a place can be so intimate that it refuses to be ignored when ‘representations’ require it to be unnecessary. I’m a fan of Doctor Who and would rather not recognise the places so I can just get on with enjoying the programme. But it’s not possible to simply erase “Expressions of community” (Moores 368) which bring together identity and place, especially when that place is your home. Importantly, my idea of ‘home’ is inextricably bound up in the past. As it is a place I no longer live in, the ways in which I feel towards it are predicated on the notion that I used to live there, but no longer do. It’s clear that notions of home – especially those related to nation – are often predicated on ideas of history with significant emotional resonance (Anderson; Blunt and Dowling 140-195; Calhoun). This is a place that is an emotional rather than geographical home, even if it used to also be my home geographically. In buying a house, and engaging in the consumer culture which dominates the ways in which we turn a house into a home (oh, those endless hours at Ikea), I spent a lot of time wondering what it was that this sofa, or those lampshades, or that rug, said about me. The idea that the buildings that we own are a key way of creating and demonstrating a particular kind of identity or affiliation with a certain social group is necessary to consumer capitalism. But as I no longer live in it, the inside of this house can no longer be used as something I can show to other people hoping that they’ll ‘read’ my home how I want them to. Instead, the sense of home invigorated by my house’s appearance on Torchwood is one centred on location, related to the city and the housing estate where my house is, rather than what I did to it. ‘Home’ here becomes something symbolised by the bricks and mortar of the house I bought, but is instead more accurately located in the city and area which the house sits in; Cardiff. More importantly, Cardiff and my house become emotionally meaningful because I’m no longer there. That is, while it’s clear I had a particular relationship to Cardiff when I was a resident, this has altered since my move to Norwich. In moving to a new city – one which I had never visited before, and had no family or friends living in – it seems that my understanding of Cardiff as my ‘home’ has become intensified. This might be because continuing to own property there gives me an investment in the city, both emotionally and financially. But this idea of ‘home’ would, I think, have existed even if I’d sold my house. Instead, Cardiff-as-home is predicated on an idea of personal history and nostalgia (Wheeler; Massey). Academics are used to moving great distances in order to get jobs; indeed, “To spend an entire working career in a single department may seem to be a failure of geographical imagination” (Ley 182). The labour market insists that “All people may now be wanderers” (Bauman, Globalization 87), and hence geographical origins become something to be discussed with new colleagues. For me, like most people, this is a complicated question; does it mean where I was born, or where I grew up, or where I studied, or where I have lived most of my life? In the choices I make to answer this question, I’m acknowledging that “migration is a complex process of cultural negotiation, resistance, and adaptation” (Sinclair and Cunningham 14). As Freeman notes, “the history one tells, via memory, assumes the form of a narrative of the past that charts the trajectory of how one’s self came to be” (33, italics in original). Importantly, this narrative must be seen to make sense; that is, it must help explain the present, conforming to narrative ideas of cause and effect. In constructing a “narratable self” (Caravero 33, italics in original) I’m demonstrating how I think I came to end up where I am now, doing the job I’m doing. In order to show that “I am more than what the thin present defines” (Tuan, Space and Place 186) it’s necessary to reiterate a notion of ‘home’ which supports and illustrates the desired identity narrative. This narrative is as much about “the reflexive project of the self” (Gauntlett 99) in these “liquid times” (Bauman, Liquid Times), as it is a “performance” (Goffman) for others. The coherence and stability of my performance was undercut in a recent episode of Doctor Who – ‘Smith and Jones’ (2007) – in which a family row occurred outside a pub. I became quite distraught that I couldn’t work out where that pub was, and was later reassured to discover that it was in Pontypridd, a town a good few miles from Cardiff, and therefore it wasn’t surprising that I couldn’t recognise it. But in being distraught at not recognising locations I was demonstrating how central knowledge is to an idea of ‘home’. Knowing your way around, knowing where certain shops are, knowing the history of the place; these are all aspects of home, all parts of what Crouch calls “lay knowledge” (217). Ignorance of a space marks the outsider, who must stand on street corners with a map and ask locals for directions. For someone like me who prides himself on his sense of direction (who says I conform to gender stereotypes?) an inability to recognise a pub that I thought I should know suggested my knowledge of the area was dissipating, and so perhaps my ability to define that city as my home was becoming less valid. This must be why I take pleasure in noting that Torchwood’s diegesis is often geographically correct, for the ‘representational’ helps demonstrate my knowledge of the ‘real’ place’s layout. As Tuan notes, “When space feels thoroughly familiar to us, it has become place” (Space and Place 73), and the demonstration of that familiarity is one of the ways of reasserting one’s relationship to home. In demonstrating a knowledge of the place I’m defining as home, I’m also insisting that I’m not a tourist. Urry shows how visitors use a “tourist gaze” (The Tourist Gaze), arguing viewing is the most important activity when encountering a place, just as Tuan (Space and Place 16) and Strain (3) do. To visit somewhere is to employ “a dominance of the eye” (Urry, “Sensing the City” 71); this is why photography has become the dominant manner for recording tourist activity. Strain sees the tourist gaze as one “trained for consumerism” (15) with tourist activity defined primarily by commerce. Since Doctor Who returned Cardiff has promoted its association with the programme, opening an ‘Up Close’ exhibition and debating whether to put together a tourist trail of locations. As a fan of these programmes I’m certainly excited by all of this, and have been to the exhibition. Yet it feels odd being a tourist in a place I want to call home, and some of my activity seems an attempt to demonstrate that it was my home before it became a place I might want to visit for its associations with a television programme. For example, I never went and watched the programme being filmed, even though much of it was shot within walking distance of my house, and “The physical places of fandom clearly have an extraordinary importance for fans” (Sandvoss 61). While some of this was due to not wanting to know what was going to happen in the programme, I was uncomfortable with carrying out an activity that would turn a “landscape” into a “mediascape” (Jansson 432), replacing the ‘real’ with the ‘representational’. In insisting on seeing Cardiff, and my house, as something which existed prior to the programmes, I’m attempting to maintain the “imagined community” (Anderson) I have for my home, distinguishing it from the taint of commerce, no matter how pointless or naïve such an act is in effect. Hence, home is resolutely not a commercial place; or, at least, it is a location whose primary emotive aspects are not defined by consumerism. When houses are seen as nothing more than aspects of commerce, that’s when they remain ‘houses’ or ‘properties’; the affective aspects of ‘homes’ are instead emotionally detached from the commercial factors which bring them about. I think this is why I’m keen to demonstrate that my associations with Cardiff existed before Doctor Who started being made there, for if the place only meant anything to me because of the programme that would define me as a tourist and therefore undermine those emotional and personal aspects of the city which allow me to call it ‘home’. It also means I can be proud that such a cultural institution is being made in ‘my’ city. But it’s a city I can no longer claim residence in. This means that Torchwood and Doctor Who have become useful ways for me to ‘visit’ Cardiff. It seems I have started to adopt a ‘tourist gaze’, for the programmes visually recreate the locations and all I can do is view them, no matter how much I use my knowledge of location in an attempt to interpret those images differently from a tourist. It’s tempting to suggest that this shows how there is a “perpetual negotiation between the real event and its representation” (Bruzzi 9), and how willing I am to engage in the “mobile privatization” that Williams saw as a defining aspect of television (26). But this would be to accept the “unhomeyness” which results from “the ultimate failures of the home in postmodern times” (Lewis and Cho 74). In adopting an autobiographical approach to these issues, I hope I’ve demonstrated the ways in which individuals can experience emotional resonances related to ‘home’ which, while clearly inflected through the social, cultural, and technological aspects I’ve outlined, are nevertheless meaningful and maintain a dominance of the ‘real’ over the ‘representational’. Furthermore, my job tells me I shouldn’t feel this way about my home; or, at least, it reminds me that such emotionality can be explained away through cultural analysis. But that doesn’t in any way make ‘home’ any less powerful nor fully explain how such dry criteria mutate into humanist, emotional significance. So, I can tell you what my home is: but I’m not sure I can get you to understand how seeing my home on television makes me feel. In that sense it’s almost too neat that the episode which kick-started all of this is called ‘Ghost Machine’, for television has become the technology through which the ghosts of my home haunt me on a weekly basis, and ghosts have always been difficult to make sense of. References Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities. London: Verso, 1983. Bauman, Zygmunt. Globalization: The Human Consequences. Cambridge: Polity, 1998. ———. Liquid Times: Living in an Age of Uncertainty. Cambridge: Polity, 2007. Blunt, Alison, and Robyn Dowling. Home. London and New York: Routledge, 2006. Bruzzi, Stella. New Documentary: A Critical Introduction. London and New York: Routledge, 2000. Calhoun, Craig. Nations Matter: Culture, History, and the Cosmopolitan Dream. London and New York: Routledge, 2007. Caravero, Adriana. Relating Narratives: Storytelling and Selfhood. Trans. Paul A. Kottman. London and New York: Routledge, 2000/1997. Crouch, David. “Surrounded by Place: Embodied Encounters.” Tourism: Between Place and Performance. Eds. Simon Coleman and Mike Crang. New York and Oxford: Berghahn, 2002. 207-18. Darby, Wendy Joy. Landscape and Identity: Geographies of Nation and Class in England. Oxford and New York: Berg, 2000. Freeman, Mark. Rewriting the Self: History, Memory, Narrative. London and New York: Routledge, 1993. Gauntlett, David. Media, Gender and Identity: An Introduction. London and New York: Routledge, 2002. Goffmann, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. London: Penguin, 1959. Hoskins, Andrew. “Television and the Collapse of Memory.” Time and Society 13.1 (2004): 109-27. Jansson, André. “Spatial Phantasmagoria: the Mediatization of Tourism Experience.” European Journal of Communication 17.4 (2002): 429-43. Kilborn, Richard, and John Izod. An Introduction to Television Documentary: Confronting Reality. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1997. Lewis, Tyson, and Daniel Cho. “Home Is Where the Neurosis Is: A Topography of the Spatial Unconscious.” Cultural Critique 64.1 (2006): 69-91. Ley, David. “Places and Contexts.” Approaches to Human Geography. Eds. Stuart Aitken and Gill Valentine. London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi: Sage, 2006. 178-83. Massey, Doris. For Space. London: Sage, 2005. Moores, Shaun. “Television, Geography and ‘Mobile Privatization’.” European Journal of Communication 8.4 (1993): 365-79. Morley, David. Home Territories: Media, Mobility and Identity. London and New York: Routledge, 2000. Rodaway, Paul. “Humanism and People-Centred Methods.” Approaches to Human Geography. Eds. Stuart Aitken and Gill Valentine. London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi: Sage, 2006. 263-72. Sandvoss, Cornel. Fans: The Mirror of Consumption. Cambridge: Polity, 2005. Sinclair, John, and Stuart Cunningham. “Go with the Flow: Diasporas and the Media.” Television and New Media 1.1 (2000): 11-31. Strain, Ellen. Public Places, Private Journeys: Ethnography, Entertainment, and the Tourist Gaze. New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London: Rutgers UP, 2003. Tuan, Yi-Fu. Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values. New York: Columbia UP, 1974. ———. Space and Place: the Perspective of Experience. London: Edward Arnold, 1977. Urry, John. “Sensing the City.” The Tourist City. Eds. Dennis R. Judd and Susan S. Fainstein. New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1999. 71-86. ———. The Tourist Gaze. 2nd ed. London: Sage, 2002. Ward, Paul. Documentary: The Margins of Reality. London and New York: Wallflower, 2005. Wheeler, Wendy. A New Modernity: Change in Science, Literature and Politics. London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1999. Williams, Raymond. Television: Technology and Cultural Form. 2nd ed. London and New York: Routledge, 1990. &#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; Citation reference for this article&#x0D; &#x0D; MLA Style&#x0D; Mills, Brett. "What Happens When Your Home Is on Television?." M/C Journal 10.4 (2007). echo date('d M. Y'); ?&gt; &lt;http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0708/08-mills.php&gt;. APA Style&#x0D; Mills, B. (Aug. 2007) "What Happens When Your Home Is on Television?," M/C Journal, 10(4). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?&gt; from &lt;http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0708/08-mills.php&gt;. &#x0D;

Introduction: Spectral Tropicality and Viral Mutations In mid-February 2025, the World Health Organization issued an alert in its weekly bulletin about an emerging outbreak of a mysterious disease in two villages in Equateur Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (WHO). This alert generated two major reports in the press: the first was that the disease could kill in less than 48 hours; the second was that there was an ongoing investigation into the possibility that the disease had started in three children who ingested a bat carcass (and who died with severe symptoms of hemorrhagic fever a few hours later). Experts at the time pointed out that the repercussions of the possible link between bat ingestion and the emergence of the disease were justified, since these animals are reservoirs of viruses such as Nipah, Marburg, Ebola, MERS-CoV, and, finally, SARS-CoV-2 (Rojek et al.). However, a few days later, this hypothesis was discarded by the WHO itself, when it found evidence that the contamination could be related to tainted water (Cohen). The media repercussions of the case above exemplify how public opinion is sensitive to disruptive events originating in the tropics—an area traditionally viewed through a dichotomy that, on the one hand, evokes the region as exotic, biodiverse, and paradisiacal and, on the other, as hostile, inhospitable, uncontrollable, and unhealthy (Benitez; Lundberg). Once understood as the white man’s tomb (Curtin), the tropics today reaffirm their agency through tropicality, functioning as a spectre that raises the horror of the dissolution of dreams, intentions, illusions of control, rights, justice, and, to a certain extent, human existence itself (Harvey). Spectral Tropicality is thus the phantasmagorical return of the ambivalent dimension of the tropics that destabilises any certainty and security regarding knowledge, control, or dominion over life. This article analyses how spectral tropicality becomes manifest through a highly mutagenic virus in Tender Is the Flesh (Cadáver Exquisito) by the Argentine writer Agustina Bazterrica, drastically altering the law to legalise cannibalism. In this book, patterns of meat consumption and production are transformed by the emergence of an infectious agent that contaminates all animals and is deadly to humans. In this scenario, the drastic transformation of laws as an effect of the virus’s high evasive capacity against efforts to produce vaccines and medicines is a symptom of spectral tropicality. This tropicality becomes even more powerful in the face of the devastating epidemics and pandemics emerging in the wake of the current planetary and climate crisis. The GGB Virus as a Mutation-Power Tender Is the Flesh presents a dystopian scenario in which a devastating virus contaminates all animals, making their flesh lethal to humans. Called GGB, the virus is described in the book as highly contagious, affecting a wide range of animal species, but transmitted to humans through the consumption of animal meat. The origin of the virus remains unclear, but its consequences are catastrophic for human society, leading to a ban on the consumption of animal meat due to its virulence. To contain the public health crisis, governments around the world implement drastic measures to eradicate farm animals and prohibit meat consumption. This scenario results in an extreme social transformation, where practices of cannibalism are institutionalised as a response to the scarcity of animal protein. Marcos Tejo lives in a small town in the north of Argentina, where he works as an administrator at a human abattoir, overseeing the production and slaughter of people bred for consumption. His role involves managing the "production" process to ensure it complies with the established regulations. As a form of bonus for his work, he receives a woman, described in the book as "prime meat" for consumption. The Argentine setting contributes to the creation of a subtropical and suffocating scenario, where the heat and humidity reinforce the feeling of decadence and despair in the plot. The vulnerability of women in this context is explored extensively in the book, as poor women are raised as livestock for both human consumption and reproduction. Here, we see the continuation of a capitalist pattern of exploiting animal flesh, which, in this case, extends to the flesh of women—illustrating a strong association between animal and female exploitation in a patriarchal regime, as explored in the philosophy of Carol J. Adams (Mercier). Tender Is the Flesh is part of a group of literary works, the starting point of which is a highly lethal disease that induces drastic changes on a planetary level, giving rise to morbid persistences associated with patriarchy and the capitalist system (Costa; Schneider). The GGB virus can be considered a mutation-power, a pathogen that evades human attempts at knowledge and control, while reconfiguring the material, social, political, and symbolic dimensions of life. This term may be used with inspiration from the concept of thing-power, as analysed in Jane Bennett’s vital materialism. While thing-power may suggest the centrality of objects, it actually refers to a heterogeneous assembly of bodies, elements, forces, ideas, institutions, and other factors that emerge as events—producing contingent effects that operate with and against human intentions, actions, and thoughts (Bennett). Agency here is not localised but arises from multiple sources that combine human and nonhuman characteristics. Although thing-power encompasses the dynamism of matter itself, the GGB virus points to something beyond that: a pathogenic agent with a high capacity to evade scientific research and defy explanation or containment. In the narrative, reality manifests as a recurring trauma that undermines human intentions, actions, and assumptions of control over the world—revealing the fragility of the self-sufficient universe of reason upon which the capitalist system is built (Kolozova). Thus, it is worth saying that due to its extreme complexity and dynamic nature, the virus represents a mutation-power that at times remains in obscurity and, most often, in complete darkness for the reader. The pandemic in the novel persists within the realm of the unthinkable, serving primarily a dramatic function that envelops the virus in a fog of mystery—raising more questions and doubts than it resolves. The virus as mutation-power in Bazterrica’s work sheds light on themes related to cruelty, survival, and dehumanisation. However, it also explores an underlying ambiguity in the face of a cataclysmic event. The pandemic caused by the GGB virus promotes a dissolution of the past, yet society’s reaction reinforces an attachment to and dependence on certain idealised aspects of that past—out of which extreme solutions emerge to preserve the illusion of life continuing as it was. The meat industry, governments, and the social attachment to meat consumption are all forces that reshape society to adapt to the new reality, producing extreme solutions that eerily resemble older patterns. It is the terror of losing the past—of losing the stability of customs and everything to which one is emotionally anchored (Whitehead)—that fuels speculation about how such horror might materialise in the face of global dissolution. The novel questions how far society can go to ensure the survival of outdated models and how social norms may be distorted under extreme conditions. It exposes the fragility of those norms, highlighting how severe crises can lead to a re-evaluation of values and practices previously deemed unacceptable—all in the name of preserving entrenched economic and cultural systems. The Law and the Sanitisation of Cannibalism In Bazterrica’s work, the legalisation of cannibalism and the breeding of humans for consumption reflect the dissolution of ethical and moral norms in times of extreme crisis. Society is divided into two classes: those who consume human flesh and those who are raised for slaughter, resulting in widespread dehumanisation. The construction and evolution of law emerge here as central elements in maintaining patterns of meat production and consumption in a collapsing society. In this sense, the GGB virus functions as a mutation-power that influences decisions at the legal level. The idea that nonhumans can act in some way within the legal sphere or initiate legal processes is supported by Western history itself. Philosopher Jane Bennett cites historical and contemporary cases in which things, animals, and elements act within legal frameworks. One example is the deodand (meaning “that which must be given to God”) in eleventh-century English law—objects, animals, or elements that caused death or harm to people, and were subsequently confiscated and sold by the Crown as a form of compensation. Another example Bennett discusses involves objects used as material evidence in criminal cases—items that function as actants by intervening in legal proceedings (Bennett 9). Other historical conceptions of nonhuman legal agency also exist. In the early modern period, animals and insects could be the subjects of lawsuits. This was the case with the green weevil (likely Otiorhynchus sulcatus), which devastated vineyards in eastern France in the sixteenth century and was the focus of a prolonged legal process marked by repeated motions and delays (Cabral; Vital). Between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries, major catastrophes such as storms, droughts, and fires were sometimes considered evidence of crimes—often attributed to witches in cases of so-called climate magic in Europe (Behringer). With the consolidation of Cartesian realism and modern science—along with the resulting dualisms of nature–culture and mind–matter—nonhumans came to be regarded as more or less inert objects. However, this idea is now being significantly challenged by the growing prominence of nonhumans in the context of climate change and the environmental crisis, where they increasingly appear as intruders acting across various spheres of social life. A heightened awareness of existential risks related to the environmental crisis is also linked to the rise of the environmental movement in the 1960s and 1970s, which employed apocalyptic rhetoric to warn against the damage being inflicted on the planet. Thus, in general terms, there is a diffuse yet persistent conception that nonhuman events—whether climatic, pandemic, or otherwise—can exert radical and far-reaching transformations on human life and its institutions (Lundberg; Vital; Das). The intrusion of nonhuman things, elements, and animals has been understood as having a contingent character in itself, presenting varying intensities and degrees of impact in the way they affect humans, nonhumans, and institutions—including legal institutions (Grear). In Tender Is the Flesh, this issue is explored through the impact of a highly mutagenic virus on laws, which are changed to adapt the legal system to a new reality in which animal flesh is no longer available for consumption. The law thus becomes a tool for regulating what is unacceptable in the universe of readers, but which becomes justice in a future social world still clinging to a past dissolved by the force of a hypothetical pandemic. This transformation of laws, however, does not originate with power groups but emerges from the bottom of society. The situation resembles cases of climate witchcraft from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries, when the Little Ice Age led populations to hunt witches—blamed for severe storms and droughts—shaping intellectual, religious, and legal debates over the validity of such practices. Cannibalism in Tender Is the Flesh begins among the lower classes. Reports of people secretly killing others for food began appearing in the media following the ban on animal meat sales, until the food industry saw an opportunity and pressured governments to legalise the breeding and slaughter of humans. Immigrants, the poor, and other marginalised