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1
Scott, Nicole M. Female Intrasexual Competition in Primates. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.7.
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Males and females compete with each other and amongst their own sex, but often for different reasons. This chapter enriches current understanding of female-female competition in humans by examining competition in other primates; it explores why females compete and discusses when affiliation and cooperation may lead to better outcomes. Socioecological constraints on a species—such as social organization, food competition, and dispersal preference—play a major role in the structure of female-female relationships; notable attention is given to factors that affect social relationships: food competition, reproduction, dispersal, and dominance. Bond maintenance behaviors and communication strategies are also discussed relative to female-female relationships. Three nonhuman primate societies are examined, and potential lessons from these structures are gleaned where possible. The chapter reviews human progress in overcoming phylogenetic and ecological constraints in favor of women’s societal liberties.
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Yong, Jose C., Norman P. Li, Katherine A. Valentine, and April R. Smith. Female Virtual Intrasexual Competition and Its Consequences. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.38.
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Intrasexual competition is a key component of sexual selection. Evolutionarily, women compete for access to and retention of mates on key dimensions that men have evolved to value and prioritize in their long- and short-term mates, in particular physical attractiveness. Such competition evolved to be adaptive in ancestral environments as the perceived competition consisted of real individuals. However, underlying psychological mechanisms for competition are excessively triggered and more continuously engaged in modern environments, because these psychological mechanisms for social comparison and competition, at a deep level, do not differentiate between real people and imagined intrasexual competition in the form of mass media images. Utilizing an evolutionary mismatch framework, this chapter explores ways that women are psychologically influenced by the pervasive presence of virtual same-sex competitors for mates. Various negative psychological states in modern societies (e.g., depression, eating disorders) may be linked to virtual intrasexual competition.
3
Morris, Craig Eric, Melanie L. Beaussart, Chris Reiber, and Linda S. Krajewski. Intrasexual Mate Competition and Breakups. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.19.
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Female competition for male attention is multifaceted. Typically psychological and relational in nature, this competition may be no less damaging than physical violence more commonly used between males. Research on female–female mate competition has examined short-term effects, yet how women cope with long-term effects of romantic relationship dissolution has been little explored. If negative emotions exist because they provide an evolutionary advantage (attuning physiological processes, thoughts, and behaviors to deal with situations that have frequently incurred high fitness costs), then emotions arising from the loss of a mate to a sexual rival may potentially motivate actions that could make one avoid this scenario in the future. This essay argues that there are consequences of female intrasexual mate competition that may be both evolutionarily adaptive and also beneficial in terms of personal growth and that may expand beyond mating and into other realms of personal development.
4
Johnsen, Laura L., and Glenn Geher. Fashion as a Set of Signals in Female Intrasexual Competition. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.37.
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Fashion is one tool that women employ to enhance their overall attractiveness to increase mating opportunities and repel competition from other females. This essay first discusses how evolution has shaped the female form and how clothing is used to enhance desirable traits. Additionally, this essay addresses how fashion trends have endured throughout history because they have been continually successful in maintaining women’s attractiveness. Further, the reasons why women… clothing when engaging in competitive strategies such as self-promotion and competitor manipulation is also explored. The second section covers how women’s physiological occurrences influence the way they dress and how males perceive them. Third, this essay delves into the social perceptions and consequences of wearing certain kinds of clothing. It explores how fashion is used to attract and retain mates by enabling a woman to stand out among her potential rivals and/or forcing rivals to back down from pursuing a potential partner.
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Gallup, Andrew C. Adolescent Peer Aggression and Female Reproductive Competition. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.9.
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Research suggests that intrasexual aggression during adolescence functions in competition over dating and reproductive opportunities and that aggressive strategies are more adaptive for females at this developmental stage. This sex difference appears to be related to the differential use of aggressive behavior and slightly uneven developmental trajectory between adolescent males and females. Competition over males is a common motive for female aggression during middle and high school, and, similar to adults, adolescent aggressors often use tactics of competitor derogation to lower the mate value of rivals. Taking an evolutionary perspective, findings demonstrate that adolescent females who engage in intrasexual peer aggression tend to have adaptive dating and sexual patterns, whereas those who are frequently victimized suffer maladaptive fitness outcomes. Recent research also shows that directed female intrasexual aggression during early stages of adolescence can be effective in both disrupting dating relationships of rivals and gaining access to desired dating partners.
