Academic literature on the topic 'Farmakoloji'

Tədqiqatın məqsədi ilan zəhərinin toksikliyinə radioaktiv və elektromaqnit şüaların, həmçinin termiki emalın təsirini araşdırmaq olmuşdur. Material və metodlar. İşdə tədqiqat obyekti olaraq, Zaqafqaziya gürzəsi (Macrovipera lebetina obtusa) zəhərinin həm nativ, həm də müxtəlif şüalanma dozalarında γ-şüalarla və müxtəlif intensivlikli elektromaqnit şüaları ilə işlənmiş, həmçinin də müxtəlif temperaturlarda termiki emal olunmuş nümunələrindən istifadə olunmuşdur. Müxtəlif üsullarla emal olunmuş gürzə zəhərinin təcrübə heyvanlarının yaşama müddətinə təsiri 3 aylıq, ağ, nəsilverməyən siçanlar üzərində öyrənilmişdir. Nəticələr. Müəyyən dozalarda γ-radiasiya, müəyyən intensivliklərdə elektromaqnit şüalanması və müəyyən temperaturlarda termiki emal gürzə zəhərinin farmakoloji xüsusiyyətlərinə təsir göstərir ki, bu da özünü təcrübə heyvanlarının yaşama müddətinə təsirində göstərir. Yekun. Müxtəlif ətraf mühit amillərinin təsiri ilə ilan zəhərinin toksikliyinin azalması faktından zəhər əsaslı preparatların uzun müddətə saxlanılmasında istifadə edilə bilər.

Asetamenofen (parasetamol) dünyada ən çox istifadə edilən reseptsiz buraxılan analgetik vasitədir. Ehtiyatsızlıqdan uşaqların dərman təsirinə məruz qalma halları və qəsdən ozünü zəhərləmə hadisələrində böyük rol oynayır və bir çox qərb ölkələrində zəhərlənmələr üzrə informasiya mərkəzlərinə edilən zənglərə görə farmakoloji preparatlar arasında aparıcı yeri tutur. Azərbaycanda hadisələrin dəqiq sayı məlum deyildir. Lakin, uşaqlar və böyüklər arasında qızdırma və ağrı əleyhinə vasitə kimi geniş istifadəsini, eyni zamanda tərkibində parasetamol olan çoxlu sayda kombinasiya olunmuş preparatların mövcudluğunu nəzərə alaraq, doza həddinin aşırılmasının yüksək ehtimalı haqqında məlumatlı olmaq və parasetamolun doza həddinin aşırılması/parasetamolla zəhərlənmə hallarında görüləcək tədbirlər barədə biliklərə sahib olma böyük əhəmiyyətə malikdir. Parasetamol, eyni zamanda, dərman preparatlarının doza həddinin aşırılması ilə əlaqədar xəstəxanaya müraciət və hospitalizasiya halları zamanı ən çox qəbul edilən sadə preparatdır. Müasir dövrdə qaraciyər çatışmazlığı və ölüm az hallarda baş verən ağırlaşmalardır, lakin bu günlərdə də Qərb ölkələrində kəskin fulminant qaraciyər çatışmazlığının ayrı-ayrı etioloji səbəbləri arasında ən böyük pay parasetamola məxsusdur.

Asetamenofen (parasetamol) dünyada ən çox istifadə edilən reseptsiz buraxılan analgetik vasitədir. Ehtiyatsızlıqdan uşaqların dərman təsirinə məruz qalma halları və qəsdən ozünü zəhərləmə hadisələrində böyük rol oynayır və bir çox qərb ölkələrində zəhərlənmələr üzrə informasiya mərkəzlərinə edilən zənglərə görə farmakoloji preparatlar arasında aparıcı yeri tutur. Azərbaycanda hadisələrin dəqiq sayı məlum deyildir. Lakin, uşaqlar və böyüklər arasında qızdırma və ağrı əleyhinə vasitə kimi geniş istifadəsini, eyni zamanda tərkibində parasetamol olan çoxlu sayda kombinasiya olunmuş preparatların mövcudluğunu nəzərə alaraq, doza həddinin aşırılmasının yüksək ehtimalı haqqında məlumatlı olmaq və parasetamolun doza həddinin aşırılması/parasetamolla zəhərlənmə hallarında görüləcək tədbirlər barədə biliklərə sahib olma böyük əhəmiyyətə malikdir. Parasetamol, eyni zamanda, dərman preparatlarının doza həddinin aşırılması ilə əlaqədar xəstəxanaya müraciət və hospitalizasiya halları zamanı ən çox qəbul edilən sadə preparatdır. Müasir dövrdə qaraciyər çatışmazlığı və ölüm az hallarda baş verən ağırlaşmalardır, lakin bu günlərdə də Qərb ölkələrində kəskin fulminant qaraciyər çatışmazlığının ayrı-ayrı etioloji səbəbləri arasında ən böyük pay parasetamola məxsusdur.