populations became the main victims. However, the subsequent decrease in population, poverty, and meat prices was propagandised and, over time, came to be viewed positively—especially by the global elites. This is the continuation of necropolitics—a management of symbolic and real death aimed at maintaining the lives of privileged populations (Mbembe). However, this politics of death is elevated to another level in response to the vicissitudes of the pandemic. The process of legalising cannibalism, in turn, is shaped by a technical and neutral language regulated by laws, serving to normalise horror, erase the humanity of the victims, and conceal violence behind legal and sanitary terminology. At the beginning of the book, the prohibition of certain words when referring to the practice and to the people sent to slaughter is emphasised, as “there are words that cover up the world. There are words that are convenient, hygienic. Legal” (Bazterrica 1). The law thus becomes an instrument in service of cultural and economic continuity amid disruptive transformations, engendering a sanitisation and naturalisation of horror. The character Marcos Tejo, an employee at the Krieg meatpacking plant, reflects on the role law plays in this post-apocalyptic universe. Humans raised for slaughter cannot be called humans—under penalty of imprisonment or even being “processed” at the Municipal Slaughterhouse—because such a designation would grant them an identity. In this context, “meat processing” replaces prohibited terms like “death penalty” and “murder”. Cannibalism, of course, is also a word forbidden by law. In the slaughterhouses, technical vocabulary is used to refer to the humans being killed: “production”, “meat”, “food”, “heads to be processed”. Meanwhile, the media, commerce, and government refer to these humans as “special meat”. Spectral Tropicality and the Law All the disruptive transformations and attempts to control the situation through law take place in a permanently sweltering environment, punctuated by heat, heavy rain, and sweat dripping from the characters’ faces. The control established by law in Tender Is the Flesh is forged in the wake of the GGB virus, but tropicality remains at all times an intruder—at once familiar and strange—, a hostile spectre that surrounds the characters throughout the narrative. The effort to maintain a fantasy universe in which people continue to eat meat—now human meat, de-characterised and transformed into “special” animal meat—coexists with the virus as a shadow of what broke with previous eating patterns. At the same time, it is immersed in a tropicality that ebbs and flows throughout the narrative. These signs of tropicality function as a tomb of human control over the world, pushing the fantasy of mastery over oneself and the planet to extremes by conceiving of a diet based on cannibalism, conceptually disguised through legal control. The hypothesis is that the constant presence of signs of tropicality does not occur by chance, just as it is not coincidental that an outbreak of a devastating disease in Africa acquires significant media traction in a short span of time. It is now understood that tropical and subtropical ecosystems—subject to agricultural expansion, biodiversity loss, wildlife trade, and climate change—are the areas most at risk for the spillover and mutation of pathogens, leading to more frequent outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics (Vora et al.). These data reinforce the image of the tropics as regions not fully subject to human control, where efforts to dominate may instead trigger disease processes that spill over from the tropical zone to the entire planet, rendering it hostile, uncontrollable, and potentially uninhabitable. This represents an expansion of tropicality which, once seen as the tomb of the white man, could now become the tomb of all humanity. This is where resistance emerges—centered on abstraction and the maintenance of the fantasy of human control over the world by preserving old patterns of consumption and meat production. The critique of law in Bazterrica’s work is directly linked to the preservation of the illusion of power over oneself and the world, laying the groundwork for the protection of former ruling classes while discarding vulnerable groups—ultimately “feeding” on them. There is a metaphorical questioning here of an apocalypse that does not necessarily entail the end of capitalism, patriarchy, or systems of consumption, production, and power. The book invites readers to reflect on the plasticity of legal systems, in which universal ethical principles can be easily discarded, and to question the extent to which legal norms reflect justice or, conversely, are complicit in oppressive systems. Above all, it expresses diffuse anxieties about law and human institutions in a material, insidious universe—one that manifests as a completely indifferent spectre threatening human yearnings for permanence, control, and justice. References Bazterrica, Agustina. Tender Is the Flesh. Trans. Sarah Moses. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2020. Bennett, Jane. Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things. Durham: Duke UP, 2010. Behringer, Wolfgang. “Climatic Change and Witch-Hunting: The Impact of the Little Ice Age on Mentalities.” Climatic Change 43.1 (1999): 335-51 Benitez, Christian Jil R., and Anita Lundberg. ”Tropical Materialisms: Toward Decolonial Poetics, Practices and Possibilities.“ eTropic: Electronic Journal of Studies in the Tropics 21.2 (2022). Cabral, Diogo de Carvalho, and André Vasques Vital. “Multispecies Emergent Textualities: Writing and Reading in Ecologies of Selves.” ISLE: Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment 30.3 (2023): 705–27. Cohen, Jon. “Mysterious Congo Outbreak Likely Linked to Contaminated Water, Researchers Say.” Science, 28 Feb. 2025. &lt;https://www.science.org/content/article/mysterious-congo-outbreak-likely-linked-contaminated-water-researchers-say&gt;. Costa, Priscilla, and Liane Schneider. “Violência e consumo de corpos na distopia Saboroso Cadáver, de Agustina Bazterrica.” Revista Odisseia 8 (2023): 343-362. Curtin, Philip D. “‘The White Man’s Grave’: Image and Reality, 1780-1850.” Journal of British Studies 1.1 (1961): 94–110. Grear, Anna. “Flat Ontology and Differentiation: In Defense of Bennett’s Vital Materialism, and Some Thoughts toward Decolonial New Materialisms for International Law.” International Law and Posthuman Theory. Eds. Matilda Arvidsson and Emily Jones. Routledge, 2024. 60-82. Harvey, Sophia Siddique. “Mapping Spectral Tropicality in The Maid and Return to Pontianak.” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 29 (2008): 24-33. Kolozova, Katerina. Cut of the Real: Subjectivity in Poststructuralist Philosophy. New York: Columbia UP, 2014. Lundberg, Anita, André Vasques Vital, and Shruti Das. “Tropical Imaginaries and Climate Crisis: Embracing Relational Climate Discourses.” eTropic: Electronic Journal of Studies in the Tropics 20.2 (2021). Mbembe, Achille. Necropolitics. Durham: Duke UP, 2020. Mercier, Claire. “Carne de Patriarcado. Consumo Animal-Femenino en Tres Distopías Feministas Recientes: Cadáver Exquisito de Agustina Bazterrica, Nación Vacuna de Fernanda García Lao y Sirènes de Laura Pugno.” Anclajes 28.3 (2024): 45-62. Rojek, Amanda, Zania Stamatak, Michael Head, and Paul Hunter. “Expert Reaction to Disease Outbreak of Unknown Cause in the DRC.” Science Media Centre, 26 Feb. 2025. &lt;https://www.sciencemediacentre.org/expert-reaction-to-disease-outbreak-of-unknown-cause-in-the-drc/&gt;. Vora, Neil M., et al. “Interventions to Reduce Risk for Pathogen Spillover and Early Disease Spread to Prevent Outbreaks, Epidemics, and Pandemics.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 29.3 (2023): 1-9. &lt;https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2903.221079&gt;. Whitehead, Alfred N. Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmology. New York: Free Press, 1978. WHO. “Weekly Bulletin on Outbreak and Other Emergencies: Week 8: 17-23 February 2025.” World Health Organization, 23 Feb. 2025. &lt;https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/380661/OEW8-1723022025.pdf&gt;.

<strong>ABSTRACT</strong> The aim of this empirical study is to assessing and comparing the perception of teachers towards acceptance and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services in educational institutions.&nbsp; <strong>Methods:</strong> The present study followed the UTAUT model and based on the model constructs questionnaires were designed to predict the degree of acceptance. A survey instrument was administered to participants in both Barishal (250) and Patuakhali (200) in Barishal division.<em>The obtained information was analyzed using the statistical software package SPSSversion 22.0. </em><em>This study tested the model using structural equation modeling using AMOS-23</em><em>. </em> <strong>Results</strong><strong>:</strong><em>The propensity to act showed that positive mediating effect between </em>behavioral intention and use<em> behavior. </em>Seven predictors of the model yielded89% of the total variance explained in the final measured behavioral intention to use of IT by teachers.Both samples have a favorable perception of behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services in education institutions 85.6% and 85.4% respectively, and only a smallpercentage has negative intention to use of IT innovation services in their jobs 4.57% and 5.8% respectively. <em>Based on the statistical outcome of study area it is interestingly noted that actual difference between Barisah and Patuakhali districts education institutions teachers&rsquo; negative behavioral intention is a very few percentage (Appr. 1.23%)&nbsp; among the teachers.</em> <strong>Conclusion:</strong><em>The result indicates that the improvement of IT innovation services is required in the educational institutions</em>. Directorate of Education general interventions should focus on promoting IT innovation among teacher&rsquo;s professionals. Finally, this paper introduces important methodologicalguidelinesfor measuring perceptions ofbehavioral intention to use of IT innovation services that currently do not exist. <strong>Limitations:</strong><em> The number of male and female teachers is not equal and our respondents were mostly men compared to women.</em> <strong>Practical implications</strong><strong>:</strong><em> This study extends to knowledge on IT innovation services research by using UTAUT models in the context of technology acceptance. The TADU model is a useful tool for policy makers to assess the likelihood of success for new technology introductions and the possibility of actual use. It helps the education planner to understand the driver of technology acceptance and allows them to design interventions for teachers to use of IT innovation services. </em> <strong>Originality/value</strong><strong>:</strong><em>This study is one of the first to utilize and revised the UTAUT model to the technology acceptance in order to develop a more robust model. It improves the model by identify new variable and adding propensity to act as a mediator that is able to measure the e</em><em>ff</em><em>ect of other factors on the relationship between behavioral intention and usage behaviors. </em> <strong>Keywords:</strong><em>Behavioral intention, Education institution, IT innovation, Technology acceptance, UTAUT model.</em> <strong>1. Introduction</strong> Bangladesh has emerged as an independent and sovereign country in 1971. It is one of the largest deltas in the world with a total area of 147,570 sq. km. Bangladesh has a population of about 158.90 million making it one of the densely populated countries in the world reported by the Population and Housing Census (2015).Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (2011) reveals that Education in Bangladesh is overseen by Bangladesh&#39;s Ministry of Education. Ministry of Primary and Mass Education are responsible for implementing the policy for education at a local level. The highest allocation in the national budget for education exposes that Government of Bangladesh is very much keen for human resources and development through education. According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistical (BANBEIS) survey in 2015 indicates the participation rate, enrolment rate, completion rate, and dropout rate and sex distribution of teachers.&nbsp; So, it is very important to compare girls and boys in different grades to understand the actual reason in the forward instead. Bangladesh has one of the lowest literacy rates in Asia, estimated at 66.5% for males and 63.1% for females in 2015. Citing the statistics from the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (2017) the previous rate was 72.3 percent.&nbsp; Bangladesh has achieved the literacy rate of 72.9 due to the active involvement of the present government said by Primary and Mass Education Minister Mostafizur Rahman Fizar in 2018. Recently the literacy rate of Bangladesh has improved as it stands ^[update] due to the modernization of schools and allocation funds for IT innovation services (bdnews24.16-June, 2018). A study by Salim (2004) highlighted that ICT has been developing very rapidly in order to balance the whole educational system should be reformed and ICT should be integrated into educational activities. Summary of the Education Ministry Report (Ref No: 070035) in February 2009, indicated that many teachers are reluctant to use ICTs, especially computers and the internet. Some of the reasons for this reluctance include poor software design, skepticism about the effectiveness of computers in improving learning outcomes, lack of administrative support, increased time and effort needed to learn the technology and how to use it for teaching. &nbsp; <strong><em>1.1 Research Objectives</em></strong> This empirical study aims at assessing and comparing the teacher&rsquo;s perceptions towards acceptance and behavioral intention to use of Information Technology (IT) between Barishal and Patuakhali district&rsquo;s education institutions. Consequently, the following questions have been identified to help to achieve this aim. The specific research questions are the following: <em>How do the predictors of UTAUT Model influence on the acceptance and behavioral intention to use of Information Technology (IT) in Education Institutions in two districts of Barishal Division?</em> <em>Does there exist a difference between variables of IT innovation services of two District&rsquo;s (Barishal and Patuakhali) education intuitions to accept and behavioral intention to use of Information Technology?</em> Across the world, many governments are now using IT innovation services to provide their citizens with more convenient access to information and services. Barishal and Patuakhali were selected for the comparison taking into consideration their common tradition of the geographic area of the southern part which makes them culturally similar. On the other side, the comparison was considered interesting since the models implemented in each district are very different. This research is grounded in a UTAUT model to determine and assess the perception of teacher&rsquo;s behavioral intention to use of information technology innovation services in educational institutions.&nbsp; The UTAUT model was chosen as the base theoretical model for this study because of its comprehensiveness and high explanatory power in comparison to other technology acceptance and use models.&nbsp; The UTAUT model will be utilized and developed to achieve this goal. However, in this study propensity to act has been added as moderating variables for overcoming the limitations of the UTAUT model. Nowadays, individuals and organizations are using Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in order to accommodate our daily needs. Information and Communication Technology has become a useful tool in promoting the quality of education worldwide. Nevertheless, measurement of IT innovation of acceptance and behavioral intention to use has been largely ignored in the literature while information technology has broadly been confirmed as the indicators of success. The present research attempts to bridge this gap, by empirically assessing and comparing the perception of teachers towards acceptance and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services in educational institutions. The results of this research are important for many reasons because of the implications of research should be used to take actions by the public policy decision-makers. &nbsp; <strong>2. Background of the Study</strong> A number of behavioral theories have been applied to examine the process of information technology acceptance by end-users. Some of which are Theory of Reason Action(TRA)<em>, </em>Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)<em>, </em>Task-Technology Fit Theory (TTF)<em>, </em>and Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)<em>. </em>Amongst these theories, the Technology Acceptance Model(TAM) was found as a model that has been widely used in various studies on the adoption process of information technology. Following these models, in 2003, Venkatesh and his colleagues developed a new model called Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT).Its predictor variables are performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating condition. Lee and Runge (2001) concluded that the innovation possessed actual influence toward the adoption of an information system by institutions. Several IS adoption models have been developed and proposed to explain users&rsquo; acceptance and use of Information Technology. Researchers used these IS adoption models to explain technology acceptance in different contexts such as e-learning (Cheng, 2012) and multimedia-based learning systems (Lee and Ryu, 2014). Another accredited intentions based model is Shapero&rsquo;s (1982) Entrepreneurial Event (SEE)one that is somehow conceptually similar to the Ajzen&rsquo;s TPB. Based on the model, a decision maker should perceive feasibility (self-efficacy) and desirability (TPB&rsquo;s attitude and socialnorms) of the opportunity so as to have a propensity to act and become intent (Krueger, 2009).Both models of the TPB and SEE have gone tested empirically and presented a high level of robustness (Krueger et al. 2000).According to Krueger (2009),&ldquo;a comparative test found support for both models and post hoc analysis suggested that the optimal model would include the propensity to act from Shapero&rsquo;s SEE model. Using Shapero&rsquo;s terminology, Krueger and Brazeal&rsquo;s (1994) entrepreneurial model emphasizes the constructs of propensity to act integrating in the conceptualization of these constructs. Considering the critical points rely on UTAUT alone to predict IT adoption behavior would be inappropriate.&nbsp; Moreover, there is a need to find variables that are able to capture the role of external factors that affect an individual&rsquo;s decisions to accept and behavioral intention to use of IT. In this model precipitating events is a moderating variable which is able to capture the role of external factors and improve the intention-behavior gap. This model has the potential to mitigate the limitations of the UTAUT model and thus assist in providing a better understanding of IT acceptance and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services in both districts education institution. The final construct measured is BI to use IT innovation Services in education institutions, which is directly influenced by Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), Social Influence (SI) and, Facilitating Conditions (FC) with Propensity to Act (PA) additionally influencing the level of Behavioral Intention (BI), and Use Behavior (UB) these seven predictors form an Extended UTAUT model for predicting behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services in education institutions. &nbsp; <strong>3. Research Model Associated with Hypothesis Development</strong> This paper used the UTAUT-model (Venkatesh et al, 2003) as a base model to empirically assessing and comparing the perception of teachers towards acceptance and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services in educational institutions of two districts namely Barishal and Patuakhali under Barisal Education Board in Barishal division. We considered performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions as determinants toward behavior intention to use of IT innovation services. Literature shows that previous experience with the information technology makes it easier for people to accept and they consider it as the key to success of the information technology. Therefore we consider propensity to act as moderating factors that influences the relationship between behavioral intentions and use behavior of IT innovation. <em>Figure-1</em> shows the research model. &nbsp; <em>Figure-1: Research Model</em> Although ICT offers an improved approach to providing IT innovation services, its acceptance by end users remains slow. Teachers are the traditionally homogeneous sample that challenges to the successful implementation of IT innovative services. The link between the intention and behavior is most likely influenced by a number of factors, some controllable, others uncontrollable; therefore, external factors are likely to play a significant role. With respect to the importance of information technology for an organization&rsquo;s success, a large and growing body of literature details IT adoption and use behavior, and several models have been developed to explain users&rsquo; acceptance of technology (Koivumaki et al., 2008; Kannabiran, 2012).Pai and Huang (2011) indicated that PE affects BI to use of information technology. Sun et al. (2013) suggest that EE has a strong influence on the users&rsquo; intention to use information system acceptance. Lu et al., (2005) have found that SI has a strong impact on users&rsquo; intention to adopt the technology. A study by Boontarig et al. (2012) suggested that FC positively influences the behavioral intention and use behavior of using IT-related innovation services. Yi et al. (2006) found that FC is a direct determinant of behavioral intention and use of technology. Krueger et al., (2000) revealed that propensity to act as direct determinants of intention and find a significant and positive relationship between propensity to act and intention. Venkatesh (2000) empirically tested that BI explains the user&rsquo;s actual UB of technology. The relationship between the behavioral intention (BI) and actual use behavior (UB) is well documented in many research fields and that indicates BI is a valid predictor of actual UB (Venkatesh&amp; Davis, 2000; Sheppard et al., 1988). Therefore, it is expected that the performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, propensity to act,&nbsp; will positively influence teacher&rsquo;s behavioral intention to use IT-related innovation in the educational institutions. The above discussion lead this study to posit the following hypothesis: <strong>H₁: </strong><em>PE will have a positive influence on the acceptance and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation Services </em> <strong>H₂: </strong><em>EE will have a positive influence on the acceptance and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation Services </em> <strong>H₃: </strong><em>SI will have a positive influence on the acceptance and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation Services </em> <strong>H₄: </strong><em>FC will have a positive influence on the acceptance and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation Services </em> <strong>H₅: </strong><em>FC will have a positive influence on the actual use of IT innovation Services </em> <strong>H₆:</strong><em>PA moderates positively the relationship between the teacher&rsquo;s Behavioral Intention (BI) and Use Behavior of IT innovation Services </em> <strong>H₇: </strong><em>BI will have a significant effect on </em><em>the teacher&rsquo;s actual use of </em><em>IS- innovations </em> &nbsp; <strong>4. Methodology</strong> <strong><em>4.1 Questionnaire Development Procedure</em></strong> The present study develops a research framework to predict the level of acceptance and behavioral intention to use of IT as well as assessing and comparing the teacher&rsquo;s perceptions towards acceptance and behavioral intention to use of Information Technology (IT) between Barishal and Patuakhali District&rsquo;s education institutions. The questions that measure propensity to Act (PA) were adopted from Krueger (1993), Krueger and Brazeal (1994), and Krueger,et al (2000). Some words were modified suit to the context of the study.Items thatmeasure Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), Social Influence (SI), Facilitating Conditions (FC), Behavioral Intention (BI), and Use Behavior (UB) of IT innovation services were adapted from Venkatesh et al., (2003). &nbsp; <strong><em>4.2 Data Collection Strategies</em></strong> Questionnaires were designed to gather information about the constructs in the research model at the place of two districts (Barishal and Patuakhali) at Barisal division in Bangladesh. A Likertscale is appropriate when the research needs to measure the respondents&acute; attitude toward constructs. Thus, the 5 points Likert type scale (1=Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree) was built to gather the information. The questionnaires were distributed based on probability sampling to the teacher who is involved in education service profession in education institutions. We chose only teachers of education institutions because of the most influential people affecting innovation and change in educational sector. A total of 450 questionnaires were sent to Barishal and Patuakhali districts education institutions, and 250 complete questionnaires were collected with a respondent rate of 55.55%. &nbsp; <strong><em>4.3 Data Analysis Tools and Techniques</em></strong> The obtained information was analyzed using the statistical software package SPSS version 22.0. This study tested the model using structural equation modeling using AMOS-23. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (version-22) software and its supplement AMOS (version-23) were found to be the appropriate and the most suitable tools for analyzing the quantitative data for this study. Statistical techniques of univariate analyses and bivariate were used. The Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) technique was used to test a set of relationship between independents and a dependent variable. The relationships among all of the variables for the sample group were investigated through correlation analysis. The direct, indirect, and meditational effects of the study variables were tested using structural equation modeling procedures. The current study used two exploratory procedures viz., Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to identify the underlying data structure for each construct. Once an acceptable measurement model is available, the structural model evaluation should be able to start. A similar set of model fit indices was used to test the structural model. &nbsp; <strong>5. Results of the Data Analysis</strong> <strong>and Discussions</strong> The survey was completed by 204 respondents. These, 64.7% were males and 35.3% were females in the academic institutions. The following section will describe each group and provide the findings of the analysis. &nbsp; <strong>5.1. Demographic Description of Respondents</strong> The following table-2 provides a general overview of the teacher demographic information, such as age, gender, educational level, computer knowledge, and internet knowledge and use experience. The demographic characteristics of respondents presented in Figure-2 show those percentages who participated in the study. &nbsp; <strong><em>5.1.1 Barishal</em></strong> A simple random sampling was used to recruit participants. The study sample consisted who are fully or partially engaged in education institution at Barishal and Pauakhali Districts in Barishal Division. The participants (n=102) consisted of 70 (68.6%) were male and 32 (31.4%) were female. The majority, 45.1 percent of teacher respondents belonged to 20 to 40 years of age groups, 35.3 percent of them belonged to 41 to 50 years of age group and 19.6 percent of them were above 50 years of age. The sample displayed a different level of education: 58.8% (n=60) had master&rsquo;s degree from the different university, and 32.4% (n=33) had Bachelor degree and 4.9% (n=5) very few of respondents had a higher education degree. Mobile and Computer ((m &amp; c) user experience, 37.3 percent of them had 4 to 6 years of user experience in their personal life and 30.4 percent of them had less than 4 years of experience and, 32.4 percent of them had more than 6 years use experience of mobile phone and computer or laptop in their daily life or in the workplace. As table reveals, 34.3% (n=35) of the respondents had poor computer knowledge i.e. almost one-third of the respondents had little bit computer knowledge, 32.4% (n=33) of the respondents were from the moderate group, 20.6% (n=21) of the participants were good in computer knowledge while small percentage of about 12.7% (n=13) did have very good computer skills or experiences. &nbsp; <em>Figure-2: Demographic Information&rsquo;s of the respondents</em> <strong><em>5.1.2 Patuakhali</em></strong> Respondents completed the survey, of which 62 (60.8%) were males and 40 (39.2%) were females.&nbsp; Also, the age distribution shows about 58.8% (n=60) respondents were aged 41 to 50 and the second group was aged 41 to 50 of 31.4% (n=32 %) and 10 (9.8%) of the percentage of the respondent who was older than 50 years. Respondent was asked to specify their education level. With regard to education, 50 (49%) had Master&rsquo;s Degree qualifications, 37 (36.3%) had bachelor degree program, higher education like Ph.D. holders were 10 (9.8%) with 83.3% of them having 1 to 6 years of mobile phone usage experience. As the table reveals, 41.2% (n=42) of the respondents were from the moderate group, almost 34.3 (n=35) of the respondents had little bit of computer knowledge, 15.7% (n=16) of the participants were good in computer knowledge while a small percentage of about 8.8% (n=9) did have very good computer skills or experiences. Based on the above statistics, we can predict that more of the teachers and staffs are nowadays with the behavioral intention to engaging with information technology (IT) innovation services in their predefined workplace over time. Consequently, this result has a significant effect on technology acceptance decision and behavioral intention to use Information Technology (IT) innovation services in Barishal and Patuakhali district&rsquo;s education institutions. <strong>5.2 Descriptive Results of the Teachers Perception towards Acceptance of IT</strong> To measure the degree of acceptance and behavioral intention (BI) to use behavior (UB) of Information Technology (IT) in Barishal and Patuakhali districts education institutions, the scale developed by Venkatesh et al., (2003) and Krueger,et al (2000) was used. Their scale consists of 27 items; all of the items measure the construct of Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), Social Influence (SI), and Facilitating Conditions, Propensity to Act (PA), Use Behavior (UB), and Behavioral Intention (BI). Descriptive Results of Barishal and Patuakhali Education Institution&rsquo;s Teachers Perception to Level of Acceptance and Use of IT innovation services in their workplace are shown in table-1. Items were rated on 5 point rating scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher the mean (4+) score measures the positive degree of acceptance of IT innovation and lowers the mean (1 score measures a low level of acceptance and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services in education institutions either Barishal or Patuakhali districts. Considering the education institutions of Barishal District, responses of 22 items were averaged to measure acceptance and BI-UB of IT. 22-items Mean score of constructs of Barishal districts is higher than recommended value (i.e. 4.28 &gt; 4) it means teachers of educational institutions in the Barisal district are strongly agree to accept and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services in their job. On the other hand regarding Patuakhali district, table-1 reveals that mean score is higher than recommended value (i.e. 4.27 &gt; 4) it denotes teachers is strongly to use of IT innovation services in their respective educational institutions. <strong>Code used</strong> <strong>CFA</strong> <strong>Barishal</strong> <strong>Patuakhali</strong> <strong>SD</strong> <strong>D</strong> <strong>N</strong> <strong>A</strong> <strong>SD</strong> <strong>Mean&plusmn;S.D</strong> <strong>SD</strong> <strong>D</strong> <strong>N</strong> <strong>A</strong> <strong>SD</strong> <strong>Mean&plusmn;S.D</strong> <strong>(%)</strong> <strong>(%)</strong> <strong>PE-1</strong> -- -- 32.4 17.6 50.0 4.17&plusmn;0.89 -- 7.80 34.3 15.7 42.2 3.92&plusmn;1.04 <strong>PE-2</strong> -- 3.90 19.6 44.1 32.4 4.04&plusmn;0.82 -- 3.90 35.3 32.4 28.4 3.85&plusmn;0.88 <strong>PE-3</strong> -- 12.7 14.7 21.6 51.0 4.10&plusmn;1.08 -- 2.9 11.8 35.3 50.0 4.32&plusmn;0.79 <strong>PE-4</strong> -- 6.90 10.8 23.5 58.8 4.34&plusmn;0.92 -- 8.80 22.5 18.6 50.0 4.09&plusmn;1.03 <strong>EE-1</strong> -- 12.7 10.8 8.80 67.6 4.31&plusmn;1.09 -- 5.90 6.90 13.7 73.5 4.54&plusmn;0.86 <strong>EE-2</strong> -- 13.7 17.6 9.80 58.8 4.13&plusmn;1.14 -- 9.80 6.90 3.90 79.4 4.52&plusmn;0.99 <strong>EE-3</strong> -- 8.80 19.6 18.6 52.9 4.15&plusmn;1.03 -- 17.6 9.80 9.80 62.7 4.17&plusmn;1.18 <strong>EE-4</strong> -- 5.90 31.4 18.6 44.1 4.00&plusmn;0.99 -- 10.8 28.4 8.80 52.0 4.01&plusmn;1.11 <strong>SI-1</strong> -- -- 15.7 42.2 42.2 4.26&plusmn;0.71 -- 8.80 21.6 4.90 64.70 4.25&plusmn;1.07 <strong>SI-2</strong> -- -- -- 10.8 89.2 4.89&plusmn;0.31 -- 4.90 23.5 2.00 69.6 4.36&plusmn;1.00 <strong>SI-3</strong> -- -- -- 9.80 90.2 4.80&plusmn;0.59 -- 9.80 19.6 7.80 62.7 4.23&plusmn;1.08 <strong>SI-4</strong> -- -- 30.4 8.80 60.8 4.30&plusmn;0.90 -- -- 29.4 -- 70.6 4.41&plusmn;0.91 <strong>FC-1</strong> -- 4.90 16.7 14.7 63.7 4.37&plusmn;0.93 -- 5.90 21.6 7.80 64.7 4.31&plusmn;1.00 <strong>FC-2</strong> -- 7.80 21.6 18.6 52.0 4.14&plusmn;1.01 -- 8.80 19.6 5.90 65.7 4.28&plusmn;1.06 <strong>FC-3</strong> -- 8.80 10.8 30.4 50.0 4.21&plusmn;0.96 -- 20.6 17.6 17.6 44.1 3.85&plusmn;1.19 <strong>FC-4</strong> -- 3.90 12.7 8.80 74.50 4.52&plusmn;0.86 -- 8.80 22.5 16.7 52.0 4.11&plusmn;1.04 <strong>PA-1</strong> -- 4.90 16.7 10.8 67.6 4.41&plusmn;0.93 -- 2.90 3.90 7.80 85.3 4.75&plusmn;0.66 <strong>PA-2</strong> -- 9.8 22.5 15.7 52.0 4.09&plusmn;1.06 -- 10.8 4.90 10.8 73.5 4.47&plusmn;1.00 <strong>PA-3</strong> -- 12.7 20.6 17.6 49.0 4.02&plusmn;1.10 -- 10.8 12.7 5.90 70.6 4.36&plusmn;1.06 <strong>PA-4</strong> -- 9.8 27.5 17.6 45.1 3.98&plusmn;1.06 -- 17.6 20.6 9.80 52.0 3.96&plusmn;1.20 <strong>BI-1</strong> -- 4.90 6.90 7.80 80.4 4.63&plusmn;0.81 -- 11.8 12.7 17.6 57.8 4.21&plusmn;1.06 <strong>BI-2</strong> -- 17.6 16.7 12.7 52.9 4.00&plusmn;1.18 -- 7.80 11.8 8.80 71.6 4.44&plusmn;0.98 <strong>BI-3</strong> -- -- 21.6 13.7 64.7 4.43&plusmn;0.82 -- 13.7 14.7 7.80 63.7 4.21&plusmn;1.13 <strong>BI-4</strong> -- 3.90 18.6 19.6 57.8 4.31&plusmn;0.91 -- 4.90 14.7 12.7 67.6 4.43&plusmn;0.91 <strong>UB-1</strong> -- 2.9 17.6 27.5 52.0 4.28&plusmn;0.86 -- 13.7 16.7 6.90 62.70 4.18&plusmn;1.14 <strong>UB-2</strong> -- 9.8 2.0 12.7 75.5 4.53&plusmn;0.94 -- 4.90 6.90 9.80 78.40 4.61&plusmn;0.82 <strong>UB-3</strong> -- 18.6 11.8 12.7 56.9 4.07&plusmn;1.19 -- 6.90 5.90 17.6 69.6 4.50&plusmn;0.88 <strong>Barishal:</strong>Teachers Perception to use of &nbsp;IT innovation service <strong>4.28</strong><strong>&plusmn;</strong><strong>0.93</strong> <strong>Patuakhali:</strong>Teachers Perception to use of IT innovation service <strong>4.27</strong><strong>&plusmn;</strong><strong>1.00</strong> <em>Table-1: </em><em>Descriptive Results of the Teachers Perception to Level of Acceptance and Use of IT innovation services in their workplace</em> &nbsp; <strong>5.3 Contrast between Barishal and Patuakhali Districts along with the Prevalence of Acceptance of IT Innovation Services in Educational Institutions</strong> The contrast between Barishal and Patuakhali districts along with the prevalence of acceptance of IT innovation services in educational institutions is shown in table-2. Significance construct is equaled to&nbsp; &ldquo;District (Barishal&amp;Patuakhali) Frequency value of education institution&rsquo;s individual construct&rdquo; minus &ldquo;average value of constructs&rdquo;;&nbsp; if it shows higher positive value it means the degree of acceptance of IT innovation in educational institutions is&nbsp; good enough in the context of ICT and, insignificant refers to Frequency value of education institution&rsquo;s individual construct is less than average value, it shows always negative value in the outer column it means the teacher&nbsp; of the respective district did not accept or focus on the respective construct in context of ICT in the education sector. <strong>Code Used in CFA</strong> <strong>Barishal</strong> <strong>Patuakhali</strong> <strong>Differences</strong> <strong>Ave.</strong> <strong>Barishal</strong> <strong>Patuakhali</strong> <strong>(1)</strong> <strong>(2)</strong> <strong>(3)</strong> <strong>(4)</strong> <strong>5=</strong> <strong>(1-3)</strong> <strong>6=</strong> <strong>(2-4)</strong> <strong>7= (n/7)</strong> <strong>8=</strong> <strong>(1-7)</strong> <strong>(9)</strong> <strong>10=</strong> <strong>(3-7)</strong> <strong>(11)</strong> Fre. Per. Fre. Per. Fre. Per. <strong>PE</strong> 19 18.6 11 10.8 8 7.8 14.57 4.4 Sig. -3.6 N.Sig <strong>EE</strong> 18 17.6 13 12.7 5 4.9 14.57 3.4 Sig. -1.6 N.Sig <strong>SI</strong> 13 12.7 15 14.7 -2 -2 14.57 -1.6 N.Sig 0.4 Sig. <strong>FC</strong> 12 11.8 16 15.7 -4 -3.9 14.57 -2.6 N.Sig 1.4 Sig. <strong>PA</strong> 15 14.7 13 12.7 2 2 14.57 0.4 Sig. -1.6 N.Sig. <strong>BI</strong> 12 11.8 13 12.7 -1 -0.9 14.57 -2.6 N.Sig -1.6 Sig. <strong>UB</strong> 13 12.7 21 20.6 -8 -7.9 14.57 -1.6 N.Sig 6.4 Sig. <strong>Total</strong> 102 100 102 100 0 0 102 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <em>Table-2: Contrast between Barishal and Patuakhali districts along with the prevalence of acceptance of IT innovation services in educational institutions</em> &nbsp; According to the result of the measurement of the absolute deviation of two districts is good enough to accept and behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services in their respective districts. In this research, Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), Social Influence (SI), Facilitating Conditions (FC), Propensity to Act (PA), Behavioral Intention (BI) and Use Behavior (UB) is considered as the constructs of the model. Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE) and Propensity to Act (PA) among are higher than Patuakhali districts, on the other hand, Social Influence (SI), Facilitating Conditions (FC),and Behavioral Intention (BI)are comparatively better than Barishal District (see figure-3). &nbsp; Figure-3: The measurement of the absolute deviation of two districts IT innovation construct The above figure reveals that academic institutions teachers both in Barishal and in Patuakhali have a positive intention to use information technology in their jobs. The majority of the teachers 85.6% or, (4.28*100/5) in Barishal and 85.4% or, (4.27*100/5) in Patuakhali districts answered that they consider behavioral intention to use of information technology. In this study, we assessed trough regarding questions that the teacher&rsquo;s negative perceptions of behavioral intention to use of information technology in academic institutions show that 4.57% [(0.93*102)/5 &ndash; (100-85.6)] teachers of Barishal district and 5.8% [(1.00*102)/5 &ndash; (100-85.4)] teachers of Patuakhali district consider that it is more difficult to create perception of acceptance and behavioral intention to use of information technology in academic institutions. Based on the statistical outcome of study area it is interestingly noted that actual difference between Barishaland Patuakhali districts education institutions teachers&rsquo; negative behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services is very few percentage1.23%&nbsp; among the teachers. Barishal district&rsquo;s teacher is more progressive to accept the IT innovation rather than Patuakhali district&rsquo;s education institutions teachers.&nbsp; In this sense, both Barishal and Patuakhali districts education institutions teacher&rsquo;s attitudes toward behavioral intention to use show a favorable perception and high degree to uses of information technology in their jobs. There exists a significant effect of information technology on the education institutions among the teachers of both districts namely Barishal and Patuakhali. It is interesting to note that the same attributes were placed in the study area (Study-1 &amp;2) by both samples with no significant differences between the means and standard deviation in the educational institutions. This shows that the teacher&rsquo;s perceptions are quite homogeneous in the two different samples in Study area-1 (Barishal) and Study area-2 (Patuakhali) districts at the Barisal division in Bangladesh. &nbsp; Figure-3: Actual difference between two district&rsquo;s positive behavioral intention and negative behavioral intention to use of IT innovation in the educational institutions. &nbsp; <strong>5.4 Convergent Validity</strong> In the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), convergent validity relies on the average variance extracted (AVE) and Composite Reliability (CR) as a base. CFA of the Barishal district&rsquo;s depicted that all composite reliabilities are above 0.79. In addition, it shows also, that the average variance extracted (AVE) for each construct is above 0.67. The table shows that the estimated constructs loading ranged from 0.77 to 0.99 and AVE ranged from 0.67 to 0.78 and CR ranged from 0.79 to 0.93 are greater than the recommended levels. Since the factor loadings, composite reliabilities and average variance extracted of the construct are at acceptable levels in the educations institutions of the Barishal district. CFA of the Patuakhali district&rsquo;s depicted that all composite reliabilities are above 0.90. In addition, it shows also, that the average variance extracted (AVE) for each construct is above 0.68. The table shows that the estimated constructs loading ranged from 0.71 to 0.98 and AVE ranged from 0.68 to 0.76 and CR ranged from 0.90 to 0.92 are greater than the recommended levels. Since the factor loadings, composite reliabilities and average variance extracted of the construct are at acceptable levels in the educations institutions of the Patuakhali district. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>Construct</strong> <strong>Items</strong> <strong>Code</strong> <strong>Loading</strong> <strong>AVE</strong> &nbsp; <strong>CR</strong> &nbsp; <strong>Barishal</strong> <strong>Patuakhali</strong> <strong>Bari.</strong> <strong>Patua.</strong> <strong>Bari.</strong> <strong>Patua.</strong> Performance Expectancy <strong>(PE)</strong> PF-1 0.80 0.86 0.77 &nbsp; 0.73 0.04 0.93 0.91 0.02 &nbsp; PF-2 0.92 0.84 PF-3 0.80 0.87 PF-4 0.99 0.86 Effort Expectancy <strong>(EE)</strong> EE-1 0.81 0.81 0.67 0.73 -0.06 &nbsp; 0.89 0.92 -0.03 &nbsp; EE-2 0.86 0.91 EE-3 0.86 0.80 EE-4 0.76 0.90 Social Influence<strong> (SI)</strong> SI-1 0.88 0.83 0.69 0.70 &nbsp; -0.01 &nbsp; 0.90 0.90 0.00 &nbsp; SI-2 0.77 0.82 SI-3 0.87 0.84 SI-4 0.80 0.86 Facilitating Conditions <strong>(FC)</strong> FC-1 0.86 0.82 0.73 &nbsp; 0.73 0.00 &nbsp; 0.91 0.92 -0.01 &nbsp; FC-2 0.93 0.96 FC-3 0.83 0.87 FC-4 0.78 0.79 Propensity to Act <strong>(PA)</strong> PA-1 0.84 0.92 0.75 &nbsp; 0.68 0.07 &nbsp; 0.92 0.90 0.02 &nbsp; PA-2 0.88 0.81 PA-3 0.85 0.79 PA-4 0.90 0.78 Behavioral Intention <strong>(BI)</strong> BI-1 0.92 0.71 0.78 0.75 0.03 &nbsp; 0.93 0.92 0.01 &nbsp; BI-2 0.80 0.98 BI-3 0.99 0.88 BI-4 0.81 0.87 Use Behavior <strong>(UB)</strong> UB-1 0.86 0.91 0.74 0.76 -0.02 &nbsp; 0.79 0.90 0.00 &nbsp; UB-2 0.83 0.80 UB-3 0.89 0.90 <em>Table-3: Convergent Validity for the Constructs of Barishal and Patuakhali Districts</em> <strong>5.5 Discriminant Validity</strong> In this study, when the correlations are lower than the square root of the average variance extracted by a construct, constructs are said to have discriminant validity. As shown in the table, all squares roots of the AVEs are higher than the correlations between constructs and that definitely confirms adequately discriminant validity. The results shown in Table-6 reveals that all constructs in this study confirm the discriminant validity of the data of both selected districts. <strong>Cons.</strong> <strong>Barishal</strong> <strong>Patuakhali</strong> <strong>PF</strong> <strong>EE</strong> <strong>SI</strong> <strong>FC</strong> <strong>PA</strong> <strong>BI</strong> <strong>UB</strong> <strong>PF</strong> <strong>EE</strong> <strong>SI</strong> <strong>FC</strong> <strong>PA</strong> <strong>BI</strong> <strong>UB</strong> <strong>PE</strong> <strong>0.88</strong> 0.63 0.71 0.72 0.56 0.66 0.62 <strong>0.85</strong> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>EE</strong> &nbsp; <strong>0.82</strong> 0.74 0.69 0.73 0.72 0.74 0.68 <strong>0.85</strong> <strong>SI</strong> &nbsp; <strong>0.83</strong> 0.52 0.61 0.70 0.76 0.69 0.78 <strong>0.83</strong> <strong>FC</strong> &nbsp; <strong>0.85</strong> 0.69 0.67 0.71 0.76 0.67 0.77 <strong>0.85</strong> <strong>PA</strong> &nbsp; <strong>0.87</strong> 0.60 0.72 0.69 0.78 0.71 0.70 <strong>0.82</strong> <strong>BI</strong> &nbsp; <strong>0.88</strong> 0.72 0.78 0.77 0.65 0.61 0.64 <strong>0.87</strong> <strong>UB</strong> &nbsp; <strong>0.86</strong> 0.68 0.64 0.60 0.71 0.58 0.56 <strong>0.87</strong> <em>Table-4: Discriminant Validity Results for the Measurement Model</em> <strong>5.6 The Model fit indices</strong> The goodness-of-fit indices (shown in Table) were all good for the total sample of Barishal and Patuakhali districts. The final fit for the first model (Model-A for Barishal) in the calibration sample shows a fairly good fit with the data collected, with CFI = 0.92, GFI= 0.91, TLI = 0.98, IFI = 0.94, NFI = 0.93, NNFI = 0.92, SRMR = 0.093, RMSEA = 0.084, and CMIN/DF= 4.20. The final fit for the second model (Model-B for Patuakhali) shows that the model achieved a good level of fit, &chi;2 = 282.583, &chi; 2 / df = 4.77, CFI = 0.90, GFI= 0.93, TLI = 0.95, IFI = 0.95, NFI = 0.91, NNFI = 0.90, SRMR = 0.098, RMSEA = 0.078. The model presents the possibility of factors influencing technology acceptance and behavioral intention to use of Information Technology (IT) Services in education institution of both districts namely Barishal and Patuakhali. Fit Indices of the Model Sample X² df X²/ df CFI GFI TLI IFI NFI NNFI SRMR RMSEA Model-A 1193.07 284 4.20 0.92 0.91 0.98 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.093 0.084 Model-B 1356.32 284 4.77 0.90 0.93 0.95 0.95 0.91 0.90 0.098 0.078 <em>Table-5: Model fit indices</em> <strong>5.7 Testing the Hypotheses on Behavioral Intention (BI) to Use of IT innovation services</strong> According to the findings in the table-8 the hypotheses of Barisal district perspective on Behaviour Intention, testing the relationship between the constructs and the behavioral intention to use of IT, regarding to the Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), Social Influence (SI), Facilitating Conditions (FC), Propensity to Act (PA) on the behavior intention (BI), Hypothesis <strong>H_1, H_2, H_3, H_4, H₅</strong>and<strong> H₆</strong>was supported. Finally, Behavior intention will have a significant effect on the actual use (p&lt;0.001) of IS services in their predefined jobs over time, therefore <strong>H₇</strong>was supported. Patuakhali district perspective on behavior intention to use of IT the results shows that the relationships among PE &amp; BI, EE &amp; BI, SI &amp; BI, FC &amp; BI, PA &amp;BI, BI &amp;UB were significant. Therefore, <strong>H₁, H₂, H₃, H₄, H₅, H₆</strong> and <strong>H₇</strong> were accepted in the current study. Hyp. Relationship Sig. level Barishal Patuakhali C.R Beta Sig. Sup. C.R Beta Sig. Sup <strong>H₁</strong> PE and BI P&lt;0.05 6.80 0.25 P&lt;0.05 Yes 5.60 0.32 P&lt;0.05 Yes <strong>H₂</strong> EE and BI P&lt;0.05 6.95 0.56 P&lt;0.05 Yes 8.98 0.44 P&lt;0.05 Yes <strong>H₃</strong> SI and BI P&lt;0.05 7.77 0.38 P&lt;0.05 Yes 4.76 0.23 P&lt;0.05 Yes <strong>H₄</strong> FC and BI P&lt;0.05 8.87 0.37 P&lt;0.05 Yes 7.54 0.48 P&lt;0.05 Yes <strong>H₅</strong> PA and BI P&lt;0.05 4.54 0.68 P&lt;0.05 Yes 5.65 0.56 P&lt;0.05 Yes <strong>H₆</strong> PA and UB P&lt;0.05 5.87 0.18 P&lt;0.05 Yes 8.37 0.39 P&lt;0.05 Yes <strong>H₇</strong> BI and UB P&lt;0.05 7.87 0.46 P&lt;0.05 Yes 6.27 0.34 P&lt;0.05 Yes <em>Table-6: Testing the Hypotheses on Behavioral Intention (BI) to Use of IT innovation services</em> <strong>6. Conclusions</strong> The findings reveals that the Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), Social Influence (SI), and Facilitating Conditions, Propensity to Act (PA), Use Behavior (UB), and Behavioral Intention (BI) construct in the information technology acceptance decision is positively predicted and the significant in the perspective of education institutions. Based on statistics, Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE) and Propensity to Act (PA) have a significant impact on the degree of acceptance towards behavioral intention to use of IT innovation and other remaining four constructs namely Social Influence (SI), and Facilitating Conditions, Behavioral Intention (BI) and, Use Behavior (UB) do not have an impact on BI-US of IT i.e. insignificant constructs to education institutions in Barishal district. On the other side regarding Patuakhali district&rsquo;s education institutions constructs; Social Influence (SI), and Facilitating Conditions, Behavioral Intention (BI) and, Use Behavior (UB) have a significant impact on the degree of acceptance towards behavioral intention to use of IT innovation and other remaining three construct Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE) and Propensity to Act (PA) do not have an impact on BI-US of IT i.e. insignificant constructs for education institutions in Patuakhali district. Based on the above statistics, we can predict that more of the teachers are nowadays engaging with information technology (IT) innovation services in their predefined workplace over time. Consequently, this result has a significant effect on technology acceptance decision and behavioral intention to use Information Technology (IT) innovation services in Barishal and Patuakhali district&rsquo;s education institutions. The estimated parameters were all statistically significant between the latent and measured variables. <strong>7. </strong><strong>Implications for Policy Guidelines</strong> The current study revised and validated the UTAUT model in a new culture and context. The results show that the model is a robust model, to measure behavioral intention to use of information technology in academic institutions. The results of this study confirm the applicability of the UTAUT model to measure the teacher&rsquo;s perceptions towards technology acceptance and behavioral intention to use Information Technology (IT) innovations in education institutions. Adding, propensity to act made the model more powerful to test different perspectives of technology acceptance. From the methodological perspective, this study offers important insights into analyzing acceptance behavior. This study introduces an approach to measure the perception of teacher&rsquo;s behavioral intention to use of information technology innovation services.