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1
Dunn, Derek W. "Stability in fig tree–fig wasp mutualisms: how to be a cooperative fig wasp." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 130, no. 1 (2020): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blaa027.
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Abstract Fig tree–fig wasp mutualisms are diverse and underpin much biodiversity. The wasps (Agaonidae) are the sole pollinators of the trees (Ficus). Figs are enclosed inflorescences, each of which contains many small flowers. Female wasps (foundresses) enter receptive figs to spread pollen and to lay their eggs individually into fig flowers. As they oviposit, wasps also inject chemicals that transform individual flower ovaries into galls that will feed and house wasp offspring. For fig tree–fig wasp mutualisms to persist, the trees must set seed; therefore, the wasps have both to pollinate and to fail to gall all flower ovaries. However, wasps that avoid pollination costs and/or gall all flowers are predicted to outcompete more cooperative conspecifics, resulting in destabilisation of the mutualism. Here, I review the literature on why wasps pollinate by focusing on how trees reduce investment to unpollinated figs, resulting in ‘sanctions’ to wasps that fail to pollinate via reduced production of offspring. I also review the mechanisms that prevent wasps from galling all flowers, mainly those in monoecious Ficus, that also result in wasps predominantly galling longer flowers whilst leaving shorter flowers to become seeds. I make suggestions for future work and conclude by reaffirming why multiple processes promote stability in fig tree–fig wasp mutualisms.
2
PENG, Y. Q., J. B. ZHAO, R. D. HARRISON, and D. R. YANG. "Ecology of parasite Sycophilomorpha sp. on Ficus altissima and its effect on the fig-fig wasp mutualism." Parasitology 137, no. 13 (2010): 1913–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182010000727.
Full textAbstract:
SUMMARYFigs and their pollinating wasps are a classic example of an obligate mutualism. In addition, figs are parasitized by a suite of non-mutualistic wasps whose basic ecology is largely undescribed. Sycophilomorpha (subfamily Epichrysomallinae) fig wasps are ovule gallers and the genus contains only 1 described species. An undescribed Sycophilomorpha species parasitized Ficus altissima at Xishuangbana, Southwestern China. The wasp was observed ovipositing on the tiny immature figs that were still concealed beneath the involucral bracts. A Sycophilomorpha wasp oviposited on more than 1 fig and spent long time-periods to lay large clutches on a single fig. The wasps naturally occurred on all 7 sampled trees, but the occurrence of wasps was significantly different among trees, crops and months. These wasps were able to prevent unpollinated figs from being aborted, and their offspring were able to develop in the figs that otherwise had no pollinator wasps or seeds. The Sycophilomorpha wasp had a detrimental effect on the fig–fig wasp mutualism. Figs in which Sycophilomorpha wasps were present, produced significantly fewer seeds, pollinators and cheaters. However, the abundance of Sycophilomorpha in a fig was only significantly negatively correlated with pollinator production and not seed or cheater production. Our study illustrates a previously unknown fig wasp niche and expands our understanding of factors that can affect the fig–fig wasp interaction.
3
Zhao, Dan, Zhaozhe Xin, Hongxia Hou, et al. "Inferring the Phylogenetic Positions of Two Fig Wasp Subfamilies of Epichrysomallinae and Sycophaginae Using Transcriptomes and Mitochondrial Data." Life 11, no. 1 (2021): 40. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/life11010040.
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Fig wasps are a group of insects (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) that live in the compact syconia of fig trees (Moraceae: Ficus). Accurate classification and phylogenetic results are very important for studies of fig wasps, but the taxonomic statuses of some fig wasps, especially the non-pollinating subfamilies are difficult to determine, such as Epichrysomallinae and Sycophaginae. To resolve the taxonomic statuses of Epichrysomallinae and Sycophaginae, we obtained transcriptomes and mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) data for four species of fig wasps. These newly added data were combined with the data of 13 wasps (data on 11 fig wasp species were from our laboratory and two wasp species were download from NCBI). Based on the transcriptome and genome data, we obtained 145 single-copy orthologous (SCO) genes in 17 wasp species, and based on mitogenome data, we obtained 13 mitochondrial protein-coding genes (PCGs) for each of the 17 wasp species. Ultimately, we used 145 SCO genes, 13 mitochondrial PCGs and combined SCO genes and mitochondrial genes data to reconstruct the phylogenies of fig wasps using both maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) analyses. Our results suggest that both Epichrysomallinae and Sycophaginae are more closely related to Agaonidae with a high statistical support.