Doğal kannabis (Δ9-THC, tetrahidrokanabinol) hint keneviri bitkisinden (Cannabis Sativa) elde edilir ve CB1, CB2 olarak ifade edilen kannabinoid reseptörler üzerine etki eder. Kannabisin tedavi edici etkileri çok eskiden beri bilinmektedir. Günümüzde tıbbi amaçla kullanılan kannabinoid içeren bazı ilaçlar bulunmaktadır. Sentetik kannabinoidlerin kimyasal yapısı doğal kannabisten oldukça farklıdır. Kannabinoid reseptör afiniteleri ve aktiviteleri doğal kannabisten yüksektir. Sentetik kannabinoid içeren maddeler genel olarak yurdışında “Spice”, “K2”, Türkiye’de ise “Bonzai” ya da “Jamaika” olarak adlandırılmaktadır. Sentetik kannabinoidleri içeren bitkisel karışımların bazı ülkelerde “head shop” ve “smart shop” denilen yerlerde yasal olarak satılması ve bunlara internetten kolayca erişilebilmesi kullanıcılar için çekici bir özelliktir. Ayrıca kannabisten daha güçlü bir etki, ekonomiklik, kolay ulaşılabilirlik ve standart madde testlerinden kurtulması, sentetik kannabinoidlerin artan kullanımına katkıda bulunmaktadır. Sentetik kannabinoidlerin referans standartları bulunmadığından tespit edilmeleri kolay değildir. Yasal engelleri aşabilmek için piyasaya sürekli olarak yeni kannabimimetik analoglar sunulmaktadır. Sentetik kannabinoid kullanımındaki artış göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, yakın zamanda en problemli uyuşturucu maddelerden biri olacağı öngörülmektedir. Sentetik kannabinoidlerin yaygın kötüye kullanımı nedeniyle, farmakoloji ve toksikolojilerinin daha iyi tanımlanması ve uygun yasal planlama ile düzenlemelerin yapılabilmesi için daha ileri düzeyde incelenmelerine gerek duyulmaktadır.Anahtar kelimeler: Sentetik kannabinoid, bonzai, uyuşturucu madde.

Diketahuinya penerapan terapi non farmakologik pengendalian tekanan darah pada pasien hipertensi dari berbagai perbandingan. Sumber perncarian jurnal pada penelitian ini adalah Google Schoolar, DOAJ dan Portal Garuda artikel yang diterbitkan dari tahun 2015-2018, jurnal intervensi untuk mengatasi tekanan darah pada pasien hipertensi, merupakan intervensi non farmakologi, merupakan intervensi yang efisien berdasarkan hasil penelitian dan intervensi yang mudah dilakukan. Berdasarkan pada sepuluh artikel sesuai dengan kriteria inklusi. Berdasarkan sepuluh artikel tentang terapi non farmakologik dalam pengendalian tekanan darah pada pasien hipertensi membuktikan bahwa 100% terapi non farmakologik efektif dalam menurunkan tekanan darah pada pasien hipertensi. Teknik non farmakologik yang digunakan dalam jurnal yang terpilih yaitu, pemberian juice campuran tomat dan mentimun, pemberian juice belimbing dan buah naga, pemberian jus papaya mengkal dalam, pemberian madu, relaksasi menggenggam jari dan nafas dalam, terapi bekam, pemberian air rebusan daun salam, pemberian terapi music suara alam, terapi Healing Touch, dan terapi Slow Deep Breating Berdasarkan 10 jurnal yang terpilih sesuai dengan kriteria inklusi, terapi non farmakologik yang efektif dalam mengendalikan tekanan darah pada pasien hipertensi adalah pemberian juice campuran tomat dan mentimun, pemberian madu, terapi relaksasi genggam jari dan nafas dalam, terapi music suara alam dan slow deep breating