&nbsp; There is a lack of a conceptual approach in technology acceptance modeling. The study was conducted only for measuring the teacher&rsquo;s perceptions of behavioral intention to use of information technology innovation services in educational institutions. Overall findings of this work significantly enhance our understanding of teacher&rsquo;s perception towards behavioral intention to use of information technology. The Barishal Education Board under Bangladesh Education Ministry may also use this framework to diagnose causes for the reluctance of use of IS innovation by teachers and, policymakers could facilitate and provide guidance in relation to the acceptance and usage of IT innovation in the educational institutions. <strong>8. Limitations and Further Research Direction</strong> Some limitations of this study should be addressed. Limitation of this study is to teachers are traditionally homogeneous population segment. In this study, we select the homogeneous sample of the population and used these data for analyzing and interpreting to assessing the behavioral intention to use of IT innovation services between two district&rsquo;s education institutions. To address this study, future studies could examine eight divisional populations as a whole and obtained a more diverse sample from different districts as a way of evaluating the IT innovation services. &nbsp; <strong>REFERENCES</strong> Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Bangladesh Education Statistics, Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (2015). bdnews24.com. (2018, June 16th). Bangladesh. 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(1994). &ldquo;Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs&rdquo;. <em>EntrepreneurshipTheory and Practice</em><em>. </em>18(3): pp. 91&ndash;104. Krueger, N. (1993). &ldquo;The impact of prior entrepreneurial exposure on perceptions of new venture feasibility and desirability&rdquo;. <em>Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice Journal</em>. 5(3):&nbsp; pp. 315-330. Krueger, N. F. (2009). &ldquo;Entrepreneurial Intentions are dead: Long Live EntrepreneurialIntentions.&rdquo; Understanding theentrepreneurial mind (pp. 51-72). Springer, New York. Krueger, N.; Reilly, M.D.; and Carsurud, A.L. (2000). &ldquo;Competing models of entrepreneurial intention&rdquo;. <em>Journal of Business Venturing</em>. 15(6):&nbsp; pp. 411-432. Lee, D.Y. and Ryu, H. (2014). &ldquo;Learner acceptance of a multimedia-based learning system&rdquo;. <em>International Journal of Human Computer Interaction.</em>29:&nbsp; 419-437 Lee, J. and Janet R. (2001).&nbsp; &ldquo;Adoption of information technology in smallbusiness: Testing drivers of Adoption for entrepreneurs.&rdquo; The Journal of ComputerInformation Systems. 42(1):&nbsp; pp. 44. Lu, J.; Yao, J.E. and Yu, C.S. (2005).&nbsp; &ldquo;Personal innovativeness, social influences and adoption of wireless Internet services via mobile technology&rdquo;. <em>The Journal of Strategic Information System</em><em>.</em>14: pp. 245-268. Ministry of Education. (2009, February, Ref No: 070035). <em>The importance of ICT, Information and communication technology in primary and secondary schools, 2005/2008.</em> Bangladesh. Pai, F. Y. and Huang, K. I. (2011). &ldquo;Applying the Technology Acceptance Model to the introduction of healthcare information systems&rdquo;. <em>Journal of Technological Forecasting and Social Change. </em>78: pp.&nbsp; 650-660. Population and Housing Census. (2015). Salim, R. (2004, 25th May). World Summit on the Information Society. Geneva: WSIS and Bangladesh. Shapero, A.; &amp;Sokol, L. (1982). &ldquo;The social dimensions of entrepreneurship.&rdquo; In C. Kent, D.Sexton, &amp; K. Vesper (Eds), Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship. pp. 72-90. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Sheppard, B.H.; Hartwick, J. and&nbsp; Warshaw, P.R.&nbsp; (1988). &ldquo;The theory of reasoned action: A met analysis of past research with recommendations for modifications and future research&rdquo;. <em>Journal of consumer research: </em>pp. 325-343. Sun, Y.; Wang, N.; Guo, X. and Peng, Z. (2013). &ldquo;Understanding the acceptance of mobile health services: a comparison and integration of alternative models&rdquo;. <em>Journal of Electronic Commerce Research. </em>&nbsp;14(2): pp. 183-200. Venkatesh, V. (2000). &ldquo;Determinants of perceived ease of use: integrating control; intrinsic motivation, and emotion into the technology acceptance model&rdquo;. <em>Information SystemsResearch</em><em>.</em> 11(4):&nbsp; pp. 342-365. Venkatesh, V.; &amp; Davis, F.D. (2000). &ldquo;A theoretical extension of the technology acceptance model: Four longitudinal field studies&rdquo;. <em>Management science Journal</em>. 46: pp.&nbsp; 186-204. Venkatesh, V.; Morris, M.G.; Davis, G.B. and Davis, F.D. (2003). &ldquo;User Acceptance of Information Technology: Toward a Unified View&rdquo;. <em>MIS Quarterly</em>. 27(3): pp. 425-478 Yi, M.Y.; Jackson, J.D.; Park, J.S. and Probst, J.C. (2006). &ldquo;Understanding information technology acceptance by individual professionals: Toward an integrative view&rdquo;. <em>Journal of Information &amp; Management</em>. 43: pp.&nbsp; 350-363. &nbsp;

Introduction 1. In an era of globalization, international trade is inevitable. When we walk into a supermarket and find South American bananas, Malaysian rubber products, Brazilian coffee, we simply experience the impact of global trade. Global trade allows all countries around the world to publicise their markets and to supply goods and services that otherwise would not have been open to the domestic economy. As all goods and services are available at relatively cheaper prices in the international market, therefore domestic market becomes more competitive. People have got choices for competitive products. Therefore, the difference in the prices of goods of the foreign economy and domestic economy results in international trade. 2. Why nations trade with each other ? Not a single nation alone can generate all the goods and services for its households in today’s world of limitless desires. There is an unequal distribution of factors of production over the countries of the world. Countries of the world differ from each other in terms of natural resources, technology, entrepreneurial and managerial skills which determine the ability of the country concerned, at the lowest cost of production, to manufacture goods and services. For example, South Korea can manufacture cars or microelectronic products effectively in comparison with any other nation in the world, similarly Malaysia could produce rubber and palm oil more efficiently. The ability to manufacture these products, such as electronics or rubber, is much greater than their ability to consume these goods within the country so that they can sell these goods at comparatively cheaper prices to other countries around the world. Similarly, India and Brazil can import certain products from South Korea and Malaysia at lower prices and can in exchange, import Brazilian coffee or Indian textiles at a lower price. Therefore, generally trade benefits all the countries of the world provided it is free trade. If one country has a belief in free trade and the other beliefs in the opposite, only the previous one will end practicing free trade and suffering in the end. Economists say that trade conflicts safeguard economic interests and are advantageous to the local market, but critics claim that they ultimately hurt local companies, consumers, and the economy in long run. Protectionist policies always harm the concept of globalization. According to the World Commission on the social dimension of globalization (2004). “Globalisation should benefit all the countries and should raise the welfare of all people throughout the world”. Advocates of protectionist view put arguments in favour of restrictions of the trade like the expansion of the home market, keeping money at home, counteracting foreign low wages, defence or national security arguments, protection of infant industry, anti-dumping arguments, and balance of payment arguments. Trade restrictions are of two types; tariff barriers and non-tariff barriers. The tariff barrier is the most common barrier to trade. It is the tax or duties that one country imposes on exported or imported goods. There are various types of tariff barriers in international trade. If the tariff is imposed based on the physical weight of some goods, imported or exported, called a specific tariff. • If a tariff is imposed on the value of some goods, imported or exported is called “Ad Valorem tariff”. • If different rates of the tariff are imposed on different countries called discriminatory tariffs. • If the same rates of a tariff are imposed on different countries, called non-discriminatory tariff’. • If the main purpose of imposing a tariff is to produce revenue, called a revenue tariff. • And the most commonly used tariff is the Protective tariff. if the tariff is imposed mainly to protect domestic industries from foreign competitions are called the protective tariff 4. Followers of the protectionist policy argue that tariff imposition has two impacts; revenue increases after the imposition of tariff and home production increases which is called protective effect but if other countries retaliate in the same manner, the trade war is inevitable. A situation of trade war erupts when one nation or economy strike back against another economy by imposing trade barriers. The application of trade restrictions is not a new concept in international trade. If we study the background of the global trade war, we find that countries frequently used trade restrictions in global trade. The situation was aggravated after the second world war. Most of the countries were intentionally devaluing their currency to increase their export and minimise imports. This was also the reason for the currency war between countries. 5. We can divide the world trade in the pre-Bretton Woods and post Bretton Woods period. An efficient international monetary system is very essential for the smooth functioning and expansion of international trade. From the early 19th century until the first world war, the era was regarded as a period of internationalism. Most of the major industrialised nations of the world started participating in world trade. After the second world war and the hectic slump and currency war that followed it all the countries of the world wished to return to normalcy. Two causes were responsible for this wish: - • Reconstruction of the economies ravaged by the war. • To end the currency war. As far as the second cause is concerned many countries or the trading partners of the world started devaluating its currency to improve the conditions of their BOP. This resulted in a trade war between nations. Therefore, in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA, members of 44 countries met to discuss these problems and to find realistic solutions for them. This conference proposed the establishment of: - • The International Monetary Fund (IMF), to help member countries to meet their BOP deficit problem. • IBRD, to reconstruct and develop economies of member countries. • An International Trade Organisation (ITO), to solve the problem of international trade and proper liberalisation of it. 6. However, the proposal for the International Trade Organisation did not materialise and the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) was formed. The GATT was established in 1948 with a big and important objective of “free trade” and “no trade war”. Its main purpose was to remove trade restrictions which sooner or later converts into a trade war. The first seven rounds of GATT were focussed on the removal of trade barriers only. Despite these discussions in several rounds of GATT, it couldn’t provide a useful forum for discussion on international trade issues. 7. The 8th round of GATT is called Uruguay Round which started in 1986. Member countries negotiated in the areas of Tariffs, Non-Tariff Measures, Tropical Production, Natural resource-based products, Agriculture, GATT articles, Safeguards, Multilateral trade negotiation agreement, Subsidies, Disputes Settlement, Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPPS), Trade-Related Investments measures (TRIMS), Functioning of GATT system (FOGS). Despite serious discussion on these issues’ agreement could not be reached and member countries kept on using trade and non-trade barriers on each other. 8. COVID-19 pandemic, which started in March 2020, has adversely affected global trade. As per WTO statistics, a 3% fall in the volume of merchandise (export and import) trade is seen in the first quarter of 2020. Lockdown in many economies of the world aggravated the problem and declines are historically large. Strict social distancing and majors and restrictions on travel and transport adversely affected the service sector of the world economy which is the main contributor to gross domestic product (GDP) of many countries. Therefore, the economic recovery from the COVID situation is highly uncertain. This situation might give a boost to the global trade war which will be the endeavour during the research to be found out and a description of the same has been covered in Chapter 3. The research has tried to reveal how the pandemic has crippled the world economy and aggravating the pre-existing problem of the trade war. The recent trade war between China and the USA is an apt example. Recent Examples of Trade War​​ 9. Since the year 2018 world has been witnessing trade conflict which was earlier currency conflict between the USA and its economic partners mainly the EU and China. But in this conflict US’s all-weather friend Canada and Mexico were also hit. However, retaliation by other countries has been very limited. In March 2018, the United States announced the imposition of additional tariffs under Section 232 on imports of steel (25%) and aluminium (10%) from China to the United States. This might harm the Chinese economy as China is the major contributor of crude and finished steel in the world. 10. In the same month, the US President announced his strategy to endorse restrictions against China over its Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) policies which were severely affecting its stakeholders. In this sanction, the US raised tariffs by 24 to 25% on selected Chinese products which were valued to the tune of approximately $50 billion. By adopting the policy of quid pro quo China on 01 April responded with 25% tariffs on $50 billion in US exports on various American products, like agriculture, pork, and cars. On 3rd April 2018, the US administration released a list of 1,333 goods equivalent to $50 billion in trade, which it said would enforce a 25% tariff. 11. These Chinese products mainly belong to the category of important sectors like robotics, rail and shipping, information technology, health care, and medicine, and high-technology. China retaliated and published a list of 106 products on which 25% tariffs were imposed and its value was worth $50 billion in trade. Thus, quid pro quo tactics kept ongoing between China and the US. The US plans to tax $50 billion worth of Chinese imports was replied with threats by China to impose tariffs on American products worth $50 billion. China announced to hit back with additional taxes on American chemicals, automobiles, and other products. Interestingly all these 106 American products are produced in those regions of the US where President Trump enjoys great support of his people. Earlier this year both countries signed the first phase of the trade agreement to reduce trade pressures between them, which last year weakened global growth and scaled-down business investment around the world. But due to the blame game over the pandemic, progress has been derailed. 12. Apart from the above, the subsidy has been one of the major causes of dispute amongst countries of the world. According to the WTO agreement on agriculture, developed economies had to reduce their subsidies by 21% in six years and developing countries by 12% in 10 years. Recently restriction on Indian agriculture produce by US, EU, Canada, Brazil, and Japan has been imposed in August 2020. They have questioned that India is not following the WTO peace clause for surpassing the limit on support or, subsidy it can render to its peasants. In the platform of WTO, the ceiling for subsidy is 10% of the value of the produce. India provided the WTO with details that the value of its rice production in 2018 was $43.6 billion and subsidies were worth just $5 billion. Subsidies have therefore remained a major bone of contention between the various countries of the world, but there is one peace arrangement in the WTO that protects the WTO members’ food procurement program for developing countries from taking action in the event of a violation of the subsidy cap. It will also be a litmus test to observe if in circumstances like the ongoing pandemic, WTO members grant food security pre-eminence to emerging economies or whether developed nations are pursuing market entree. Globalisation has reached a few obstructions in recent times, following decades of surges in world trade, worldwide tourism, and global cooperation, as some of the development achieved in the past has been undone by the re-emergence of patriotism and protectionism. The COVID-19 pandemic is predicted to trigger an unprecedented deterioration in global trade after trade growth decelerated dramatically in 2019, owing in huge part to trade conflict between the United States and China. As per the forecasts of the WTO, merchandise business is going to plunge between 12.98% and 31.88% this year, depending on how easily the coronavirus is controlled and trade will return to pre-crisis levels. According to the WTO Director-General, Roberto Azevêdo, the swift and robust rebound is only possible through the focus on free trade. Global markets have to be kept open and predictable, in addition to promoting a more desirable business climate. 13. Though before the onset of the pandemic, the Indian economy was not affected much by the ongoing trade conflict between the USA and China because of the combined effect of the pandemic and trade war India’s GDP shrunk by 23.9% in the first quarter of FY 2020-21. In the first quarter, the worst-hit industry was construction, which contracted by 50 percent. The hotel industry contracted by 47%, production by 39.3%, and mining by 23.3%. Agriculture, which posted a 3.4 percent rise, was the only industry that managed to survive the recession. The economy is believed to have suffered the most during the June quarter as a result of the nationwide lockdown. 14. In January 2019, as the trade war was raging, India also placed anti-dumping duties on more than 99 Chinese goods to protect its domestic markets, such as anti-dumping duties on chemicals, petrochemicals, fabrics, yarn, pharmaceutical equipment, rubber, and steel products. As a follower of protectionist policy Indian government also imposes anti-dumping duty on imports of steel products, an alloy of aluminium. The total value of duty imposed was $13.07 per ton to $ 173.1 per ton, which is a big amount. China, Vietnam, South Korea for five years in June 2020. India needs to take some major steps and reforms to bounce back its economy back on track. 15. Review of Literature… To complete the research number of books, literatures in the forms of articles, journals, independent views of various economists have been reviewed and referred. Books…. ​Various books reviewed and which have contributed in the course of the research include the following: - (a) ​Trade War Are Class War: How Rising Inequality Distorts the Global Economy and Threatens International Peace by Mathew C. Klein and Michael Pettis published by Yale University Press, May 19, 2020. ​The roots of today’s trade wars are traced by Klein and Pettis to decisions taken over the past thirty years by policymakers and business leaders in China, Europe, and the United States. The authors include a coherent narrative in this book that demonstrates how the growing injustice of class wars is a challenge to the global economy and international peace, and what the ways ahead are. (b)​ Has China Won by Kishore Mahbubani published by PublicAffairs, March 2020. ​​The author of this book aims to provide an insight into the trade war between the USA and China. He also claims that China is not as is claimed, an expansionist country. By extending its trade, diplomacy and military might in the region, it secures its national interest. But his view appears to be skewed toward the Chinese target. (c)​ Superpower Showdown: How the Battle between Trump and Xi Threaten a New Cold War by Bob Davis and Lingling Wei published by HarperCollins, June 9, 2020. ​As told by two Wall Street Journal reporters, one based in Washington, D.C., the other in Beijing, who had more access to the decision-makers in the White House and China’s Zhongnanhai leadership compound than anyone else, this is the inside story of the US-China trade war, how ties between these superpowers unravelled, darkening prospects for global peace and prosperity. Over the seven years, they have collaborated on writing for the Wall Street Journal, Davis and Wei have conducted hundreds of interviews with government and business officials in both nations. They explain how we have reached this turning point and look at where we might be going, evaluating U.S.-China ties. (d) ​COVID-19 Challenges for the Indian Economy: Trade and Foreign Policy Effects by EEPCINDIA and AIC, 2020. ​​A study entitled ‘COVID-19: Challenges for the Indian Economy – Trade and Foreign Policy Consequences’ was developed by the ASEAN-India Centre(AIC) Research and Information System for Developing Countries(RIS) in collaboration with the Engineering Export Promotion Council (EEPC), it presents freshly written 40 primary comments on India’s trade and foreign policy challenges raised by this crisis and the way forward by Indian professors, economists, and practitioners. (e ) ​Global Economic Effects of COVID-19 by Congressional Research Service August 2020 by James K. Jackson, Martin A. Weiss, and Rebecca M. Nelson.​ It’s a Congressional Research paper published to analyse the effects of the pandemic on the world economy particularly, the USA. It’s a crystal gazing done by two seasoned economists and gives an excellent perspective of ongoing trade and its likely directions post COVID-19. Research is full of authentic data, facts and Pictures gathered from governmental and non-governmental sources. (f) ​Trade is Not a Four-Letter Word: How Six Everyday Products make the case for Trade, January 2014 by Fred Hochberg published by Simon and Schuster. ​Fred P. Hochberg breaks down colourful and convincing real-world examples through the prism of six traditional American items to reject the common myths and misunderstandings surrounding trade. Mr. Hochberg illustrates the story of America’s most unexpected business partnerships by using six commonly consumed American products; the taco salad, the minivan, the banana, the iPhone, the college degree, and the HBO series Game of Thrones – thus sharing the fundamentals of trade that everybody should know. (g) ​Indian Economy by Dutta and Sundhram published by S. Chand, New Delhi, 66th Revised Edition.​This book analyses structure of the Indian Economy, national income, study of human and natural resources in the context of economic development, pattern of foreign trade of India, broad cross-section of the Indian economy. Chapter 6 of this book deals with foreign trade in India and its balance of payment position which is significant for my study. (h) ​International Economics by Francis Cherunilam published by Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, Third Edition. The author is a professor at the School of Management Studies at Cochin University of Science and Technology. This book deals with the conflicting national interest, international economic relations, and solutions of conflicting interests. Chapter 3 of this book shows the picture of international trade. Chapter 9th and 10th clear the picture of free trade versus protection and different types of trade barriers. (i) ​International Economics by H.G. Mannur published by Vikas Publishing House Private Limited, Second Revised Edition. ​The author of this book, H.G. Mannur paid his gratitude to the school of social sciences of the university of science in Penang Malaysia, which provided him a great opportunity to learn about the International economics of Malaysia related to the world. This book is dealing with the International economy of Malaysia which is the highest foreign trade-dependent economy. Chapter 1 explains why do nations trade with each other. Chapter 7 of this book deals with obstacles to trade and trade restrictions. (j) ​International Economics by Dominick Salvatore by Wiley, January 1, 2014. ​​Dominick Salvatore, the author of international economics is an American economist. This book presents theories of international economics and its relevance through real-world examples and applications. Articles. ​ Several articles on the subject relating to the global trade, trade conflict and its effects on world have been written by many noted columnists and authors. Apart from that in last 10 months number of organisations and research bodies also carried out the analysis and likely effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the world trade and ongoing trade conflict. Articles from publications such as ‘The Economics Times’, ‘Business Today’, ‘The Hindu’, ‘National Council of Applied Economic Research’, ‘BBC Economic Research’, ‘Economic Research and Statistics Division (ERSD)’, ‘Investopedia’ and ‘Business Insider’ form a part of the literature review for the research. In addition to the articles and journals by various writers certain data were also taken from the governmental and non-governmental reports like United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD), WTO Press releases and Economic Survey of India. The existing literature provides great insight into the reasons of trade between the countries, trade conflict and its catalyst and how an unforeseen event like the pandemic brings the entire world to a standstill where even largest and strongest have no solution. There are number of literature and research available which brings out many scenarios where the current trade conflict can go. Besides, a large number of research papers have also been written about the likely recovery of the world trade in various different scenarios. Study of some of has definitely given an insightful perspective on the subject. There is, however a void in the research writings on the subject from Indian government’s concerned ministry like Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Trade and Commerce and Ministry of Agriculture. The Economic Survey of India was the only document where authentic data could have been found but that too was almost six to eight months old. The updated analytical facts and data from the ministry’s sites will go a long way in helping a researcher for his work. A critical study of books and articles mentioned above has assisted in the research to address the issues identified. ​16. Statement of Problem.