4
Zhao, Dan, Zhaozhe Xin, Hongxia Hou, et al. "Inferring the Phylogenetic Positions of Two Fig Wasp Subfamilies of Epichrysomallinae and Sycophaginae Using Transcriptomes and Mitochondrial Data." Life 11, no. 1 (2021): 40. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/life11010040.
Full textAbstract:
Fig wasps are a group of insects (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) that live in the compact syconia of fig trees (Moraceae: Ficus). Accurate classification and phylogenetic results are very important for studies of fig wasps, but the taxonomic statuses of some fig wasps, especially the non-pollinating subfamilies are difficult to determine, such as Epichrysomallinae and Sycophaginae. To resolve the taxonomic statuses of Epichrysomallinae and Sycophaginae, we obtained transcriptomes and mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) data for four species of fig wasps. These newly added data were combined with the data of 13 wasps (data on 11 fig wasp species were from our laboratory and two wasp species were download from NCBI). Based on the transcriptome and genome data, we obtained 145 single-copy orthologous (SCO) genes in 17 wasp species, and based on mitogenome data, we obtained 13 mitochondrial protein-coding genes (PCGs) for each of the 17 wasp species. Ultimately, we used 145 SCO genes, 13 mitochondrial PCGs and combined SCO genes and mitochondrial genes data to reconstruct the phylogenies of fig wasps using both maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) analyses. Our results suggest that both Epichrysomallinae and Sycophaginae are more closely related to Agaonidae with a high statistical support.
5
Liu, Yifeng, Songle Fan, and Hui Yu. "Analysis of Ficus hirta Fig Endosymbionts Diversity and Species Composition." Diversity 13, no. 12 (2021): 636. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d13120636.
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Endosymbionts living in plants and insects are pervasive. Ficus (Moraceae) has very special inflorescences (which we also call figs) enclosed like an urn, and such inflorescence is usually parasitized by fig wasps. Ficus breeds fig wasp larvae in its figs and adult fig wasps pollinate for Ficus, Ficus and its obligated pollinator formed fig-fig wasp mutualism. Previous studies have found that this confined environment in figs may have provided protection for fig wasps and that this has left some imprints on the genome of fig wasps during the coevolution history of figs and fig wasps. Research on the diversity of both bacteria and fungi in figs are fewer. Our study explored the diversity of endosymbionts in Ficus hirta figs. We utilized high-throughput sequencing and biological database to identify the specific microorganism in figs, then conducted microorganism communities’ diversity analysis and function annotation analysis. As a result, we identified the dominant endosymbionts in figs, mainly some insect internal parasitic bacteria and fungi, plant pathogen, endophytes, and saprotroph. Then we also found bacteria in Ficus hirta figs were more diversified than fungi, and bacteria communities in female figs and functional male figs were different. These findings may give us more insight into the coevolution and interaction among endosymbiont, fig, and fig wasp.
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Ramírez-Benavides, William, and Luis Salazar-Figueroa. "Parasitodiplogaster citrinema is an internal necrophagous species of the pollinating fig wasp Pegoscapus tonduzi." Nematology 17, no. 6 (2015): 733–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685411-00002906.
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Parasitodiplogaster has been considered to be an internal specialised parasite of the pollinating fig wasps. We found that the second-stage juveniles of Parasitodiplogaster citrinema emerge directly from the eggs retained in the ovaries, penetrate the adult female wasps at their eclosion from their galls, and moult to inactive dauers. Parasitodiplogaster dauers are ensheathed, and do not abandon the living host, while the pre-adults become necrophagous inside the wasp cadaver. The adult nematodes emerge from the wasp’s cadaver 72 h (up to 240 h) after the wasp perishes. Parasitodiplogaster citrinema was found to be proovigenic, has about 15 developed eggs in each oviduct and is ovoviviparous. Unfed caged adult female wasps remained alive for 65 h despite being infected. The dauers do not feed or grow inside the living hosts, and the adults seem to feed on dead fig tissues.
7
CASTRO, Raquel Ribeiro de Souza, Alinne Costa Cavalcante REZENDE, Rosemary Aparecida ROQUE, Silvia Cassia Brandão JUSTINIANO, and Otilene dos Anjos SANTOS. "Composition and structure of the fig wasp community in Amazonia." Acta Amazonica 45, no. 4 (2015): 355–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1809-4392201500173.