Hipertensi merupakan salah satu penyakit tidak menular yang menjadi masalah utama kesehatan masyarakat. Prevalensinya yang cenderung meningkat serta potensi risiko komplikasi yang mengancam menyebabkan dibutuhkan upaya yang sistematis dalam rangka pengendalian penyakit melalui program Posbindu PTM. Manajemen terapi hipertensi harus dilakukan seumur hidup, baik terapi farmakologi maupun non farmakologi, untuk dapat menurunkan munculnya risiko komplikasi dan meningkatkan kualitas hidup penyandang. Hal ini menyebabkan perlunya pendampingan melalui pemberian edukasi bagi penyandang hipertensi dalam rangka pencapaian tekanan darah terkontrol dan pengurngan gejala Hipertensi sehingga risiko komplikasi dapat ditekan. Posbindu Desa Dukuh waluh masih didapatkan beberapa peserta yang tidak rutin datang, dan tidak mengetahui pentingnya pengontrolan gaya hidup sebagai bagian dari terapi non farmakologi. Pemberian edukasi tentang hipertensi dan tata laksanan non farmakologik dilakukan dengan metode pendidikan kelompok melalui ceramah dan diskusi dengan sasaran peserta posbindu yang teridentifikasi sebagai penyandang hipertensi, yaitu sebanyak 25 peserta. Hasil akhir kegiatan didapatkan adanya peningkatan rerata skor pengetahuan sasaran sebesar 2.6 point dan penurunan tekanan darah sistolik dan diastolik masing-masing sebesar 15.6 dan 7.6 point. Pemberian edukasi penting bagi penyandang hipertensi untuk dapat mematuhi manajemen terapi farmakologik dan non farmakologik. Kata kunci: Hipertensi, posbindu, edukasi, non farmakologi Abstract Hypertension is one of the non-communicable diseases (PTM) which is a major problem for public health. The prevalence that tends to increase and the potential risk of threatening complications causes systematic efforts to control disease through the Integrated Development Post (Posbindu) program. Management of therapy for hypertension must be carried out for life, both pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies, to reduce the risk of complications and to improve the quality of life for people. This causes the need for assistance through the provision of education for people with hypertension in order to achieve controlled blood pressure and reduce symptoms of hypertension so that the risk of complications can be reduced. In Posbindu Dukuhwaluh, there are still some participants who do not routinely come, and do not know the importance of controlling lifestyle as part of non-pharmacological therapy. Providing education about hypertension and non-pharmacological procedures was carried out by the method group discussion with the aim of 25 Posbindu participants identified as having hypertension. The final result of the activity found an increase in the mean target knowledge score of 2.6 points and a decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure of 15.6 and 7.6 points respectively. Providing education is important for people with hypertension to be able to adhere to the management of pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies. Keywords: Hypertension, posbindu, education, non-pharmacological

Poslednjih godina je prisutan trend povratka prirodi i upotrebi biljnih lekova, kako u prevenciji tako i u lecenju razlicitih bolesti. Timijan (Thymus vulgaris L.) se u narodnoj medicini koristio u lecenju respiratornih oboljenja kao što su kašalj, bronhitis i astma. Rezultati novijih istraživanja pokazuju da timijan poseduje i druga potencijalno korisna farmakološka svojstva (antimikrobna, antiinflamatorna, antioksidativna, spazmoliticka, antidijabetesna i anksioliticka). Ciljevi ovog istraživanja su bili da se ispitaju farmakodinamske osobine preparata timijana, njihove interakcije sa lekovima koji deluju na centralni nervni sistem, uticaj na funkciju jetre i parametrem oksidativnog stresa kod životinja izloženih ugljentetrahloridu, kao sadržaj karvakrola i timola u sirupu timijna, pri razlicitim uslovima cuvanja. U farmakodinamskim ispitivanjima kao eksperimentalne životinje korišceni su miševi soja NMRI, a u svim drugim ispitivanjima pacovi soja Wistar. Tinktura timijana je primenjena u dozi od 0,4mk/kg, a sirup u dozi od 12,08 ml/kg, na miševima. Primenjene doze na pacovima su bile 0,18 ml/kg za tinkturu i 5,6 ml/kg za sirup timijana. Za ispitivanje analgetickog dejstva korišceni su metod vrele ploce i test sircetne kiseline. Za procenu motorne koordinacije korišcen je test rotirajuceg štapa, a za procenu hipnotickog delovanja mereno je vreme spavanja. Prilikom ispitivanja uticaja preparata timijana na farmakokinetiku paracetamola, odre_ivana je koncentracija ovog leka HPLC metodom, a nakon toga su odreeni farmakokinetski parametri paracetamola. Antioksidantna aktivnost preparata timijana odre_ivana je pomocu in vitro i in vivo testova. Nakon žrtvovanja životinja ra_ena je histopatološka analiza jetrenog tkiva, a u serumu su odre_ivani biohemijski parametri, kao i pokazatelji bubrežene i jetrene funkcije. Sadržaj timola i karvakrola i sirupu timijana odre_en je GC/MS metodom. Sirup i tinktura timijana su pokazali analgeticki efekat u testu vrele ploce, kao i smanjenje broja grceva izazvano primenom sircetne kiseline. Sedmodnevna primena preparata timijana smanjila je analgeticko dejstvo kodeina, a pojacala analgeticki efekat paracetamola. Sirup timijana je potencirao diazepamom izazvan poremecaj motorne koordinacije. Ispitivanjem uticaja preparata timijana na hipnoticko delovanje pentobarbitala, postignuti su razliciti rezultati u zavisnosti od dužine trajanja pretremana. Sedmodnevna primena timijana je produžila vreme trajanja spavanja, dok je jednokratna primena timijana skratila vreme trajanja spavanja. Nakon i intravenske i peroralne primene paracetamola, grupe životinja koje su bile pretretirane preparatima timijana imale su krace poluvreme eliminacije i vecu konstantu eliminacije. Upotreba samo preparata timijana nije imala uticaj na biohemijske i histološke promene jetrene funkcije. S druge strane, upotreba tincture timijana u kombinaciji sa ugljen-tetrahloridom dovela je do porasta vrednosti AST i ALT enzima u serumu, dok je sirup timijana u kombinaciji sa ugljentetrahloridom smanjio aktivnost aminotransferaza. Najvece odstupanje u koncentracijama aktivnih komponenti timola i karavkrola, pokazali su sirupi cuvani na sobnoj temperaturi (20°C), u sekundarnoj ambalaži i na svetlom mestu. Rezultati dobijeni u toku ovog istraživanja ukazuju da preparati timijana uticu na farmakodinamske osobine kodeina, paracetamola, diazepama i pentobarbitala, kao i na farmakokinetiku paracetamola. Upotreba preparata timijana ispoljila je analgeticki efekat i umanjila posledice izloženosti oksidativnom stresu. Uslovi cuvanja sirupa timijana uticali su na njegovu stabilnost.
In recent years is present trend of return to nature and the use of herbal medicines in prevention and treatment of different diseases. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) was used in folk medicine in the treatment of respiratory diseases such as cough, bronchitis and asthma. The new research results have demonstrated that thyme has many others potentially useful pharmacological properties (antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antispasmodic, antidiabetic and anxiolytic). The aims of this research were to determine the pharmacodynamic properties of thyme preparations and their interactions with central nervous system drugs, influence on liver function and oxidative stress parameters of animals exposed to carbon tetrachloride, as well as concentration of thymol and carvacrol in thyme syrup, at different storage conditions. In pharmacodynamics examination as experimental animals were used NMRI mice, while in all other test were used Wistar rats. Applied dose of thyme tincture was 0.4 ml/kg and of syrup 12.08 ml/kg, for mice. For rats, applied doses of tincture and syrup were 0.18 ml/kg and 5.6 ml/kg, respectively. The analgesic activity was examined by the hot plate test and acetic acid test. The Rotarod test was used to evaluate the motor coordination and to evaluate hypnotic activity sleeping time was mesaured. In order to examine the influence of thyme preparations on pharmacokinetics of paracetamol, the concentracion of this drug was measured by HPLC metods, and after that pharmocokinetic parameters of paracetamol were determined.The antioxidant acivity of thyme preparations was determined by using in vitro and in vivo tests. After animals sacrificing, histopathological analysis of liver tissue were peroformed, in serum were determined biochemical parameters and renal and hepatic function parameters. Quantification of thymol and carvacrol in syrup was carried out by GC/MS method. Thyme syrup and thyme tincture exhibited analgesic activity in hot plate test and reduced the number of writhes induced by acetic acid. Seven-day pretreatment with thyme preparations reduced analgesic activity of codeine and increased analgesic effect of paracetamol. Thyme syrup potentiated diazepam induced motor coordination impairment. Examining the impact of thyme preparations on hypnotic effect induced by pentobarbital, different results were achieved depending on the duration of pretreatment. Seven-day pretreatment with thyme had prolonged the sleeping time, while after single dose of thyme the sleeping time was decreased. After intravenous and after oral administration of paracetamol, groups pretreated with thyme preparations had decreased elimination half-life and increased elimination constant rate. Administration of thyme preparations alone did not change biochemical nor histological markers of hepatic function. On the other hand, co-administration of thyme tincture and carbon tetrachloride resulted in exacerbation of AST and ALT values in serum, while thyme syrup in coadministration with carbon tetrachloride managed to reduce activities of aminotransferases. The concentration of major active compounds, thymol and carvacrol, was mostly changed when syrups were stored at room temperature (20°C), in secondary containers and in light place. Results obtained in this study demonstrated that thyme preparations do affect pharmacodynamic properties of codeine, paracetamol, diazepam and pentobarbital and pharmacokinetics of paracetamol. Administration of thyme preparations exhibited analgesic activity and reduced the effects of exposure to oxidative stress. Storage conditions of thyme syrup did affect its stability.