​ The research seeks to investigate: - (a) ​How the current global trade war (GTW) has impacted the nations having a considerable share in world trade? (b) ​How has the Global Trade War (GTW) impacted the Indian economy? (c)​What are the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Global Trade War? (d) ​What are the likely effects of the COVID -19 pandemic on the Indian economy? 17. Statement of Problem.​ The research seeks to investigate: - (a) ​How the current global trade war (GTW) has impacted the nations having a considerable share in world trade? (b) ​How has the Global Trade War (GTW) impacted the Indian economy? (c)​What are the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Global Trade War? (d) ​What are the likely effects of the COVID -19 pandemic on the Indian economy? 18. Objectives of the Study. The specific objectives of the study are as under: - (a) ​To study the reasons and effects of the global trade war on nations having a major share in world trade. (b) ​To study the effects of COVID-19 pandemic and GTW on international trade with specific emphasis on the Indian economy. 19. Hypothesis The research is intended to deliberate and validate the following hypothesis: - (a) ​Global Trade War has severely impacted nations from having a major share in world trade. (b) ​India has not been affected much by the Global Trade War. (c)​COVID-19 pandemic is going to aggravate the Global Trade War. (d) ​Indian economy will be adversely affected by the ongoing pandemic. 20. The relevance of the Study… This study will contribute to academia with an in-depth insight into the existent trend of international trade and trade war. The present study will evaluate the effect of COVID-19 on international trade and its role in aggravating trade war. Besides, this study will also endeavour to furnish both analysis and suggestions towards: - (a) ​Trend of global trade and reasons behind trade war. (b) ​Likely direction of international trade post-COVID-19. (c)​Its impact on the Indian economy and recommendations for future economic policies. 21. Research Methodology Owing to the current and contemporary nature of the topic, research was based on the primary and secondary method of data collection wherein the number of books, open-source articles, internet blogs, periodicals, and research papers were referred and perused. Apart from the same reports and analysis of both governmental and non-governmental agencies, which were available in the open domain, were also accessed during the research. To support the arguments, an online public opinion, based on close-ended questionnaire, was be taken through Google forms. The survey questionnaire was analysed based on responses using Likert Scale. Non-random convenient sampling was used for selection of participants. A total of 114 respondents took part in the survey. 22. Organisation of the Research Research has been completed under five chapters. Headings of the chapters and their broad contents have been covered in succeeding paragraphs. (a) ​Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Methodology. In this chapter background of global trade, particularly after World War II, the role of WTO for free and fair trade amongst member nations along with research methodology have been covered in detail. (b) ​Chapter 2: Background of Global Trade War and Situation up to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemics. In this chapter issues like background of trade war, currency war and current state of global trade amidst ongoing trade conflict between the USA and China has been covered in detail. Apart from the same it has also been brought out in this chapter that which are the countries and which all products and services have been severely affected. All the affected nations are adopting their own policies to deal with the current situation of COVID-19 and ripples of trade dispute. Same have also been brought forward in this chapter. (c)​Chapter 3: Likely Directions of Global Trade War post-COVID-19 pandemics. COVID-19 pandemic has added a new dimension to the way nations were doing trade with each other, particularly in the light of disruption in production, supply chain, unpredicted market, and labour issues. Apart from that, it has severely affected the ongoing global trade war. The revival of the economy is incumbent on medical success in finding the vaccine for the disease. In this chapter likely direction of the trade war has been discussed in details. Apart from the foregoing, long and short term effects of the pandemic on global trade have also been covered in this chapter. (d) ​Chapter 4: Impact of Global Trade War and COVID-19 pandemics on the Indian Economy. The Indian economy was not affected much by the global trade war but since the onset of a pandemic, the combined effect of COVID-19 and trade war has started affecting the Indian economy. Apart from the same in this chapter impact on export and import capability of India during pandemic times have also been covered in detail. Recent development at Galwan valley in Eastern Ladakh which includes the steps taken by India and its likely implications on the trade between India and China has also been covered in this chapter. In the end an analysis of the Online survey with the help of Google form has been covered to check the hypothesis. (e)​ Chapter 5: Way Ahead for the Indian Economy, Recommendations and Conclusion. ​In continuation of the previous chapter, this chapter contains nthe state of global trade in the current times along with certain recommendations which can be followed to have a fair world trade. During COVID-19 pandemic the Indian government has taken large number of fiscal measures to control to the damage and bring the economy back on track and same have been covered in great details in this chapter. Apart from that actions which Indian government should take to minimise the impact of trade dispute between other nations have also been recommended. In last way ahead for the Indian economy has been recommended.

<strong>Gyeongsang University Turnitin Trash Files</strong> <strong>HUMAN CAPITAL NEXUS AND GROWTH OF NIGERIA ECONOMY</strong> <strong>CHAPTER ONE</strong> <strong>INTRODUCTION</strong> <strong>Background to the Study </strong> Government expenditure equally known as public spending simply refers to yearly expenditure by the public sector (government) in order to achieve some macroeconomic aims notably high literacy rate, skilled manpower, high standard of living, poverty alleviation, national productivity growth, and macro-economic stability. It is also expenditure by public authorities at various tiers of government to collectively cater for the social needs of the people. Generally, it has been revealed that public expenditure plays a key role in realizing economic growth. This is because providing good education to individuals is one of the principal avenues of improving human resource quality in any economy. From this perspective, advancing school enrolment may subsequently lead to economic growth. Therefore, education remains the effective way to subdue poverty, illiteracy, underfeeding and accelerate economic growth in the long-term. Much attention has been channeled towards clarifying the relationship between education and economic growth, and so, has led to series of studies by economists over the past 30 years. There is substantial literature to back the fact that correlation exists between the two. (Sylvie, 2018). In line with the views of Hadir and Lahrech (2015), the fact that humans are the most worthy assets remains undisputable in both developed and developing countries. Therefore efficiency in human resource management is pertinent if development must be realized. In this sense, the major gateway to development is adequate investment in human capital which may be described as an individual&rsquo;s potential economic value in terms of skills, knowledge, and other intangible assets. In order to realize the well-known macroeconomic objective of economic growth, Nigeria being a developing country embarked on some programs in the educational sector with the aim of boosting human capital development. However, these programs have only served as conduits for enriching the corrupt political elite. Given the high prospects of achieving economic growth in Nigeria and the place of human capital development in its actualization, education, therefore, remains a top priority for the Nigeria government as well as concerned researchers. Thus, this study is one among other concerned studies that will attempt to examine economic growth and human capital nexus in Nigeria through education variables. In particular, using education as a measure of human capital, it will attempt to explore the impact of education variables on the growth of Nigeria&rsquo;s economy. According to Wamboye, (2015), education makes way for vital knowledge, skills, techniques and information for individuals to function in family and society. Education can groom a set of educated leaders to take on jobs in government services, public and private firms, and domestic and foreign firms. The growth of education can provide all kinds of grooming that would foster literacy and basic skills. Though alternative investments in the economy could generate more growth, it must not deviate from the necessary contributions; economic as well as non-economic, that education can make and has made to expediting macroeconomic growth (Clark, 2015). Todaro and Smith in Clark (2015), likewise called attention to the fact that, extension of education lead to an increasingly gainful labor force and provide it with expanded information and abilities, and boost employment and income-earning avenues for educators, schools, and employees. Economic growth, proxied by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), gives numerous advantages which include increasing the general living standard of the masses as estimated by per capita pay (income), making the distribution of income simpler to accomplish, thus, shortening the time span needed to achieve the fundamental needs of man to a considerable majority of the masses. The main source of per capita yield (output) in any nation, regardless of whether it is advanced or developing, is really increment in &#39;human productivity&#39;. Per capita yield (output) growth is notwithstanding a significant aspect of economic prosperity (Abramowitz, 1981). For the most part, it has been uncovered that individuals are the most important source of productivity growth and economic prosperity. Technology and technological hardware are the results of human inventions and innovativeness. The suggestion of UNESCO, that 26% of yearly planned expenditure (budget) in developing nations should be dedicated to education has become intangible, particularly in Nigeria. Planned expenditure on education in Nigeria ranges from only 5%-7% of total planned expenditure. The impact of the above situation on the economic prosperity of the nation as it concerns human capital development, capacity building, infrastructural advancement, etc, is troubling. On this note, the necessity of a well-thought out plan for rectifying this unwanted situation can&#39;t be over stressed. &nbsp; <strong>1.2 Statement of the Problem </strong> Sikiru (2011) as cited in Ajibola (2016) rightly pointed out that the role of education in any economy is no longer business as usual because of the knowledge based globalized economy where productivity greatly depends on the quantity and quality of human resource, which itself largely depends on investment in education. Governments continue to increase spending on education with a view toward enhancing the standard of education, build human capacity and attainment of economic growth. Ironically, this effort by government is still a far cry of UNESCO&rsquo;s recommendation of 26% total annual budget to education, and so, has not yielded the expected results. Thus, researchers sought to understand the relationship between government expenditure on education and economic growth and how they influence each other. These researches on the above subject matter, have given rise to divergent school of thoughts. Over time, Nigeria has indicated willingness to develop&nbsp; education in order to curtail illiteracy and quicken national development. Anyway regardless of the irreproachable evidence that education is key to the improvement of the economy; there exists a wide loop-hole in accessibility, quality and fairness (equity) in education (Ayo, 2014). Empirically verifiable facts in recent years have indicated that the Nigeria&nbsp;education system has continuously turned-out graduates who overtime have defaulted in adapting to evolving techniques and methods of production; due to inadequate infrastructure, underfunding, poor learning aids, outmoded curriculum, dearth of research and development. This has resulted to drastic reduction in employment and the advent of capacity underutilization. This paper assesses growth of Nigeria economy in relation to government expenditure on education and school enrollment from 1981 to 2018. Frequent adjustments and changes in education system in Nigeria, points to the fact that, all is not well with the countries education system. Government have experimented 6-3-3-4, 9-3-4 systems of education, among others. Enrollment in schools forms the main part of investment in human capital in most of the world&rsquo;s societies (Schultz, 2002). There are several explanations concerning why improvement in scholastic quality is not forthcoming in Nigeria as regards the above subject matter. Researchers disagree on whether changes in education attainment levels alters economic growth rate in the long-term. &nbsp;&ldquo;In Nigeria, average public education expenditure to total government expenditure between 1981 and 2018 is 5.68 per cent. It ranged between 0.51 and 10.8 per cent during the period under review&rdquo; (CBN Statistical Bulletin, 2019). However, the major problem therefore, is that despite an increase in the numeric value of budgetary allocation to education in Nigeria over the years, they still fall short of 26 % UNESCO,S recommendation. For instance, 2014, 10.6%; 2015, 9.5%; 2016, 6.1%, 2017, 5.41%, 2018, 7.0% and 2019, 7.2% percent respectively of total annual budget to education. The statistics presented above indicates that investment in education has not produced the desired level of human capital and economic growth in Nigeria. These uncertainties as it relates to government expenditure on education, school enrollment and growth of Nigeria economy gave birth to this research work. Furthermore, most studies relating to the subject matter, conducted analysis on times series data without subjecting these data sets to structural breaks, thereby giving rise to spurious results and therefore, unreliable recommendations. For instance, unit root test with structural breaks were not employed in majority of these studies. <strong>1.3 Research Questions </strong> The issues raised above have provoked series of questions which this study attempts to provide answers. These questions include; i. To what extent does government expenditure on education affect growth of Nigeria economy? ii. To what extent does primary school enrollment affect growth of Nigeria economy? iii. To what extent does secondary school enrollment affect growth of Nigeria economy? iv. To what extent does tertiary school enrollment affect growth of Nigeria economy? <strong>1.4 Objectives of the Study </strong> The main objective of the study is to access the effect of government expenditure on education and growth of Nigeria economy. Specific objectives of the study are to; i. Access the effect of government expenditure on growth of Nigeria economy. ii. Access the effect of primary school enrollment on growth of Nigeria economy. iii. Access the effect of secondary school enrollment on growth of Nigeria economy. iv. Access the effect of tertiary school enrollment on growth of Nigeria economy. <strong>1.5 Hypotheses of the Study </strong> The following hypotheses were tested in this study. i. Government expenditure on education has no significant effect on growth of Nigeria economy. ii. Primary school enrollment has no significant effect on growth of Nigeria economy. iii. Secondary school enrollment has no significant effect on growth of Nigeria economy. iv. Tertiary school enrollment has no significant effect on growth of Nigeria economy. <strong>1.6 Scope of the Study </strong> The study covers the time series analysis of government expenditure on education, school enrolment; primary, secondary and tertiary, and growth of Nigeria economy from 1981 to 2018. Based on available data. Justification for this study is on the premise that, time series data used for the study is a current data on government expenditure on education, education enrolment and economic growth in Nigeria. This study used annual data for the period 1981-2018, collected from the CBN Statistical Bulletin (2019) and World Bank databank. Variables employed for the study include; Real GDP Per Capita, government expenditure on education, primary, secondary and tertiary school enrolment. <strong>1.7 Significance of the Study </strong> Models of economic growth provide useful predictions that inform decisions made by policy makers. Agreeing with policy options based on inaccurate research studies could undermine government intervention particularly in the education sector. A good perception of the interaction among investment in education, its outcome, school enrolment and economic growth is appropriate policy measure, guarantees human capital development. Thus, a representative model that take cognisance of inter-play among public education expenditure, school enrolment and growth of the economy will lead to adequate disbursement and utilization of government funds. The outcome of this research will serve as a tool for policy makers in the Ministries of Finance, Education and the National Planning Commission including regulatory agencies not mentioned here. It will also serve as a reference material for subsequent research work in this field. <strong>1.8 Limitation of the Study </strong> This research x-rays Government Expenditure on Education, school (primary, secondary and tertiary) enrolment as they relate to Growth of Nigeria Economy. Time series data covering the period 1981 to 2018 is used for this study. A study undertaken in 2020, but can not access 2019 data on the variables used, stand as one of the limitations, since lag periods are essential in policy implementation. Data availability, genuineness and accuracy of same, time and financial constraints, constitute limitations to this research work. Effect of corruption on government expenditure and outbreak of Corona virus, resulting to closure of tertiary institutions in Nigeria, also constitute limitation to this study. <strong>1.9 Organization of the Study </strong> This research work comprises of five (5) chapters, these includes; Chapter one: this consists of background to the study, Problem Statement, research questions, research hypothesis and scope of the study. Chapter two: consisting of conceptual framework, theoretical review, review of related literatures and theoretical framework. Chapter three: explained the methodology this research adopted. Chapter four: presentation of results and discussion of findings. Chapter five: consists of summary of findings, conclusion, policy recommendation, contribution to knowledge and suggestion for further studies.&nbsp; <strong>CHAPTER TWO</strong> <strong>LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK</strong> <strong>2.1 Conceptual Review</strong> <strong>2.1.1 Government&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </strong> Government is the sector of the economy focusing on giving different public services. Its structure differs by nation, yet in many nations, government involves such services as infrastructure, military, police, public travel, government provided education, alongside medical services and those working for the public sector itself, like, elected authorities. The government may offer types of assistance that a non-taxpayer can&#39;t be barred from, (for example, street lighting), goods which aids all of society instead of benefiting only one person. Finances for government goods and services are generally obtained through various techniques, including taxes, charges, and through monetary transfers from different tiers of government (for example from federal to state government). Various governments from around the globe may utilize their own strategies for financing public goods and services. <strong>2.1.2 Government Expenditure</strong> Government Expenditure refers to government spending both capital and recurrent. For the purpose of this study we limited our scope to government educational expenditure in Nigeria. The theory of government expenditure is the theory of the costs of availing goods and services through planned spending (budget). There are two ways to deal with the subject of growth of government, precisely, the expansion in total size of government spending and the expansion of government in terms of economic magnitudes. Government expenditure is spending made by the public sector (government) of a nation on aggregate needs and wants, for example, pension and arrangement of infrastructure, among others. Until the nineteenth century, government speding was constrained, as free enterprise theorists believed that financial resources left in the private sector could lead to higher returns. In the twentieth century, John Maynard Keynes advocated the job of government spending in influencing levels of wages and income distribution in the economy. From that point forward government spending has demonstrated an expanding pattern. The public expenditure trend of the government of a nation is essentially the manner in which assets (resources) are distributed to the various segments of the economy where spending is required. It is exemplified in the government&rsquo;s ways of spending money. In analyzing the trend of government spending hence, it is critical to realize that under a federal system of administration, government job in dealing with the economy is the joint duty of the different tiers of government (Eze and Ikenna 2014). <strong>2.1.3 Human Capital </strong> By and large, human capital is characterized as all skills that are indistinguishably helpful to numerous organizations, including the training organization. Industry-specific skills, conversely, foster efficiency (productivity) just in the industry in which the skills were obtained. In a serious market setting, laborers consistently get a pay that approaches their minor profitability and in this manner, on account of general human capital, laborers win a similar compensation any place they work. <strong>2.1.4 Economic Growth</strong> As per Haller (2012), economic growth or economic expansion means the way toward expanding the size of a country&rsquo;s economy, its macro-economic indicators, particularly the per capita GDP, in an incremental yet not mandatorily linear course, with beneficial outcomes on the socio-economic sector. IMF (2012) perceives economic expansion as the expansion in the market worth of commodities created in a country over a period of time after discounting for inflation. The rate of increment in real Gross Domestic Product is often used as an estimate of economic expansion. In the perspectives of Kimberly (2012), economic expansion is an expansion in the creation of commodities. Any expansion in the worth of a nation&rsquo;s created commodities is likewise characterized as economic expansion. Economic expansion means an expansion in real GNP per unit of labor input. This relates to labor efficiency variation with time. Economic expansion is routinely estimated with the pace of increment in GDP. It is often estimated in real terms (deducting the impact of inflation on the cost of all commodities created). Growth improves the living standard of the individuals in that specific nation. As per Jhingan (2004), one of the greatest aims of money policy approach as of late has been quick macroeconomic expansion. He thus, characterized economic prosperity (growth) as the event whereby the real per capita earnings (income) of a nation increments over a significant stretch of time. Economic expansion is estimated by the expansion in the quantity of commodities created in a nation. An expanding economy creates more commodities in each subsequent timespan. In this manner, growth happens when an economy&#39;s capacity to produce increases which in turn, is utilized to create a greater quantity of commodities. In a more extensive perspective, economic expansion means increasing the living standard of individuals, and reducing disparities in earnings. &nbsp; <strong>2.1.5 </strong><strong>Gross Domestic Product</strong> - GDP Investopedia designates Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as the financial worth of marketable commodities created in a nation during any given duration of time. It is normally computed on a yearly or a quarterly premise. It comprises household and government consumption, government pay-outs, investments and net exports that exist in a sovereign territory. Set forth plainly, GDP is a broad estimation of a country&#39;s aggregate economic activity. &nbsp; <strong>2.1.6 Education</strong> There is no singular meaning of education and this is on the grounds that it indicates various things to various individuals, cultures and societies (Todaro and Stephen, 1982). Ukeje (2002), considers education to be a process, a product and a discipline. When viewed as a process, education is a group of activities which involves passing knowledge across age-groups (generations). When viewed as a product, education is estimated by the characteristics and attributes displayed by the educated individual. Here, the informed (educated) individual is customarily considered to be an informed and refined individual. While as a discipline, education is perceived in terms of the pros of well-structured knowledge which learners are acquainted with. Education is a discipline concerned with techniques of giving guidance and learning in institutions of learning in lieu of informal socialization avenues like rural development undertakings and education via parent-child interactions). It comprises both inherent (intrinsic) and instrumental worth. It is attractive for the person as well as for the general public. Education as private commodity directly aids the individuals who get it, which thusly influences the person&#39;s future pay (income) stream. At the macroeconomic level, a workforce that is superior in terms of education is thought to expand the supply of human capital in the economy and increment its efficiency (productivity). Considering the externalities pervasive in education, it is broadly acknowledged that the state has a key task to carry out in guaranteeing fair distribution of educational chances (opportunities) to the whole populace. This is especially critical in developing nations, for example, Nigeria that experiences the ill effects of elevated poverty levels, inequality and market imperfections. Enrolment might be viewed as the process of commencing participation in a school, which is the number of learners (students) adequately registered as well as participating in classes (Oxford dictionaries). 