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MacEacheron, Melanie, and Lorne Campbell. Moderation of Female–Female Competition for Matings by Competitors’ Age and Parity. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.27.
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Previous research on female intrasexual competition, especially but not only for matings or mateships, has largely been conducted using convenience samples of women of undergraduate status and therefore generally between the ages of 17 and 22. Even among such articles including women over 25, the majority do not focus on mate competition. There is a priori reason, however, to believe that intrasexual competition for matings and mateships would extend and change beyond this life stage. This chapter provides an overview of the literature on female intrasexual competition over women’s reproductive careers, discusses factors that should result in predictable changes in female intrasexual competition as women age, and proposes testable hypotheses that should help guide future research in this area of research. Based on this analysis, new theories concerning reproductive advantage derivable from acquiring the status of successful mother are proposed.
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Nagamuthu, Chenthila, and Elizabeth Page-Gould. Competition between Female Friends. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.11.
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Many theories of cross-group friendship are based on the assumption that friends are inherently equal in status. This chapter discusses the idea that, even among same-sex friends, this assumption may be premature. It compares evidence for two contrasting arguments concerning competition between female friends: (a) intrasexual competition is highest among friends, and (b) friendship nullifies competition between friends. The chapter argues that equality may not be as normative in close friendships as the field has intuitively assumed. It also discusses how acknowledging and embracing these differences can lead to better predictions for the role of close relationships in interpersonal dominance and cooperation.
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Fisher, Maryanne L., and Ana María Fernández. The Influence of Women’s Mate Value on Intrasexual Competition. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.52.
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In order to engage in assortative mating, people must be accurate in self-assessments of their current worth on the mating market. We argue that people intrinsically know their worth (i.e., mate value), and that this knowledge has far-reaching implications on a variety of behaviors and decisions. Here our focus is on women’s mate value and how it relates to their intrasexual competition for access to, and retention of, romantic partners. We start with a review of definitions and the components of female mate value, discuss mate preferences in relation to assessment of mate value, and then briefly provide a sample of some auxiliary issues, such as how feelings of control over mate value influence one’s well-being. We then turn to female intrasexual competition and specifically review competitive strategy use in relation to mate value. In the last section, we provide areas for further investigation.
9
Dillon, Haley M., Lora E. Adair, and Gary L. Brase. Operational Sex Ratio and Female Competition. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.1.
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When there is a surplus of one sex in a population, members of that sex often compete against each other for access to the scarcer sex. This chapter reviews the theoretical foundations for this phenomenon, focusing on the concept of operational sex ratio (OSR; the ratio of viable and available males to females in a given mating market) versus overall sex ratio, as well as the phylogenetic evidence of sex ratios as an important factor influencing mating behaviors. Research on human OSR and its effects is a fairly recent development but has already led to findings that are generally coherent and consistent with the nonhuman evidence. The evidence to date indicates that people who find themselves in female-disadvantaged mating markets show systematic and adaptive changes in their behaviors, including increased female intrasexual competition. The chapter concludes with discussions of additional issues and future directions for research on OSR.
10
Arnocky, Steven, and Tracy Vaillancourt. Sexual Competition among Women. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.3.
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Darwin (1871) observed in his theory of evolution by means of sexual selection that “it is the males who fight together and sedulously display their charms before the female” (p. 272). Researchers examining intrasexual competition have since focused disproportionately on male competition for mates, with female competition receiving far less attention. In this chapter, we review evidence that women do indeed compete with one another to secure and maintain reproductive benefits. We begin with an overview of the evolutionary theory of competition among women, with a focus on biparental care and individual differences in men’s mate value. We discuss why competition among women is characteristically different from that of men and highlight evidence supporting women’s use of epigamic display of physical attractiveness characteristics and indirect aggression toward same-sex peers and opposite-sex romantic partners as sexually competitive tactics. Finally, individual differences in competition among women are discussed.
11
Guitar, Amanda E., and Rachael A. Carmen. Facebook Frenemies and Selfie-Promotion. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.39.