Upotrebom 50% etanola i 50% acetona kao ekstragensa izvršena je ekstrakcija delova ploda kestena: srž ploda, braon spoljna kora ploda, crvena unutrašnja kora ploda, ceo plod (bez ježevica), kao i drveta: lišće, resa, ježevice, stara i mlada kora stabla. Ispitivani su pitomi kesten, lovranski marun i kalemljeni italijanski marun. Nakon određivanja prinosa suvog ekstrakta, primenom standardnih spektrofotometrijskih metoda određen je sadržaj fenolnih jedinjenja, flavonoida i kondenzovanih tanina. Iako je primenom 50% acetona kao ekstragensa dobijen veći prinos fenolnih materija, flavonoida i kondenzovanih tanina, za proizvodnju ekstrakata se preporučuje 50% etanol kao ekstragens, jer obezbeđuje sasvim zadovoljavajuće rezultate, a prihvatljiviji je sa aspekta znatno niže toksičnosti.Ekstrakt lista lovranskog maruna i rese pitomog kestena roda 2007. godine štite eritrocite od hemolize izazvane H₂O₂.Glavne komponente hidrolizata nakon metanolizacije ekstrakata su dimetil estar dehidrodigalne kiseline i metil estar dilaktona elaginske i valoneinske kiseline. Kvantitativnom LC/MS i HPLC/DAD analizom najveći sadržaj elagitanina je utvrđen za ekstrakt ježevica (170,6 mg/g ekstrakta).Izvšeno je ispitivanje antioksidativne aktivnosti ekstrakata u odnosu na 1,1-difenil-2-pikrilhidrazil (DPPH), hidroksi (^•OH) i superoksidni anjon (^•O₂^-) radikale. Kapacitet ekstrakata za transformaciju organskih hidrofilnih radikala, ispitan kao sposobnost redukcije spin probe Tempon je najveći za ekstrakt rese pitomog kestena (A = 18,1%), dok ekstrakti lista pitomog kestena i mlade kore drveta ispoljavaju slabu aktivnost. Ispitivanje protektivnog delovanja ekstrakata u odnosu na UV zračenje određeno je kao sposobnost uklanjanja ^•OH i ^•O₂^- radikala nastalih nakon zračenja. Ekstrakti koji ispoljavaju pozitivne, ali relativno niske RI vrednosti za proizvodnju obe vrste radikala ^•OH i ^•O₂^- su spoljna braon kora lovranskog maruna, resa sa kalemljenog italijanskog maruna i list lovranskog maruna. Negativne RI vrednosti dobijene za ostale ekstrakte ukazuju na prooksidativnu aktivnost u vodenom rastvoru izloženom UV zračenju. Ekstrakti rese, lista i ježevica ispoljavaju aktivnost u cilju preveniranja/otklanjanja lipidne peroksidacije membrane eritrocita.Ispitivanjem in vitro antioksidativne aktivnosti primenom MTT testa je utvrđeno da ekstrakti rese i ježevica pitomog kestena i lista lovranskog maruna imaju izuzetno visoku antioksidativnu aktivnost u ćeliji. Naročito je povoljna činjenica da deluju u niskim koncentracijama (0,02 mg/ml). Antimikrobna aktivnost ekstrakata C. sativa određena je u odnosu na (G+) bakterije: S. aureus, S. lutea, B. cereus, L. lactis ssp. lactis, M. pyrogenes var. albus, kao i na (G-) bakterije: P. mirabilis i S. typhimurium. Značajnu antimikrobnu aktivnost daju ekstrakti kore drveta, ježevica i spoljne braon kore ploda. Ekstrakti srži ploda i celog ploda nisu ispoljili antimikrobnu aktivnost. Postoji značajna i jako značajna korelacija između antimikrobne aktivnosti ekstrakata, kao i antimikrobne i antioksidativne aktivnosti u odnosu na superoksid anjon radikale. Ekstrakti lista, ježevica, spoljne braon i unutrašnje crvene kore ploda, kao i kore drveta C. sativa Mill. dobijeni primenom 50% etanola kao ekstragensa predstavljaju značajan izvor komponenata sa farmakološkim delovanjem u cilju smanjenja nivoa oksidativnog stresa, poseduju visok kapacitet sprečavanja lipidne peroksidacije, deluju u pravcu preveniranja/otklanjanja lipidne peroksidacije i zaštite membrane eritrocita, imaju visoku in vitro antioksidativnu aktivnost, a ispoljavaju i značajnu antimikrobnu aktivnost.
Parts of chestnut such as: seeds (without spiny burs), peeled chestnut, red internal seed coat and brown seed coat, as well as parts of the trees: leaf, catkin, spiny burs, young and old chestnut bark have been extracted by 50% ethanol and 50% acetone as an extragent. Three cultivars of Castanea sativa Mill.: sweet chestnut, Lovran's marrone and grafted Italian marrone were examined. After determination of the yield of dry extract, the content of total phenolic compounds, flavonoids and condensed tannins are determined by application of standard spectrophotometrics methods. Although, the highest content of total phenolics, flavonoids and condensed tannins are obtained by 50% acetone as extragents, for production of extracts 50% ethanol is more suitable, regards much lower toxicity.Extracts of the leaf of Lovran's marrone and catkin of sweet chestnut native in 2007, protect erythrocytes from hemolysis provoked by H₂O₂.Dehydrodigallic acid dimethyl ester, ellagic acid and valoneic acid dilactone methyl ester are the main compounds in all hydrolysates after methanolisation. The highest content of ellagitannin was detected in extract of spiny burs (170.6 mg/g extract), by application of quantitative LC/MS and HPLC/DAD analysis.The examination of antioxidant activity of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), hydroxyl (^•OH) and superoxide (^•O2^-) radicals have been done. Capacity of extracts for removal of organic, hydrophilic radicals, exanimate as potential of reduction of spin probe Tempon is highest in extract of catkin of sweet chestnut (A = 18.1%), while extracts of catkin, leaf and spiny burs almost have no antioxidative activity. The evaluation of UV-protective activity of extracts is determinated as capacity for removal of ^•OH and O₂^- radicals generated after irradiation. Extracts which showed positive, but relative low RI values for production of both radical species, OH and ^•O₂ radicals, are brown seed coat of Lovran's marrone, catkin of grafted Italian marrone and leaf of Lovran's marrone. Negative RI values obtained for other extracts show that these have prooxidative activity in aqueous solution exposed to UV radiation. Extracts of catkin, leaf and spiny burs expressed activity to prevent/remove lipid peroxidation in the membrane of erythrocytes.Examination of antioxidant activity in vitro by application of MTT test have been detected especially high antioxidant activity of extracts of catkin, spiny bur of sweet chestnut and leaf of Lovran’s marrone in the cell. Particularly is favorable that extracts acting in low concentration (0.02 mg/ml). Antimicrobial activity of extracts of C. sativa was determinated against Gram-positive bacteria: S. aureus, S. lutea, B. cereus, L. lactis ssp. lactis, M. pyrogenes var. albus, as well as Gram-negative bacteria: P. mirabilis and S. typhimurium. The significant antimicrobial activity shows extracts of bark, spiny burs and brown seed coat. Extracts of peeled chestnut and seeds didn’t show any antimicrobial activity. The very significant and significant correlation existed between antimicrobial activity of extracts, as well as antimicrobial activity and scavenging of ^•O2^- radical. Extracts of leaf, spiny burs, brown seed coat and red internal seed coat, as well as bark of C. sativa Mill. produced by 50% ethanol as extragent represent important resource of components with pharmacological activity in reducing level of oxidative stress, possess high activity to prevent/remove lipid peroxidation and protection of the membrane of erythrocytes, have high in vitro antioxidant activity, and also express significant antimicrobial activity.