2.1.7 Primary Education Pupils usually commence learning at the elementary level when they are as old as 5 years or more. Pupils go through 18 terms equivalent to 6 years at the elementary level and may be awarded a first school leaving certification upon successful completion of learning. Subjects treated at the elementary stage comprise arithmetic, foreign and indigenous languages, culture, home economics, religious studies, and agric science. Privately owned institutions of learning may opt to treat computer science, and fine arts. It is mandatory to participate in a Common Entrance Examination in order to meet requirements for induction into secondary institutions of learning. <strong>2.1.8 Secondary Education In Nigeria</strong> Decades after the advancement of elementary education, government gave attention to secondary education, because of the requirement for pupils to advance their education in secondary schools. Secondary education is defined as the completion of fundamental education that started at the elementary level, and seeks to establish the frameworks for long-term learning and human development, by providing subject and skill-centred guidance. It is equally a link between elementary learning and tertiary learning. It is given in two phases, junior and senior levels of three years each and it is six-year duration. It was only in 1909 that the colonial administration began to supplement the endeavors of the Christian Missions in giving secondary education. This was when King&#39;s College was established in Lagos as the colonial government&#39;s secondary institution of learning. As per Adesina and Fafunwa , numerous laws were enacted to improve the condition of secondary education in Nigeria. For the duration of the time the nation was under Colonial Governments, there were scarcely any secondary schools to give secondary education to those that were then ready to gain it. 2.1.9 Tertiary Education Institutions of tertiary learning comprise universities, colleges of education, polytechnics and monotechnics. Government has dominant control of university education, and regulates them through National Universities Commission (NUC). At the university level, first year selection criteria include: At least 5 credits in not more than two sittings in WAEC/NECO; and a score above the 180 benchmark in the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board Entrance Examination (JAMB). Prospective entrants who hold satisfactory national certificates of education (NCE) or national diplomas (ND) having 5 or more ordinary level credits may gain direct entry into universities at the undergraduate level. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <strong>2.2 Theoretical Review</strong> <strong>2.2.1 Wagner&rsquo;s Law of Expending State Activity </strong> Public expenditure has one its oldest theories rooted in Adolph Wagner&rsquo;s (1883) work. A German economist that came up with a fascinating hypothesis of development in 1883 which held that as a country builds its public sector up, government spending will consequently become more significant. Wagner built up a &ldquo;law of increasing state activity&quot; after empirical investigation on Western Europe toward the conclusive part of the nineteenth century. Wagner&#39;s Law as treated to in Likita (1999) contended that government administration development is a product of advancement in industrialization and economic development. Wagner believed that during industrialization, the expansion of real earnings per capita will be accompanied by increments in the portion of government spending in total spending. He stated that the coming of industrial communities can bring about greater political impetus for social advancement and expanded earnings. Wagner (1893) stated three central reasons for the expansion in state spending. To start with, activities in the public sector will supplant non-private sector activities during industrialization. State duties like authoritative and defensive duties will increment. Furthermore, governments will be expected to give social services and government assistance like education, and public health for the elderly, subsidized food, natural hazards and disaster aids, protection programs for the environment and social services. Thirdly, industrial expansion will lead to novel&nbsp; technology and erode monopoly. Governments will need to balance these impacts by offering public goods through planned spending. Adolf Wagner in Finanzwissenschaft (1883) and Grundlegung der politischen Wissenschaft (1893) identified state spending as an &ldquo;internal&rdquo; factor, controlled by the development of aggregate earnings. Thus, aggregate earnings give rise to state spending. Wagner&#39;s may be viewed as a long-term phenomenon which is best observed with lengthy time-series for better economic interpretation and factual (statistical) derivations. This is because these patterns were expected to manifest after 5 or 10 decades of present day industrial community. The hypothesis of public spending is the hypothesis of the costs of availing commodities through planned government spending as well as the theory of policies and laws enacted to bring about private spending. Two ways to deal with the topic of the growth of the government sector are, namely, the expansion in volume of non-private spending and the expansion of non-private sector. Okafor and Eiya (2011) investigated the factors responsible for increment of government spending utilizing BLUE-OLS estimator. They discovered that population, government borrowing, government income, and inflation significantly affected government at the 5% level, while inflation most certainly did not. Further, Edame (2014) examined the predictive factors of state infrastructure spending in Nigeria, utilizing error correction modeling. In this study, it was found that growth-pace of urbanization, public income, density of population, system of government, and foreign reserves collectively or separately impact Nigeria&rsquo;s state infrastructure spending. &nbsp; <strong>2.2.3</strong><strong>The Classical Theory of Economic Growth</strong> This theory signifies the underlying structure of economic reasoning and Adam Smith&#39;s &quot;The Wealth of Nations&quot; (1776) typically paves the way for classical economics. Prominent and remarkable advocates of the classical school are: Adam Smith (1723-1790), David Ricardo (1772-1823), Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), Karl Marx (1818-1883), John Stuart Mill (1808-1873), Jean-Baptiste Say (1767-1832) and so on. Basically Smith&#39;s theory says that the endowment of countries was put together not with respect to gold, but with respect to commerce: As when two economic agents trade valuable commodities, in order to reap the benefits of trade, endowment grows. The classicalists see that markets are self-regulating, when liberated from compulsion. The classicalists termed this figuratively as the &quot;invisible hand&quot;, which establishes equilibrium, when consumers choose among various suppliers, and failure is allowed among firms that fail to compete successfully. The classicalists often warned against the risks of &ldquo;trust&rdquo;, and emphasized on free market economy (Smith, 1776). Adam Smith connected the expansion in endowment of individuals to the expansion of the yield of production factors, which manifests in the improvement of productivity of labor and an expansion in the quantity of working capital. Much scrutiny was given to population expansion, to the expansion in the portion of laborers in material production, to investment and geographical findings, which added to far-reaching prosperity. The perspectives of Thomas Malthus on economic expansion, portraying the expansion of populace and the expansion in production appeared pessimistic. As per Malthus, when the proportion between population expansion and subsistence methods&nbsp; remains, when the populace is expanding increasingly, and subsistence methods expand steadily, the aftermath will be inadequate earth resources (land), and consequently a severe battle for few resources, the prevalence of wars, plagues, hunger, mass illness, etc (Ojewumi and Oladimeji, 2016). As a solution to this issue, Malthus proposed to limit the growth of the populace by the &quot;call to prudence&quot;, particularly the impoverished, and the birth of children on the bases that they were to be provided with decent means of subsistence. One among the most compelling classicalists was David Ricardo (1772 &ndash; 1823). Apparently, the hypothesis of comparative advantage which recommends that a country should engage exclusively in internationally competitive businesses and trade with different nations to acquire commodities lacking domestically is his most notable contribution. He contended the possibility of the presence of a natural market wages and expected that new technologies will result to a fall in the demand for labor. John Stuart Mill (1808-1873) to a great extent summarized the past ideologies of the classicalists. Specifically, he finished the classicalists&rsquo; hypothesis of economic dynamics that considers long-term economic patterns. At the core of this idea is the unceasing amassing of capital. As indicated by the hypothesis, the expansion in capital prompts an increment in the need for labor, and zero population growth gives rise to increment in real earnings, and therefore gives rise to population expansion in the long-run. When the amassing of capital is quicker than the expansion in the workforce, both of these processes can, in principle, remain forever. Increment in the quantity of laborers means having more &quot;mouths&quot;, hence the expansion in the demand for consumption and particularly for food. Food created in agribusiness, which, as we know, characterized by diminishing returns to scale. Therefore, issues of diminishing marginal productivity of capital emerge and the fall of incentives to invest. <strong>2.2.4 The Keynesian Approach of Public Expenditure </strong> John M. Keynes (1936), a British Economist and the pioneer of macroeconomics contended that public spending is a crucial determinant of economic posperity. Keynes hypothesis clearly stated that fiscal policy instrument (for example government expenditure) is a significant apparatus for obtaining stability and better economic expansion rate in the long-term. To obtain stability in the economy, this hypothesis endorses government action in the economy through macroeconomic policy especially fiscal policy. From the Keynesian view, government spending will contribute incrementally to economic expansion. Keynes contended that it is necessary for government to mediate in the economy since government could change financial downturns by raising finances from private borrowing and afterward restoring the funds to the private sector through several spending programs. Likewise, government capital and recurrent spending in the structure provision of class rooms, research centers, acquisition of teaching and learning aids including PCs and payment of salary will have multiplier effects on the economy. Spending on education will boost productivity as well as advancement by improving the quality of labour. It will likewise help in developing a stream of educated administrators in both the private and public sectors of the economy. Keynes classified public spending as an exogenous variable that can create economic prosperity rather than an endogenous phenomenon. In summary, Keynes acknowledged the functioning of the government to be significant as it can prevent economic downturn by expanding aggregate demand and in this manner, switching on the economy again by the multiplier effect. It is an apparatus that proffers stability the short-term yet this should be done carefully as excessive government spending leads to inflation while lack of spending aggravates unemployment. &nbsp; <strong>2.2.5 </strong><strong>Human Capital Theory</strong> Human capital theory, at first developed by Becker (1962), contends that workers have a set of abilities which they can improve or acquire by learning and instruction (education). Be that as it may, human capital hypothesis often assume for the most part expect that experiences are converted into knowledge and skills. It helps us comprehend the training activities of organizations. It (re-)introduced the view that education and training add up to investment in future efficiency (productivity) and not only consumption of resources. From this viewpoint, both firms and labourers rely upon investment in human capital to foster competitiveness, profitability, and earnings. In spite of the fact that these advantages are self-evident, these investments are tied to some costs. From the firm&#39;s perspective, investment in human capital contrast from those in physical capital, because the firm doesn&#39;t gain a property right over its investment in skills, so it and its employees need to agree on the sharing of costs and benefits derived from these investments. While investment in physical capital are solely the organization&#39;s own choice, investment in the abilities (skills) of its workforce include interaction with the workers to be groomed. In the basic formulation, Becker, assuming that commodity and labour markets are perfectly competitive, introduced the distinction between firm-specific and general human capital to answer the question: who bears the expenses of training? &nbsp; <strong>2.2.6 Neoclassical Growth Theories </strong> The neoclassical development hypotheses arose in the 1950s and 1960s, when regard for the issues of dynamic equilibrium declined and the issue of actualizing growth potentials through the adoption of novel technology, boosting productivity and improving the organization of production gained popularity. The principle advocates of this school are Alfred Marshall (1842-1924), Leon Walras (1834-1910), William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882), Irving Fisher (1867-1947) and others. The American economist Robert Solow (1924-present) along with other economists opposed the state&#39;s participation and rather supported the notion of permitting firms to competitively grow by utilizing the majority of the assets accessible to them. They hinged on the production theory and marginal productivity theory from the classical school, according to which, the earnings obtained production factors depend on their marginal products. Neoclassical scholars disagreed with neo-Keynesian views on growth on three grounds (UN, 2011): Firstly, in light of the fact that they are centered around capital accumulation, overlooking land, labour, technology and so on; On the second note, owing to the fact that they are rooted in the unchanging nature of capital share in earnings (income); On the third note, while the neoclassicists recognized the self-restoring equilibrium of the market mechanism, the former overlooked it. On this premise, they identified inflationary government spending as a source of instability in the economy. <strong>2.2.7 The Endogenous Growth Theory</strong> This was created as a response to exclusions and inadequacies in the Solow-Swan model. This theory throws light on long-term economic expansion pace based on the pace of population expansion and the pace of technical advancement which is autonomous with regards to savings rate. Since long-term economic expansion rate depended on exogenous factors, Romer (1994) saw that the neoclassical hypothesis had hardly limited implications. As per Romer, in models with exogenous technical change and exogenous population expansion, it never truly made a difference what the public administration did. The new growth theory doesn&#39;t rebuff the neoclassical growth theory. Perhaps it broadens the neoclassical growth hypothesis by incorporating endogenous technical advancement in growth models. The endogenous development models have been improved by Kenneth J. Arrow, Paul M. Romer, and Robert E. Lucas. The endogenous development model highlights technical advancement arising from pace investment, quantity of capital, and human capital supply. Romer saw natural assets as a lower priority than ideas. He refers to case of Japan which has limited natural assets but welcomed novel ideas and technology from the West. These included improved plans for production of producer durable goods for final production. Accordingly, ideas are key in economic prosperity. With respect to endogenous growth theory, Chude and Chude (2013) submitted that the major improvement in the endogenous growth hypothesis in relation to the past models lies in the fact that it treats the determinants of technology. That is, it openly attempts to model technology instead of expecting it to be exogenous. Momentously, it is a statistical clarification of technological improvement that introduced a novel idea of human capital, knowledge and abilities (skills) that empower employees to be increasingly productive. More often than not, economic expansion is a product of progress in technology, arising from effective utilization of productive resources through the process of learning. This is because human capital development has high rate or increasing rate of return. Therefore, the rate of growth depends heavily on what (the type of capital) a country invests in. Thus to achieve economic expansion, public expenditure in human capital development especially education spending must be increased. At the same time, the theory predicts unexpected additional benefits from advancement of a substantial valued-added knowledge economy, that can develop and preserve a competitive advantage in expanding industries. <strong>2.3 Empirical Review</strong> Bearing in mind the sensitive nature of the field being studied, many investigations had been conducted with the aim of clarifying the divergent ideological schools. For example, Amadi, and Alolote, (2020) explored government infrastructural spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic advancement nexus. The investigation uncovered that public spending on transport, communication, education and medical infrastructure significantly affect economic expansion, while spending on agric and natural resources infrastructure recorded a major adverse impact on economic expansion. Despite the fact that the investigation is recent, the time series variables were not exposed to unit root tests with breaks, and thus will yield misleading outcomes. Shafuda and Utpal (2020) explored government spending on human capital and Namibia&rsquo;s economic prosperity (growth) nexus from 1980 to 2015. The examination utilized human development indicators like healthcare outcomes, educational accomplishments and increment in national earnings in Namibia. The investigation uncovered huge effects of government spending on medical care and education on GDP expansion over the long-term. Study conducted in 2020 that utilized data from 1980-1915, comprises a setback to this work. Ihugba, Ukwunna, and Obiukwu (2019) explored government education spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s elementary school enrolment nexus by applying the bounds testing (ARDL) method of cointegration during the time of 1970 to 2017. The model utilized for the investigation attempted to recognize the interaction between two variables and their relationship with control variables; per capita earning (income), remittances, investment and population expansion. The bounds tests indicated that the variables that were studied are bound together over the long-term, when elementary school enrolment is the endogenous variable. The investigation saw that an inconsequential relationship exists between government education spending on elementary school enrolment while a positive relationship exists among remittances and primary school enrolment. Sylvie (2018) explored education and India&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus. The investigation inspected the connection among education and economic prosperity in India from 1975 to 2016 by concentrating on elementary, secondary and tertiary levels of education. It used econometric estimations with the Granger Causality Method and the Cointegration Method. The study indicated that there is convincing proof demonstrating a positive association between education levels and economic expansion in India which may impact government activities and shape the future of India. Ayeni, and Osagie (2018), explored education spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus from 1987 to 2016. The investigation uncovered that education spending was inconsistent with education sectoral yield (output), while recurrent education spending had meaningful relationship with real gross national output (or GNP), conversely, capital spending on education was weak. Ogunleye, Owolabi, Sanyaolu, and Lawal, (2017), utilized BLUE-OLS estimator to study the effect of advancement in human capital on Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion from 1981 to 2015. The empirical outcomes indicated that human capital development has strong effects on economic expansion (growth). Likewise, human capital development variables; secondary school enrolment, tertiary enrolment, aggregated government spending on health and aggregated government spending on education displayed positive and strong effect on economic expansion of Nigeria. Glylych, Modupe and Semiha (2016) explored education and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus utilizing BLUE-OLS estimator to unveil the interaction between education as human capital and real Gross Domestic Product. The investigation found a strong connection between GDP and different indicators (capital spending on education, recurrent spending on education, elementary school enrolment and secondary school enrolment) utilized in the investigation except for elementary school enrolment (PRYE). Lingaraj, Pradeep and Kalandi (2016) explored education expenditure and economic expansion nexus in 14 major Asian nations by utilizing balanced panel data from 1973 to 2012. The co-integration result indicated the presence of long-run relationships between education spending and economic expansion in all the nations. The findings additionally uncovered a positive and significant effect of education training on economic advancement of all the 14 Asian nations. Further, the panel vector error correction showed unidirectional Granger causality running from economic expansion to education spending both in the short and long-run, however, education spending only Granger causes long-run economic expansion in all the nations. The findings likewise demonstrated a positive effect of education spending on economic expansion. The study contended that education sector is one of the significant elements of economic expansion in each of the 14 Asian nations. A significant portion of government spending ought to be made on education by upgrading different essential, senior and technical educations in the respective countries to make available the skilled labour for long-term economic advancement. Ojewumi and Oladimeji (2016) explored government financing and Nigeria&rsquo;s education nexus. In the research work, public spending on education was arranged into two classes (recurrent and capital spending). The data covered the period 1981 to 2013 and were secondary in nature. The data were gotten for the most part from the publications of the World Bank, Central Bank of Nigeria and National Bureau of Statistics. BLUE-OLS estimator was utilized to study the data. The main results indicated that the effect of both capital and recurrent spending on education expansion were negative during the examination time frame. The study suggested that the elevated level of corruption common in the educational sector ought to be checked to guarantee that finances ear-marked for education particularly capital spending in the sector are prudently appropriated. Government at various levels ought to likewise increment both capital and recurrent spending to support the educational sector up to the United Nations standard. Obi, Ekesiobi, Dimnwobi, and Mgbemena, (2016) explored government education spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s education outcome nexus from 1970 &ndash; 2013. The investigation utilized BLUE-OLS estimator, and demonstrated that government spending on education has a cordial and notable impact on education. Public health spending and urban population expansion were likewise found to positively affect education outcome but are insignificant in influencing education outcome. Omodero, and Azubike, (2016), explored government spending on education and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic advancement nexus from 2000&ndash;2015. Multiple regression analysis and student t-test were applied for investigation. The outcome of the investigation showed that education spending is significant and affects the economy. Additionally, education enrolment demonstrated a significant relationship with GDP but minor effect on the economy. Muhammad and Benedict (2015) explored education spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus during the time covering 1981-2010. Co-joining and Granger causality tests were utilized so as to unveil the causal nexus between education spending and economic expansion. They found that there is co-integration between real growth rate of GDP, aggregated government spending on education, recurrent expenditure on education and elementary school enrolment. Adeyemi and Ogunsola (2016) explored advancement in human capital and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus from 1980-2013 on secondary school enrolment, life expectancy rate, government spending on education, gross capital formation and economic expansion rate. ARDL cointegration approach was utilized in the investigation and it uncovered a positive since a long-run nexus among secondary school enrolment, life expectancy rate, government spending on education, gross capital formation and economic expansion rate. Olalekan (2014) explored human capital and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus utilizing yearly data on education and health, from 1980 to 2011. The investigation made use of Generalized Method of Moment (GMM) techniques in the research and the estimated outcomes gave proof of positive connection between human capital and economic expansion. Oladeji (2015) explored human capital (through education and effective services in healthcare) and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus from 1980 to 2012. The investigation utilized BLUE-OLS estimator and uncovered that there is a significant functional and institutional connection between the investment in human capital and economic expansion. The work indicated that a long-term nexus existed between education and economic expansion rate. Hadir and Lahrech, (2015) explored human capital advancement and Morocco&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus utilizing yearly data from 1973 to 2011. The BLUE-OLS estimator was incorporated utilizing aggregated government spending on education and health, the enrolment data of tertiary, secondary and elementary educational institutions as a measure for human capital. The research uncovered a positive nexus between aggregated government spending on education, aggregated government spending on health, elementary education enrolment, secondary education enrolment and tertiary education enrolment. Obi and Obi (2014) explored education spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus as a method for accomplishing ideal socio-economic change required from 1981 to 2012. The Johansen co-integration method and BLUE-OLS estimator econometric methods were utilized to closely study the connection between GDP and recurrent education spending. The results showed that regardless of the fact that a positive relationship was obtainable between education spending and economic expansion, a long-term nexus was not obtainable over the period under examination. Jaiyeoba (2015) explored investment in education/health and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus from 1982 to 2011. He utilized trend analysis, the Johansen cointegration and BLUE-OLS estimator. The outcomes demonstrated that there was long-term connection between government spending on education, health and economic expansion. The factors: health and education spending, secondary and tertiary enrolment rate and gross fixed capital formation carried the speculated positive signs and were notable determinants (apart from government spending on education and elementary education enrolment rate). Sulaiman, Bala, Tijani, Waziri and Maji (2015) explored human capital /technology and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus. They utilized yearly time series covering 35 years (1975-2010) and applied autoregressive distributed lag method of cointegration to look at the connection between human capital, technology, and economic expansion. Two measures of human capital (secondary and university enrolment) were utilized in two different models. Their outcome uncovered that all the factors in the two separate models were cointegrated. Besides, the findings from the two assessed models indicated that human capital in measured by secondary and tertiary education enrolments have significant positive effect on economic expansion. Borojo and Jiang (2015) explored education/health (human capital) and Ethiopia&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus from 1980 to 2013. Human capital stock is measured by elementary, secondary and tertiary education enrolment. Human capital investment is proxied by spending on health and education. The Augmented Dickey Fuller test and Johansen&#39;s Co-integration method were utilized to test unit root and to ascertain co-integration among factors, respectively. Their investigation indicated that public spending on health as well as education and elementary as well as secondary education enrolments has positive and significant impacts on economic expansion both in the short-term and the long-term. Ekesiobi, Dimnwobi, Ifebi and Ibekilo (2016) explored public education investment and Nigeria&rsquo;s manufacturing yield nexus. The investigation utilized Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) unit root test and BLUE-OLS estimator to examine the connection between public educational spending, elementary school enrolment rate, per capita income, exchange rate, FDI and manufacturing yield (output) rate. The investigation discovered that public education spending has a positive but inconsequential impact on manufacturing yield (output) rate. Odo, Nwachukwu, and Agbi (2016) explored government spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus. Their finding demonstrated that social capital had inconsequential positive effect on economic expansion during the period under consideration. Jiangyi, (2016) explored government educational spending and China&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus bearing in mind the spatial third-party spill-over effects. The findings uncover that public educational spending in China has a significant positive effect on economic expansion, but spending in various educational level shows varying outcomes. Public educational spending beneath high-education is positively related with domestic economic expansion, while the impact of educational spending in high-education is inconsequential. Lawanson (2015) explored the importance of health and educational elements of human capital to economic expansion, utilizing panel data from sixteen West African nations over the period 1980 to 2013. He utilized Diff-GMM dynamic panel procedure. The empirical results show that coefficients of both health and education have positive and significant impacts on GDP per capita. The paper ascertains the importance of human capital to economic expansion in West Africa. He suggested that more assets and policies to persuade and improve access to both education and health by the populace ought to be sought after by policy makers. Ehimare, Ogaga-Oghene, Obarisiagbon and Okorie (2014), explored the connection between Nigerian government Expenditure and Human Capital Development. The level of human capital development, which is a measure of the degree of wellbeing (health) and educational achievement of a country influence the level of economic activities in that country. The unit root test was employed to ascertain if the stationary or non-stationary with the Phillip Peron test. So as to measure the efficiency of government spending on human capital development, the data analysis was performed with Data Envelopment Analysis including Input Oriented Variable Return to Scale. The discoveries of the study uncovered that there has been substantial decrease in the efficiency of government spending since 1990 up till 2011 which has been diminishing. Ajadi and Adebakin (2014), investigated the nature of association between human capital development and economic expansion. The descriptive survey method of research was incorporated and multi&ndash;stage sampling method was utilized to choose a size of 200 respondents utilized for the research. An adopted questionnaire with 0.86 reliability index was utilized for information gathering. Data gathered were examined utilizing the Pearson&#39;s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. The results demonstrated that education has a predictive r-value of 0.76 on individual personal earnings and the type of occupation (job) is linked with individual personal earnings (r=0.64). It, subsequently, concluded that economic expansion rate is influenced by individual personal earnings and suggested that government ought to create adequate educational policy to avail the human capital need of the populace for economic prosperity. Harpaljit, Baharom and Muzafar (2014) examined the connection between education spending and economic expansion rate in China and India by utilizing yearly data from 1970 to 2005. This investigation used multi econometric methods including co-integration test, BLUE-OLS estimator, and VECM. The result uncovered that there is a long-term nexus between earnings (income) level, Gross Domestic Product per capital and education spending in both China and India. Also, a unidirectional causal relationship was obtained for the two nations, running from earnings (income) level to education spending for China, while for India, education spending Granger causes the level of earnings. Urhie (2014) analyzed the impacts of the components of public education spending on both educational achievement and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion rate from 1970 to 2010. The investigation utilized Two Stage Least Squares estimation procedure to analyze the hypotheses. The result uncovered that both capital and recurrent spending on education affect education achievement and economic expansion rate differently. Recurrent spending negatively affected education while capital spending was found to have a positive effect. Conversely, recurrent education had a positive and notable effect on economic expansion while capital spending had a negative effect. Chude and Chude (2013) explored the impacts of public education spending on Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion over a time frame from 1977 to 2012, with particular focus on disaggregated and sectorial spending analysis. Error correction model (ECM) was utilized. The result uncovered that over the long-term, aggregated education spending is significant and has a positive relationship on economic expansion. Abdul (2013), analyzed Education and Economic expansion in Malaysia given the fact human capital or education has is now one of the focal issues in the research of economic advancement. The researcher contended that the current studies showed that human capital, particularly education, is a significant ingredient of economic expansion. Thus the researcher investigated the issue of Malaysia education data. Notwithstanding a few issues and data quality issues, Malaysian education datasets are heavily correlated for both secondary and tertiary education. The researcher further tests the impact of various datasets on education and economic expansion relationship. The results were fundamentally the same thereby indicating that Malaysian education datasets are not unreliable. The results were econometrically consistent irrespective of measure of education utilized. All datasets lead to the same conclusion; education is inversely associated with economic expansion. Alvina and Muhammad (2013), inspected the long-term connection between government education spending and economic expansion. The investigation utilized heterogeneous panel data analysis. Panel unit root test are applied for checking stationarity. The single equation approach of panel co-integration (Kao, 1999); Pedroni&#39;s Residual-Based Panel of co-integration Test (1997, 1999) was applied to ascertain the presence of long-term connection between public education spending and gross domestic production. Finally Panel fully modified OLS result uncovered that the effect of government public education on economic expansion is more prominent in developing nations as contrasted with the developed nations, which confirmed the &quot;catching-up effect&quot; in developing nations. Mehmet and Sevgi (2013), inspected the nexus between education spending and economic expansion in Turkey. The examination utilized econometric method as the principal investigation instrument. The result uncovered a positive connection between education spending and economic expansion in the Turkish economy for the period 1970-2012. Implying that, education spending in Turkey positively affected economic expansion. Edame (2014) researched the determinants of Nigeria&rsquo;s public infrastructure spending, utilizing ECM. He found that pace (rate) of urbanization, government income, population density, external reserves, and kind of government collectively or independently impact on public spending on infrastructure. Aregbeyen and Akpan (2013) examined the long-term determinants of Nigeria&rsquo;s government spending, utilizing a disaggregated approach. In their examination, they found that foreign aid is significantly and positively influencing recurrent spending to the detriment of capital spending; that income (revenue) is likewise positively influencing government spending; that trade transparency (openness) is adversely impacting government spending; that debt service obligation diminishes all parts of government spending over the long-term; that the higher the size of the urban population, the higher would be government recurrent spending on economic services; solid proof that Federal government spending is one-sided with regards to recurrent spending, which increments substantially during election times. In likewise manner, Adebayo et al. (2014) researched the effect of public spending on industrial expansion of Nigeria through co-integration and causality and discovered that public spending on administration, economic services, and transfers remained negatively related with industrial expansion while government spending on social services remained positively related in the long-term. They concluded in this manner that there is no crowding-out impact. From these studies reviewed, there is proof that all the investigations joined economic, social, and political determinants of government spending. Srinivasan (2013), analyzed the causal nexus between public spending and economic expansion in India utilizing co-integration approach and error correction model from 1973 to 2012. The co-integration test result uncovered the presence of a long-term equilibrium connection between public spending and economic expansion. The error correction model estimate indicated unilateral causality which runs from economic expansion to public spending in the short-term and long-term. Mohd and Fidlizan (2012), narrowed down on the long-term relationship and causality between government spending in education and economic expansion in Malaysian economy from 1970-2010. The investigation utilized Vector Auto Regression (VAR). The result indicated that economic expansion co-integrated with fixed capital formation (CAP), labour force participation (LAB) and government spending on education (EDU). The Granger cause for education variable and vice versa. In addition, the investigation demonstrated that human capital like education variable goes a long way in affecting economic expansion. Consensus from the above investigations demonstrates that government spending impacts positively on economic expansion. Notable theories that support this case include; Keynes, Wagner, Peacock and Wiseman. Keynes, in his hypothesis draws a connection between public spending and economic expansion and infers that causality runs from public spending to income, meaning that public sector spending is an exogenous factor and public instrument for expanding national income. Again, it holds that expansion in government spending prompts higher economic expansion. Wagner, Peacock and Wiseman and numerous economists have developed various theories on public spending and economic expansion. Wagner positioned public sector spending as a behavioral variable that positively indicates if an economy is prospering. Notwithstanding, the neo classical growth model created by Solow opined that the fiscal policy doesn&#39;t have any impact on the expansion of national income. These multifaceted results obtained from prior investigations show that in reality public spending and other inputs in the education system may have some innate heterogeneity, suggesting that what holds in a given area or country may not hold in another. In the light of the above, this investigation sees that it is necessary to revise the allotment of public spending on education, with regards to the type of impact this spending has on education outcomes. <strong>2.4 Theoretical Framework</strong> The endogenous growth theory has been adopted as the appropriate theoretical framework for this study. This owes much to the fact that, the theory emphasizes the critical role of human capital development, through public investments on education, as a major driver of aggregate productivity in the economy. This is also supported by the work of Ogunleye, Owolabi, Sanyaolu, and Lawal, (2017) who ascertained how economic expansion is influenced by advancement in human capital from 1981 to 2015. In this study it was discovered that economic expansion is greatly influenced by advancement in human capital. Also, economic expansion appeared to facilitated by secondary education enrolment, tertiary education enrolment, and aggregate spending on health and education by the government. <strong>2.5 Research Gap</strong> Though, so much research work has been carried out on the relationship between human capital development, Public Sector Expenditure on Education and Economic expansion in Nigeria, a lot still needed to be done to address some abnormities in these studies. Of note, is that methods adopted in most of these studies are faced with methodological limitations and policy carry-overs, not minding that no two economies are the same. This study therefore, seeks to fill these gaps created by previous researches. Importantly, time plays a vital role in research, making it imperative for continuous and up to date studies, so as to keep abreast with changes as quickly as possible. In the study carried out by Ojewumi and Oladimeji (2016), time series data covering from 1981-2013 was used, while Muhammad and Benedict (2015), used time series data from 1981-2010. These studies above used time series data of 1981 to 2013 and 1981 to 2010 respectively, while this study used updated data covering 1981-2018, thereby making the study current and up to date. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>Chapter Three</strong> <strong>Research Methods</strong> <strong>3.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Research Design</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Ex post facto research design and econometric procedures of analysis will be employed for empirical investigation. <strong>3.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Model Specification</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Here, we specify a model which captures the relationship between real gross domestic product in per capita terms and the selected education enrolment variables. &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.1) In the above model, <em>Ln</em> denotes natural log, <em>PER_RGDP</em> denotes real gross domestic product in per capita terms,<em> PER_PEE</em> denotes public expenditure on education in per capita terms, <em>PENR</em> denotes percentage of primary education enrolment from population total, <em>SENR</em> denotes percentage of secondary education enrolment from population total, and <em>TENR</em> denotes percentage of tertiary education enrolment from population total. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; For further empirical analysis we can explicitly express the above model in the form of an autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.2) Here, based on economic theory and intuition all of the coefficients are expected to be positive. <strong>3.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Estimation Procedure</strong> <strong>3.3.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Unit Root Test with Breaks</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Unlike the popularly used unit root tests (e.g. ADF and PP) which test the null of non-stationarity without accounting for possible breaks-points in data, the break-point unit root test of Peron (1989) tests the null of non-stationarity against other alternatives while accounting for a single break-point in the given data. The alternative hypotheses for this test are succinctly described in the following equations: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.3) &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.4) &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.5) The first equation captures a break in the intercept of the data with the intercept-break dichotomous variable <em>I_t</em> which takes on values of 1 only when <em>t</em> surpasses the break-point <em>Br</em>; the second captures a break in the slope of the data with a regime-shift dichotomous variable <em>T_t*</em> which takes on values of 1 only when <em>t </em>surpasses the break-point <em>Br</em>; and the third equation captures both effects concurrently with the &ldquo;crash&rdquo; dichotomous variable <em>D</em> which takes on values of 1 only when <em>t</em> equals <em>Br</em>+1. <strong>3.3.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ARDL Bounds Cointegration Approach</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The popularly-used residual-based cointegration methods may not be very useful when the time-series under consideration attain stationarity at different levels. On the other hand, in addition to being econometrically efficient for small sample cases (<em>n</em> &lt; 30), the bounds cointegration method developed by Pesaran and Shin (1999) is particularly useful for combining time-series that attain stationarity at levels and first-difference. The bounds cointegration method makes use of upper bounds and lower bounds derived from 4 pairs of critical values corresponding to 4 different levels of statistical significance: the 1% level, the 2.5% level, the 5% level, and the 10% level. The null of &ldquo;no cointegration&rdquo; is to be rejected only if the computed bounds f-statistic surpasses any of the upper bounds obtained from a chosen pair of critical values, while the alternative hypothesis of cointegration is to be rejected only if the bounds f-statistic falls below any of the lower bounds obtained from a chosen pair of critical values. Therefore, in contrast to other cointegration tests, the bounds test can be inconclusive if the bounds f-statistic neither surpasses the chosen upper bound nor falls below the chosen lower bound. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; To obtain the bounds f-test statistic, an f-test is performed jointly on all of the un-differenced explanatory variables of the &ldquo;unrestricted&rdquo; error correction model (ECM) derived from any corresponding autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model such as the previously specified empirical ARDL model in (3.2). This takes the general form: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.6) where &Delta;<em>i_t</em> denotes the chosen endogenous variable in first difference; &Delta;<em>j_t</em> and &Delta;<em>k_t</em> denote the chosen exogenous variables in first differences;&nbsp; and <em>e_t</em> denotes the stochastic component. Choosing the best lag-length to be included is made possible by information criteria such as the Akaike and the Schwarz Information Criterion. In the case where the bounds cointegration test disapproves the null, a &ldquo;restricted&rdquo; version of the error correction model can be estimated along-side a long-run model to capture the relevant short-run and long-run dynamics as seen in the following expressions: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.7) &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.8) Here, the error correction term <em>_t</em>_-1 is non-positive and bounded between 0 and 1 (or 0 and 100) in order to capture the short-run rate of adjustment to long run equilibrium, while the coefficients <em>₁</em>,&hellip;,<em>_j</em>&nbsp; in (3.7) capture the state of long-run equilibrium and are obtained from <em>₁</em>=<em>b₂</em>/<em>b₁</em>,&hellip;, <em>_j</em>=<em>b_j</em>/<em>b₁</em> respectively. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>3.