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Human communication has been largely influenced by the global popularization of social network sites such as Facebook over the past decade. From PCs to mobile phones, humans can now communicate in ways never before experienced during our history on Earth; moreover, sites like Facebook are providing a novel platform for engaging in female intrasexual competition. Through cyberbullying, selfies, and Facebook “stalking,” females are engaging in traditional strategies of intrasexual competition (i.e., self-promotion, rival derogation, mate manipulation, and competitor manipulation) in an evolutionarily novel social environment. This chapter examines what is new about social interactions that take place online and what is an artifact of our evolutionary heritage. Additionally, it argues that the self-promoting material that Facebook users post to the site is indicative of underlying fitness; therefore Facebook postings are an example of a modern-day extended phenotype.
12
Dubbs, Shelli L., Ashleigh J. Kelly, and Fiona Kate Barlow. Ravishing Rivals. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.35.
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Intrasexual competition between women is a critically important construct with real implications for women’s physical and psychological health. This chapter argues that female competition can cause women to fixate on their appearance and take unnecessary risks in an effort to improve it. Western society sets seemingly impossible criteria for female beauty that few women can naturally—and healthily—achieve. These standards and evolved partner preferences for physical attractiveness in women help to explain why women generally feel enormous pressure to be attractive and are compelled to compete intensely with one another in the realm of physical attractiveness. The authors suggest that intrasexual competition may lead some women to alter their physical appearance through unnecessary, expensive, and ultimately risky medical procedures in order to outdo female mating rivals and attain the best-quality mate. This is may be a dangerous strategy, equivalent to the overt risk-taking behaviors that exemplify male–male intrasexual competition.
13
Vaillancourt, Tracy, and Jaimie Arona Krems. An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective of Indirect Aggression in Girls and Women. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190491826.003.0008.
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Although the effects of sexual selection on male mating competition and intrasexual aggression have been studied extensively for well over a century, female mating competition and intrasexual aggression have only begun to receive serious attention in recent decades. Here, we focus on one aspect of sexually selected competition in girls and women—rival derogation, which takes the form of indirect aggression. We argue that this tactic of intrasexual competition both reduces a rival’s ability to compete for desirable mates and helps aggressors achieve and maintain their own high social status. We further argue that physical attractiveness initiates the pathway leading to high social status, which is preserved through the use of indirect aggression and is associated with increased dating and sexual behavior.
14
De Backer, Charlotte, Liselot Hudders, and Maryanne L. Fisher. Food as a Means for Female Power Struggles. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.45.
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Food often brings to mind diet and health, but it also has important social functions. Food is about so much more than just caloric intake and providing nourishment to oneself and others under one’s care. It signals, for example, care about oneself and others by means of careful planning, preparation, and consumption. After reviewing several perspectives on the social dynamics of food, this chapter connects food to women’s intrasexual competition. Specifically, it addresses how cooking and food intake are self-promotion strategies, not only due to one’s demonstration of an excellent domestic ability to a potential audience but also by boosting one’s physical attractiveness via controlling food intake. While there exists little direct, empirical evidence on the relationship between interpersonal competition and food preparation and consumption, research from a wide array of topics offers support. The chapter closes with numerous directions for future research in the area of food studies.
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Carter, Gregory L., and Maryanne L. Fisher. Conclusion. Edited by Maryanne L. Fisher. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199376377.013.49.
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This handbook has presented a wide range of theoretical perspectives on the motivations, attitudes, and behaviors involved in female competition. Using a metatheoretical framework, the contributors have examined how, when, and why women compete. This conclusion articulates the book’s main themes, beginning with evidence regarding women as active, competitive individuals and the value of mating information, addressing topics such as women’s competitive choices regarding mate copying, mate poaching, and mate retention. It then considers the role of intrasexual aggression in adolescence in relation to dating and reproduction, the importance of Operational Sex Ratio (OSR) to female competition, the concept of cooperative mothering or allomothering, and infanticide. It also discusses women as competitors in both traditional and novel social arenas as well as the role of women’s physiology in their competitive behaviors. Finally, it suggests directions for future research on topics that warrant further scrutiny.