Background: Statins are among the most used drugs in Sweden. There are currently four statins available on the Swedish market; atorvastatin, simvastatin, pravastatin and rosuvastatin. Statins act by inhibiting 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme-A reductase, also known as HMG-CoA-reductase. HMG-CoA-reductase is the rate-limiting enzyme of the cholesterol synthesis. Decreased hepatic cholesterol leads to increased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) clearance from plasma to liver cells. Having a high level of LDL cholesterol is potentially dangerous as it can lead to atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Statins significantly reduce cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with and without coronary heart disease. Purpose: The aim of this work was to investigate if there are any differences between the different statins according to contemporary evidence. Method: This is a literary analysis. Studies included were searched from PubMed. A total of five studies were included. Results: The result of this study indicates rosuvastatin to be most efficacious in lowering LDL cholesterol (LDL-C), triglycerides and total cholesterol. It also improved the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) better than atorvastatin, simvastatin and pravastatin. Study 1 showed rosuvastatin to lower LDL-C with statistical significance (P<0.001) across dose ranges (10-40 mg) after 12 weeks. Study 2 compared a dose ratio of 1:2 between rosuvastatin and simvastatin in lowering LDL-C with a 3.24% (95% CI 4.10 to 2.38) favor of rosuvastatin. Study 4 compared effects of atorvastatin 80 mg and rosuvastatin 20 mg in patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction in a 4-week therapy. Rosuvastatin 20 resulted in a 35% compared with atorvastatin 80 mg 34% (P=0.59) reduction in LDL-C levels. Study 1 demonstrated rosuvastatin to improve HDL-C levels in daily doses of 40 mg with statistical significance compared with atorvastatin, simvastatin and pravastatin. Study 1 demonstrated rosuvastatin to lower total cholesterol with statistical significance (P<0.002) across doses compared with atorvastatin, simvastatin and pravastatin. Study 1 also demonstrated rosuvastatin to lower triglycerides more. In daily doses of 40 mg rosuvastatin had a statistical significance (P<0.002) versus simvastatin and pravastatin, but not atorvastatin. The P value between rosuvastatin and atorvastatin was not mentioned, neither the P-value between atorvastatin, simvastatin and pravastatin. Conclusion: Statins are not equipotent. Rosuvastatin showed greater results in reducing LDL-C, triglycerides and total cholesterol with no increased risk of adverse events compared with atorvastatin, simvastatin and pravastatin. Rosuvastatin still lacks in clinical experience which makes needs for further studies on this topic.