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Model Evaluation Tests and Techniques</strong> <strong>3.4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; R² and Adjusted R²</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The R² and the adjusted R² both provide measures of goodness-of-fit. However, the adjusted R² is preferably used because it is robust against redundant regressors which inflate the conventional R². They involve the following statistics: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.9) &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.10) where <em>SS_r</em> denotes the sum of squares of the regression residuals, <em>SS_t</em> denotes the total sum of squares of the dependent variable, <em>n</em> denotes the number of observations, and <em>k</em> denotes the number of regressors (Verbeek, 2004). <strong>3.4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; T-Test and F-Test</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The t-test and the f-test can be utilized to evaluate hypotheses pertaining to statistical significance of the parameters in a regression. Particularly, the t-test may be applied to a single parameter while the f-test may be applied to multiple parameters. They involve the following statistics: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.11) &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.12) where <em>a_k</em> denotes a single parameter-estimate, <em>se </em>denotes its standard error, <em>R²</em> denotes the coefficient of determination of the regression, <em>N</em> denotes the number of observations, and <em>J</em> denotes the number of regressors. For the t-test, the statistical insignificance null hypothesis is to be rejected only if <em>t_i</em> exceeds its 5% critical-value, while for the f-test the joint statistical insignificance null hypothesis is to be rejected only if <em>f</em> exceeds its 5% critical-value at <em>N-J</em> and <em>J-1</em> degrees of freedom (Verbeek, 2004). <strong>3.4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Residual Normality Test</strong> The Jarque-Bera test statistic (Jarque and Bera, 1987) is useful in determining whether the residuals of a regression are normally distributed. The Jarque-Bera statistic is computed as: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.13) where <em>S</em> is the skewness, <em>K</em> is the kurtosis, and <em>N</em> is the number of observations. Under the null hypothesis of a normal distribution, the Jarque-Bera statistic is distributed as <em>X²</em> with 2 degrees of freedom. Therefore, the null hypothesis is to be accepted if the absolute value of the Jarque-Bera statistic exceeds the observed value under the null hypothesis. Contrarily, the null hypothesis is to be rejected if the absolute value does not exceed the observed value. <strong>Heteroskedasticity Test</strong> The Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey test (Breusch and Pagan, 1979; Godfrey, 1978) evaluates the null hypothesis of &ldquo;no heteroskedasticity&rdquo; against the alternative hypothesis of heteroskedasticity of the form , where is a vector of independent variables. The test is performed by completing an auxiliary regression of the squared residuals from the original equation on . The explained sum of squares from this auxiliary regression is then divided by to give an LM statistic, which follows a chi square <em>X² </em>distribution with degrees of freedom equal to the number of variables in <em>Z </em>under the null hypothesis of no heteroskedasticity. Therefore, the null hypothesis is to be accepted if the LM statistic exceeds the observed value under the null hypothesis. Contrarily, the null hypothesis is to be rejected if the LM statistic does not exceed the observed value. <strong>3.4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Serial Correlation Test</strong> The Godfrey (1978) Lagrange multiplier (LM) test is useful when testing for serial correlation in the residuals of a regression. The LM test statistic is computed as follows: First, assuming there is a regression equation: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.14) where <em>&beta;</em> are the estimated coefficients and <em>&epsilon;</em> are the errors. The test statistic for the lag order <em>&rho;</em> is based on the regression for the residuals <em>&epsilon; = y - XḂ</em> which is given by: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.15) The coefficients <em>𝛾</em> and <em>𝛼</em><em>_&delta;</em>are expected to be statistically insignificant if the null hypothesis of &ldquo;no serial correlation&rdquo; is to be accepted. On the other hand, the null hypothesis cannot be accepted if the coefficients <em>𝛾</em> and <em>𝛼</em><em>_&delta;</em>are found to be statistically significant. <strong>3.4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Model Specification Test</strong> The Ramsey (1969) Regression Error Specification Test (RESET) is a general test for the following types of functional specification errors: Omitted variables; some relevant explanatory variables are not included. Incorrect functional form; some of the dependent and independent variables should be transformed to logs, powers, etc. Correlation between the independent variables and the residuals. Ramsey (1969) showed that these specification errors produce a non-zero mean vector for the residuals. Therefore, the null and alternative hypotheses of the RESET test are: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (3.16) The RESET test is based on an augmented regression which is given as: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.17) The test of the null hypothesis of a well-specified model is tested against the alternative hypothesis of a poorly specified model by evaluating the restriction <em>𝛾</em><em> = 0</em>. The null hypothesis is to be accepted if <em>𝛾</em><em> = 0</em>, whereas the null hypothesis is to be rejected if <em>𝛾</em><em> &ne; 0</em>. The crucial factor to be considered in constructing the augmented regression model is determining which variable should constitute the <em>Z</em> variable. If <em>Z</em> is an omitted variable, then the test of <em>𝛾</em><em> = 0</em> is simply the omitted variables test. But if <em>y</em> is wrongly specified as an additive relation instead of a multiplicative relation such as <em>y =</em><em>𝛽</em><em>₀</em> X^𝛽¹X^𝛽² + 𝜖 then the test of <em>𝛾</em><em> = 0 </em>is a functional form specification test. In the latter case the restriction <em>𝛾</em><em> = 0 </em>is tested by including powers of the predicted values of the dependent variables in <em>Z</em> such that . <strong>3.4.7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; CUSUMSQ Stability Test</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; For the test of stability, cumulative sum of recursive residuals (CUSUM) and cumulative sum of recursive residuals squares (CUSUMSQ) tests as proposed by Brown, Durbin, and Evans (1975) was employed. The technique is appropriate for time series data and is recommended for use if one is uncertain about when a structural change might have taken place. The null hypothesis is that the coefficient vector &szlig; is the same every period. The CUSUM test is based on the cumulated sum of the residuals: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.18) where &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.19) and &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.20) <strong>3.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Sources of Data</strong> The Central bank of Nigeria served as the main source of data collection. This implies also that the study adopted secondary data. <strong>Chapter Four</strong> <strong>Empirical Results</strong> <strong>4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Descriptive Statistics</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Before going into cointegration analysis, we will attempt to briefly examine the properties of the data with descriptive statistics. Table 4.1 and Figures 4.1 to 4.5 will be acknowledged for this purpose. Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics &nbsp; PER_RGDP PER_PEE PENR SENR TENR Mean 264316.01 635.72 23096192.94 5796345.78 787115.08 Median 232704.55 361.03 19747039.31 4410684.33 755776.70 Maximum 385349.04 2340.12 46188979.59 11840028.21 1648670.36 Minimum 199039.15 7.38 9554076.94 1846106.82 49626.49 Std. Dev. 66113.04 681.06 9425336.46 3142601.76 592505.50 Skewness 0.65 0.77 0.59 0.79 0.17 Kurtosis 1.83 2.43 2.27 2.15 1.36 Jarque-Bera 4.88 4.24 3.01 5.14 4.47 Probability 0.09 0.12 0.22 0.08 0.11 Observations 38 38 38 38 38 &nbsp; Figure 4.1: Trend of Real Gross Domestic Product (RGDP) Per Capita &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Figure 4.2: Trend of Public Expenditure on Education (PEE) Per Capita &nbsp; &nbsp; Figure 4.3: Trend of Primary School Enrolment (PENR) &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Figure 4.4: Trend of Secondary School Enrolment (SENR) &nbsp; &nbsp; Figure 4.5: Trend of Tertiary School Enrolment (TENR) &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; From the second column of Table 4.1, RGDP per capita mean is NGN 264, 316.01 ($734.21). This critically lags behind RGDP per capita mean in all developed (OECD) countries and underscores the need for human and non-human capital development. Further, RGDP per capita maximum is NGN 385, 349.04 while its minimum is NGN 199, 039.15. Given that the trend of RGDP per capita is positively sloped as seen in Figure 4.1, the disparity between RGDP per capita maximum and its minimum indicates growth in RGDP per capita during the period under investigation. Lastly, the Jarque-Bera statistic (4.88) and probability value (0.09) of RGDP per capita simply suggest that it follows a normal distribution, with NGN 66, 113.04 as its standard deviation. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; From the third column of Table 4.1, PEE per capita mean is NGN 635.72 ($1.77). Just like RGDP per capita, this critically lags behind PEE per capita mean in all developed (OECD) countries and underscores the need for more government intervention in the education sector. Further, PEE per capita maximum is NGN 2, 340.12 while its minimum is NGN 7.38. Given that the trend of PEE per capita is positively sloped exponentially as seen in Figure 4.2, the disparity between PEE per capita maximum and its minimum indicates rapid growth in PEE per capita during the period under investigation. Lastly, the Jarque-Bera statistic (4.24) and probability value (0.12) of PEE per capita simply suggest that it follows a normal distribution, with NGN 681.06 as its standard deviation. From the fourth column of Table 4.1, PENR mean is 23096192.94. This represents about 18.33% of total population mean (126036036.63) and indicates high primary school enrolment during the period under investigation. Further, PENR maximum is 46188979.59 while its minimum is 9554076.94. Given that the trend of PENR is positively sloped linearly as seen in Figure 4.3, the disparity between PENR maximum and its minimum indicates consistent growth in PENR during the period under investigation. Lastly, the Jarque-Bera statistic (3.01) and probability value (0.22) of PENR simply suggest that it follows a normal distribution, with 9425336.46 as its standard deviation. From the fifth column of Table 4.1, SENR mean is 5796345.78. This represents about 4.60% of total population mean (126036036.63) and indicates relatively low secondary school enrolment during the period under investigation. Further, SENR maximum is 11840028.21 while its minimum is 1846106.82. Given that the trend of SENR is positively sloped exponentially as seen in Figure 4.4, the disparity between SENR maximum and its minimum indicates rapid growth in SENR during the period under investigation. Lastly, the Jarque-Bera statistic (5.14) and probability value (0.08) of SENR simply suggest that it follows a normal distribution, with 3142601.76 as its standard deviation. From the sixth column of Table 4.1, TENR mean is 787115.08. This represents about 0.63% of total population mean (126036036.63) and indicates very low tertiary school enrolment during the period under investigation. Further, TENR maximum is 1648670.36 while its minimum is 49626.49. Given that the trend of TENR is positively sloped concavely as seen in Figure 4.5, the disparity between TENR maximum and its minimum indicates slow growth in TENR during the period under investigation. Lastly, the Jarque-Bera statistic (4.47) and probability value (0.11) of TENR simply suggest that it follows a normal distribution, with 592505.50 as its standard deviation. From the descriptive statistics above, it is obvious that substantial disparities exist between the maximum and minimum values of the variables, especially for PEE per capita and TENR. This may distort the regression results of the cointegration analysis and may also lead to unnecessarily large regression coefficients. In order to avoid these problems, we have transformed the variables in two major ways. Firstly, we have reduced disparity among the variables by expressing PENR, SENR, and TENR as percentages of population total. Secondly, we have downsized all the variables to a smaller scale by expressing them in natural log form. Therefore instead of RGDP, PEE per capita, PENR, SENR, and TENR, we now have Ln_PER_RGDP, Ln_PER_PEE, Ln_PENR, Ln_SENR, and Ln_TENR respectively as our investigative variables. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Break-Point Unit Root Test Results</strong> Table 4.2: Break-Point Unit Root Test Result Summary Variables Lags Included Specification Break Date ADF Test Statistic 5% Critical Value Summary <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em><em>_t</em> 0 Intercept &amp; Trend 2001 -3.3506 -5.1757 Non-Stationary <em>∆Ln_PER_RGDP</em><em>_t</em> 2 Intercept &amp; Trend 2001 -5.4176 -5.1757 Stationary <em>Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0 Intercept &amp; Trend 2004 -3.3665 -5.1757 Non-Stationary <em>∆Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 5 Intercept &amp; Trend 1995 -5.6226 -5.1757 Non-Stationary <em>Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 7 Intercept &amp; Trend 2004 -7.6901 -5.1757 Stationary <em>Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 3 Intercept &amp; Trend 1998 -5.0584 -5.1757 Non-Stationary <em>∆Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 3 Intercept &amp; Trend 2016 -6.4199 -5.1757 Stationary <em>Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 1 Intercept &amp; Trend 1998 -6.9768 -5.1757 Stationary Note(s): Lag selection based on Schwarz Information Criterion (SIC) &nbsp; As seen in the above table, there are different orders of integration for the time-series variables. Specifically, <em>Ln_PENR</em> and <em>Ln_TENR</em> are stationary at levels, while others are stationary only at the first difference. The bounds cointegration method is more appropriate in this case because it permits the combination of stationary and difference-stationary time series. <strong>4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ARDL Bounds Cointegration Test Results</strong> Table 4.3: Lag/Model Selection Criteria Table Number of Models Evaluated: 16 Dependent Variable: <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em> S|N Model AIC Specification 1 16 -4.0889 ARDL(1, 0, 0, 0, 0) 2 15 -4.0552 ARDL(1, 0, 0, 0, 1) 3 12 -4.0477 ARDL(1, 0, 1, 0, 0) 4 14 -4.0448 ARDL(1, 0, 0, 1, 0) 5 8 -4.0445 ARDL(1, 1, 0, 0, 0) 6 11 -4.0212 ARDL(1, 0, 1, 0, 1) 7 13 -4.0121 ARDL(1, 0, 0, 1, 1) 8 10 -4.0118 ARDL(1, 0, 1, 1, 0) 9 7 -4.0066 ARDL(1, 1, 0, 0, 1) 10 6 -3.9994 ARDL(1, 1, 0, 1, 0) 11 4 -3.9970 ARDL(1, 1, 1, 0, 0) 12 9 -3.9894 ARDL(1, 0, 1, 1, 1) 13 3 -3.9672 ARDL(1, 1, 1, 0, 1) 14 5 -3.9626 ARDL(1, 1, 0, 1, 1) 15 2 -3.9589 ARDL(1, 1, 1, 1, 0) 16 1 -3.9357 ARDL(1, 1, 1, 1, 1) Note(s): * indicates chosen optimal lag specification based on the Akaike Information Criterion The Akaike criterion shows that ARDL(1, 0, 0, 0, 0) is the best lag specification for the ARDL model, thereby indicating that it is best to include only a single lag of the endogenous variable (<em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em>), and 0 lags of the other exogenous variables (<em>Ln_PER_PEE, Ln_PENR, Ln_SENR, </em>and <em>Ln_TENR</em>). On this basis, an ARDL model was estimated and the bounds cointegration method was applied to test for cointegration as seen in the following tables. Table 4.4: Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) Model Estimates Dependent Variable: <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em><em>_t</em> Regressors Coefficient Standard Error t-statistic Prob. <em>Ln_PER_RGDP _t-1</em> 0.723844 0.063884 11.33053 0.0000 <em>Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0.006558 0.014438 0.454194 0.6529 <em>Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.166945 0.048731 3.425881 0.0017 <em>Ln_SENR_t</em> 0.105751 0.044395 2.382033 0.0235 <em>Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.033421 0.036354 0.919326 0.3650 <em>C</em> 2.80666 0.598588 4.688802 0.0001 &nbsp; Table 4.5: Bounds Cointegration Test &nbsp; Computed Wald (F-Statistic): 8.5420 10% level 5% level 2.5% level 1% level <em>k </em>= 4 I(0) I(1) I(0) I(1) I(0) I(1) I(0) I(1) <em>F</em>* 2.45 3.52 2.86 4.01 3.25 4.49 3.74 5.06 Source: Pesaran et al. <em>k</em> signifies the number of regressors <em>F</em>* corresponds to the model with unrestricted intercept and trend In the above table, the bounds test statistic (8.5420) surpasses the upper-bound (4.01) at the 5% level of significance and therefore leads to the rejection of the null hypothesis of &ldquo;no cointegration&rdquo;. Based on this result, a &ldquo;restricted&rdquo; error correction model was estimated as well as a long-run &lsquo;equilibrium&rsquo; model as seen in the subsequent tables and equations. Table 4.6a: Error Correction Model Dependent Variable: &Delta;<em> Ln_PER_RGDP</em><em>_t</em> Regressors Coefficient Standard Error t-statistic Prob. <em>∆Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0.0065 0.0144 0.4541 0.6529 <em>∆Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.1669 0.0487 3.4258 0.0017 <em>∆Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.1057 0.0443 2.3820 0.0235 <em>∆Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.0334 0.0363 0.9193 0.3650 <em>ECT _t-1</em> -0.2761 0.0638 -4.3227 0.0001 &nbsp; Table 4.6b: Long-Run Model Dependent Variable: <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em><em>_t</em> Regressors Coefficient Standard Error t-statistic Prob. <em>Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0.0237 0.0489 0.4850 0.6310 <em>Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.6045 0.1253 4.8213 0.0000 <em>Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.3829 0.1106 3.4602 0.0016 <em>Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.1210 0.1500 0.8064 0.4261 <em>C</em> 10.1633 0.5757 17.6524 0.0000 &nbsp; In the error correction model, the error correction term (<em>ECT_t-1</em>) is expectedly negative and statistically significant at the 5% level (based on its <em>p</em>-value (0.0001)). Its magnitude (-0.2761) indicates a low but significant rate of adjustment to long-run equilibrium and specifically implies that approximately 27.61% of all discrepancies in long-run equilibrium will be corrected in each period. On the other hand, in the long-run model, the first long-run coefficient (<em>Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em>) is expectedly positive but its <em>p</em>-value (0.6310) indicates that it is statistically insignificant at the 5% level of significance, thereby implying that increment in <em>Ln_PER_PEE</em> will not cause <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em> to increase. . Similarly, the fourth long-run coefficient (<em>Ln_TENR</em>) is expectedly positive but its <em>p</em>-value (0.4261) indicates that it is statistically insignificant at the 5% level of significance, thereby implying that increment in <em>Ln_TENR</em> will not cause <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em> to increase. On the other hand, the second long-run coefficient (<em>Ln_PENR</em>) is expectedly positive and its <em>p</em>-value (0.0000) indicates that it is statistically significant at the 5% level of significance, thereby implying that increment in <em>Ln_PENR</em> will cause <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em> to increase by 0.6045. Similarly, the third long-run coefficient (<em>Ln_SENR</em>) is expectedly positive and its <em>p</em>-value (0.0016) indicates that it is statistically significant at the 5% level of significance, thereby implying that increment in <em>Ln_SENR</em> will cause <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em> to increase by 0.3829. The intercept also appears to be positive and statistically significant thereby indicating that the long-run model has a positive autonomous component measuring up to 10.1633 units. <strong>4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Model Evaluation Results</strong> <strong>4.4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Test of Goodness-of-Fit</strong> Table 4.7: Test of Goodness-of-Fit Summary Model R² Adj. R² ARDL Model 0.9875 0.9854 ECM 0.6948 0.6567 &nbsp; The adjusted R² of the ARDL model has a magnitude of 0.9854 and therefore implies that the ARDL model explains as much as 98.54% of the variation in its endogenous variable. Further, the adjusted R² of the ECM has a magnitude of 0.6567 and therefore implies that the error correction model (ECM) explains as much as 65.67% of the variation in its endogenous variable. <strong>4.4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; T-Test and F-Test</strong> Table 4.8: F-Test Summary Model F-Statistic 5% Critical Value Prob. Remarks ARDL Model 490.1238 F(5,31) = 2.52 0.0000 Jointly Significant @ 5% ECM 15.2700 F(4,32) = 2.67 0.0000 Jointly Significant @ 5% &nbsp; The F-statistic (490.1238) for the ARDL model exceeds its 5% critical value (2.66), thereby implying that the parameters of the ARDL model are jointly significant at the 5% level of significance. Further, the F-statistic (15.2700) of the ECM also exceeds its 5% critical value (2.84), thereby implying that the parameters of the error correction model (ECM) are jointly significant at the 5% level of significance. Table 4.9: T-Test Summary T-Test for the Long-Run Estimates Regressors t-statistic 5% Critical Value Remarks <em>Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0.4850 1.9600 Insignificant <em>Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 4.8213 1.9600 Significant <em>Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 3.4602 1.9600 Significant <em>Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.8064 1.9600 Insignificant <em>C</em> 17.6524 1.9600 Significant &nbsp; T-Test for the Error Correction Model (ECM) Estimates &nbsp; Regressors t-statistic 5% Critical Value Remarks &nbsp; <em>∆Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0.4541 1.9600 Insignificant &nbsp; <em>∆Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 3.4258 1.9600 Significant &nbsp; <em>∆Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 2.3820 1.9600 Significant &nbsp; <em>∆Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.9193 1.9600 Insignificant &nbsp; <em>ECT _t-1</em> -4.3227 1.9600 Significant &nbsp; &nbsp; In the long-run model, the t-statistics for the first and fourth parameters are less than the 5% critical value (1.96), thereby indicating that the first and fourth parameters are statistically insignificant at the 5% level of significance, while the t-statistic for the second, third, and fifth parameters are greater than the 5% critical value (1.96), thereby indicating that they are statistically significant at the 5% level of significance. Similarly, in the ECM, the t-statistics for the first and fourth parameters are less than the 5% critical value (1.96), thereby indicating that the first and fourth parameters are statistically insignificant at the 5% level of significance, while the t-statistic for the second, third, and fifth parameters are greater than the 5% critical value (1.96), thereby indicating that they are statistically significant at the 5% level of significance. <strong>Normality Test</strong> Table 4.10: Jarque-Bera Normality Test Summary Model Skewness Kurtosis JB Statistic Prob. ARDL Model -0.5558 2.8731 1.9297 0.3810 ECM -0.7369 2.9430 3.3544 0.1868 &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In the ARDL model, the <em>p</em>-value (0.3810) of the J-B test exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the ARDL model are normally distributed. Further, in the ECM, the <em>p</em>-value (0.1868) of the J-B test also exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the error correction model (ECM) are normally distributed. <strong>4.4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Heteroskedasticity Test</strong> Table 4.11: Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey Heteroskedasticity Test Summary Model BPG Statistic (Obs*R-sq) Prob. ARDL Model 4.3085 0.5059 ECM 7.2979 0.1209 &nbsp; In the ARDL model, the <em>p</em>-value (0.5059) of the BPG test exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the ARDL model are homoskedastic. Similarly, in ECM, the <em>p</em>-value (0.1209) of the BPG test also exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the error correction model (ECM) are homoskedastic. <strong>4.4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Autocorrelation Test</strong> Table 4.12: Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation Test Summary Model BG Statistic (Obs*R-sq) Prob. ARDL Model 0.1021 0.7493 ECM 0.8776 0.3488 &nbsp; In the ARDL model, the <em>p</em>-value (0.7493) of the BG test exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the ARDL model are not serially correlated. Similarly, in ECM, the <em>p</em>-value (0.3488) of the BG test also exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the error correction model (ECM) are not serially correlated. <strong>4.4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Functional Specification Test</strong> Table 4.13: RESET Model Specification Test Summary Model Test Statistics Value Degrees of Freedom Prob. ARDL Model t-statistic 0.805722 30 0.4267 F-statistic 0.649189 (1, 30) 0.4267 ECM t-statistic 0.533837 31 0.5973 F-statistic 0.284982 (1, 31) 0.5973 &nbsp; In the ARDL model, the F-statistic <em>p</em>-value (0.4267) of the RESET test exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the ARDL model was adequately specified. Further, in the ECM, the F-statistic <em>p</em>-value (0.5973) of the RESET test exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the error correction model (ECM) was adequately specified. <strong>4.4.7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; CUSUMSQ Stability Test</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The Cumulative Sum of Residuals (CUSUM) Squares test was used to examine the stability of the ARDL model. The result is captured in the following figure. Figure 4.6: CUSUMSQ Plot &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In interpreting the CUSUMSQ test, we may conclude that there is instability only if the CUSUMSQ plot falls outside the boundaries of the upper and lower dotted lines which signify the &ldquo;5% level of significance&rdquo;. In this regard, the plot of the CUSUMSQ test in the above figure shows that the ARDL model becomes momentarily unstable in year 2002. However, apart from 2002, the ARDL model appears to be stable in every other year as indicated by the confinement of the CUSUMSQ plot between the upper and lower dotted lines. Overall, considering the fact that this momentary period of instability does not coincide with any major event in Nigeria&rsquo;s education sector, we can conclude that instability is due to chance, and that the estimates of the model are reliable because apart from year 2002 the ARDL model appears to be stable.