Introduktion: ADHD är en uppmärksamhet -och hyperaktiv störning, där 90 % i Sverige behandlas med det farmakologiska läkemedlet Metylfenidat (MPH). En stor andel med ADHD utvecklar psykiatrisk komorbiditet i form av psykisk ohälsa (frånvaro av mentalt välbefinnande). Patofysiologin hur MPH påverkar hjärnan är okänd och behandlingsformen har diskuterats som bristfällig på grund av förekommande bieffekter. Fysisk aktivitet har föreslagits som ett hälsosammare behandlingsalternativ, då evidens visat att fysisk aktivitet kan förbättra ADHD-symptom och samsjuklighet av psykisk ohälsa. Det finns inga studier som undersökt hur individer med ADHD upplever nuvarande- och önskar behandling. Syftet med denna studie blev därför att undersöka upplevda erfarenheter av ADHD och hur det farmakologiska läkemedlet MPH och fysisk aktivitet upplevs ha påverkat diagnosens symptom och individernas psykiska hälsa samt att ta reda på vilken behandling individerna önskar utifrån deras livserfarenheter. Metoden utgick från ett fenomenologiskt ramverk med hjälp av en deskriptiv kvalitativ tvärsnittsstudie, där data extraherades genom en innehållsanalys med en induktiv ansats. Urvalet selekterades genom snöbollsurval, där inklusionskriteriet var att deltagarna blivit diagnostiserad med ADHD och har erfarenheter av MPH och fysisk aktivitet. Resultatet visade att symptom för ADHD var problematik med koncentration-, hyperaktivitet-, uppmärksamhet- och systematiska svårigheter, där symptom försämrat den psykiska hälsan. Det framgick att både MPH och fysisk aktivitet effektiviserade symptom mot koncentration, hyperaktivitet och uppmärksamhet, varav KBT (kognitiv beteendeterapi) förbättrade systematiska svårigheter. Vidare bidrog MPH med fysiska, mentala och beteendeföränderliga bieffekter som försämrade den psykiska hälsan. Fysisk aktivitet visade däremot förbättra den psykiska hälsan, där inaktivitet framgick som en central nackdel för förvärring av symptom och psykisk hälsa. Deltagarnas önskan var att behandling bör uppföljas och baseras på en överenskommelse som anpassas efter individuella svårigheter och hälsotillstånd. Slutsatsen med studien kom fram till att behandlas med fysisk aktivitet i kombination med KBT skulle vara hälsosammare som första behandling mot samtliga ADHD-symptom och psykisk hälsa. I andra hand var det deltagarnas önskan att applicera MPH vid akut behov, och är därav förslag att forska fram MPH som engångsbehandling som kan användas vid inaktiva tillstånd. Studien kom fram till att inkludering av fler idrottsvetenskapliga tjänster till vård och skola behövs för mer kompetens om vikten av fysisk aktivitet för individer som har ADHD.
Introduction: ADHD is an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, where 90% in Sweden is treated with the pharmacological drug Methylphenidate (MPH). People diagnosed with ADHD develop often psychiatric comorbidity in form of mental illness. The pathophysiology behind how MPH influence the brain is unknown and the treatment have been discussed as deficient due to side effects. Physical activity has been suggested as a healthier treatment option, as evidence shows that physical activity can improve ADHD-symptoms and comorbidity of mental illness. There are no studies that have invastigate how individuals with ADHD experience current- and desired treatment. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the experiences of having ADHD and how the pharmacological treatment MPH and physical activity has affected the symptoms and mental health, and also find out what treatment the individuals want based on their life experiences. The method was derived from a phenomenological framework using a descriptive qualitative cross-sectional study. Data was analyzed with an inductive approach using an interpretive analysis. Participants was recruited through a snowball selection, where the inclusion criteria stated that participants been diagnosed with ADHD and have experience of MPH and physical activity. The results showed that the frequent occurring symptoms of ADHD were difficulties with concentration-, hyperactivity-, attention- and systematic symptoms, where symptoms had shown a negative effect on the mental health. It appeared that both MPH and physical activity made symptom improvement against concentration-, hyperactivity- and attention difficulties, while CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy) improved systematic difficulties. MPH contributed to side effects that affected physiological-, psychological- and behavioral aspects, which all were perceived to have a negative influence on mental health. In contrast, physical activity improved mental health and showed no evidence of side effects, except when physical activity was absent from daily life. Inactivity appeard to be a central disadvantage for worsening symptoms and mental health. The participants desired that their treatment should be tailored to individual difficulties and health condition in a collaborative way and with follow-up from the health care worker. The study concluded that physical activity in combination with CBT would be a healthier as first treatment option to reduce symptoms of ADHD and improve mental heatlh. Additionally, the participants desired treatment with MPH in form of single doses for urgent need, and it is therefore to suggest development of such treatment option. Furthermore, the study proposes more services for sport science within healthcare and schools for containing applicable knowledge in physical activity for dose with ADHD.

Many blood cell mechanisms in the human body are working all the time to maintain haemostasis in the blood vessels. Once a wound arises platelets are alerted via different substances to cover the wound and prevent loss of blood. Most of the times these mechanisms do stop the blood, and further heal the wound. During other circumstances the platelet-covering continues to form a thrombus, preventing the blood to flow and instead causes myocardial infarction or stroke. There are several risk factors triggering development of circulatory diseases such as obesity, lack of exercise, smoking, infection and stress.

This thesis describes the interaction between the two platelet thrombin receptors PAR1 and PAR4, together with the interaction of the oral pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis (with thrombin-like gingipains), and the cross talk with the stress hormone epinephrine and its α_2A adrenergic receptor. Until now PAR1 is thought to be the most important thrombin receptor due to its high affinity for thrombin. From a phylogenetical and patophysiological point of view there must be a reason why platelets express two different thrombin receptors. Today PAR4 is considered less important, but this thesis implies that PAR4 plays an important role in platelet signaling and haemostasis.

The results show that bacteria pre-stimulated platelets, followed by epinephrine gives a strong and full aggregation and calcium mobilization, in both aspirinated and non-aspirinated human platelets. The amount of bacteria does not itself, or epinephrine alone give aggregation or calcium mobilization. This mechanism is dependent on both Rgp type gingipain released from P. gingivalis, and PARs in an interaction with the α_2A adrenergic receptor.

Further, results reveal that PAR4 interacts and cross talks with the platelet α_2A-adrenergic receptor in aspirinated platelets. Neither of the two platelet purinergic P2Y-receptors (P2Y₁₂ and P2Y₁) contribute to this action, but the purinergic P2X₁ does. In aggregation studies a low dose of PAR4 activating peptide (AP), but not PAR1-AP, followed by epinephrine results in a strong aggregation and in a calcium mobilization. ATP secretion measurements did reveal that ATP was released during epinephrine stimulation, which indicate that ATP and P2X₁ have a key role in this event. By blocking P2X₁ both aggregation and calcium mobilization were abolished, but not by blocking P2Y₁₂ and P2Y₁. Inhibition of PI3-kinase, both epinephrine-induced calcium mobilization and aggregation were significant reduced. In non-aspirinated platelets PAR1 synergizes with the α_2A adrenergic receptor and P2X₁.

In conclusion, this thesis suggests that PAR4 plays an intriguing and important role in platelets with inactived cyclooxygenase 1.  The results described in this thesis contribute to an increased knowledge of the platelet thrombin receptors.

The aim of this thesis was to determine the role of nucleoside analog activating and deactivating enzymes in nucleoside analog metabolism and resistance development. Nucleoside analogs are anti-cancer drogs and are often used to treat different leukemias, attributably to presence of high levels of nucleoside analog activating enzymes in hematopoietic cells. More recently some of the newer analogs have been used  successfully to treat solid tumors as well. We have used human leukemic cell lines, and isolated cells from patients with leukemia, to investigate the nucleoside analog activating enzymes deoxycytidine kinase (dCK) and deoxyguanosine kinase (dGK) and some of the deactivating enzymes called 5'nucleotidases (5'-NTs). We have measured mRNA expressions and enzymatic activities and correlated them with the cytotoxic response to nuc1eoside analogs and changes in cell cycle progression. We optimized and evaluated a siRNA-transfection method and decreased the activities of dCK and dGK in two different cell lines in order to find out more about their respective contribution to activation of these drogs. An expression microarray analysis of a nucleoside analog resistant cell line was also performed in order to clarify which genes are involved in development of resistance. We found that expressions and activities of dCK and dGK were not correlated. The enzyme activities of activating and deactivating enzymes changed during cell cycle progression, giving actively proliferating cells a more favorable enzymatic profile with regard to nucleoside analog cytotoxicity. The activities of dCK and dGK could be reduced transiently in leukemic and solid tumor cell lines, thereby confer either resistance or increased sensitivity to nucleoside analogs to variable degrees. Expression microarray analysis was used to evaluate the effect of the transfection method and the specificity of siRNA. We concluded that cells tolerated the transfection weIl without major effects on gene expression, and considered the siRNA used to be specific to its target. An expression microarray experiment on a nucleoside analog-induced resistant cell line revealed a hypomethylating capacity of the drog and induction of fetal hemoglobin and a multidrog resistance efflux pump as a result of the hypomethylation. This pump should not be affected by nucleoside analoges since they are not a substrate of it, and upregulation of the pump unfortunately renders the cells highly cross-resistant to different types of drogs. Our preliminary data supports our theory that it may be upregulated in order to help excrete hemoglobin that otherwise would be toxic to the cells.

Bunga telang (Clitoria ternatea L.) merupakan salah satu tumbuhan leguminosae yang memiliki berbagai potensi farmakologis, namun tumbuhan ini belum dibudidayakan secara luas dan sebagian besar pemanenannya masih berasal dari alam. Perbanyakan bunga telang menggunakan biji memiliki masa dormansi, sehingga diperlukan upaya untuk pematahan dormansi benih bunga telang. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruhasal benih dan berbagai perlakuan pematahan dormansi terhadap perkecambahan dan pertumbuhan bunga telang. Penelitian ini dilakukan di screen house Fakultas Pertanian Universitas Sebelas Maret pada bulan April - Mei 2021. Metode penelitian menggunakan RAK faktorial yang terdiri dari faktor pertama asal benih (K) yaitu asal benih dari dataran rendah (K1) dan dataran tinggi (K2), faktor kedua perlakuan (P) yaitu perlakuan kontrol (P1), suhu perendaman 45° C (P2) dan larutan GA3 konsentrasi 30 ppm (P3). Data yang diperoleh dianalisis menggunakan analysis of variance (ANOVA) dan diuji lanjut dengan BNT 5%. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada interaksi antara asal benih dengan perlakuan pematahan dormansi. Perlakuan asal benih memberikan nilai tertinggi pada parameter kecepatan tumbuh (22,01 %/etmal), keserempakan tumbuh (79,17 %), jumlah daun umur 1 MST (2,17 helai), 2 MST (9,42 helai), 3 MST (21,83 helai), 4 MST (44,33 helai) dan 5 MST (81,50 helai). Sedangkan perlakuan dengan larutan GA3 konsentrasi 30 ppm (P3) memberikan nilai tertinggi pada parameter daya berkecambah (100%) dan tinggi tanaman umur 2 MST (19,77 cm).