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An understanding of the complex ecological interaction between fig wasps and their host plants in Amazonia requires previous knowledge of their distribution and diversity. The objective of this study was to describe the composition and structure of the wasp community associated with four species of Ficus in the municipal area of Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. A total of 600 syconia from four species were collected. The study species were: Ficus obtusifolia Kunth; Ficus citrifolia Mill; F. americana subspecies guianensis Desv. form mathewsii; and F. americana subspecies guianensis Desv. form parkeriana. Statistical analyses were used to examine the relationship between fig wasp diversity and syconium diameter, and the effect of non-pollinating wasps on numbers of pollinators and seeds. Forty three species of fig wasp were identified, distributed across seven genera (Pegoscapus, Idarnes, Aepocerus, Physothorax, Anidarnes, Heterandrium , Eurytoma). Idarnes (carme group) was the wasps genus non-pollinator with greatest number of individuals with the greatest number of infested syconia (7409 wasps in 376 syconia). Analysing non-pollinating wasp diversity in relation to fig diameter, a significant difference was observed between the four fig species. Ficus citrifolia and F. americana subspecies guianensis form mathewsii had the smallest diameter but the greatest diversity of fig wasp. Ficus obtusifolia was the only species in which the non-pollinating wasps had a significant negative effect on the number of Pegoscapus sp. and on seed production.
8
Wang, Rui-Wu, Bao-Fa Sun, Qi Zheng, Lei Shi, and Lixing Zhu. "Asymmetric interaction and indeterminate fitness correlation between cooperative partners in the fig–fig wasp mutualism." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 8, no. 63 (2011): 1487–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2011.0063.
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Empirical observations have shown that cooperative partners can compete for common resources, but what factors determine whether partners cooperate or compete remain unclear. Using the reciprocal fig–fig wasp mutualism, we show that nonlinear amplification of interference competition between fig wasps—which limits the fig wasps' ability to use a common resource (i.e. female flowers)—keeps the common resource unsaturated, making cooperation locally stable. When interference competition was manually prevented, the fitness correlation between figs and fig wasps went from positive to negative. This indicates that genetic relatedness or reciprocal exchange between cooperative players, which could create spatial heterogeneity or self-restraint, was not sufficient to maintain stable cooperation. Moreover, our analysis of field-collected data shows that the fitness correlation between cooperative partners varies stochastically, and that the mainly positive fitness correlation observed during the warm season shifts to a negative correlation during the cold season owing to an increase in the initial oviposition efficiency of each fig wasp. This implies that the discriminative sanction of less-cooperative wasps (i.e. by decreasing the egg deposition efficiency per fig wasp) but reward to cooperative wasps by fig, a control of the initial value, will facilitate a stable mutualism. Our finding that asymmetric interaction leading to an indeterminate fitness interaction between symbiont (i.e. cooperative actors) and host (i.e. recipient) has the potential to explain why conflict has been empirically observed in both well-documented intraspecific and interspecific cooperation systems.
9
Zhang, Ying, Yunfang Guan, Zongbo Li, et al. "The Entry of Pollinating Fig Wasps Plays a Pivotal Role in the Developmental Phase and Metabolic Expression Changes in Ficus hookeriana Figs." Forests 16, no. 1 (2025): 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16010165.
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The fig (the syconium of the Ficus tree) and its pollinating fig wasp represent exceptional examples for researching plant–insect interactions due to their remarkable specificity in species interaction and mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship. However, the mechanisms underlying the developmental process of monoecious figs in response to the entry of pollinating fig wasps (pollinators) and the metabolic changes occurring during this process remain elusive. Our study employed a combination of controlled experiments in the field and LC-MS methods to investigate the impact of pollinating fig wasp entry on the developmental phase of figs, as well as the metabolic alterations occurring during this process. A total of 381 metabolites and 155 differential metabolites were identified, with the predominant classes of metabolites being organic acids, lipids, and benzene aromatic compounds. The results suggest that in the absence of wasp entry, the receptive phase of fig would exhibit an extended duration. However, upon the entry of fig wasps, the receptive phase of figs would terminate within a span of 1 to 2 days, concomitant with substantial fluctuations in the composition and proportions of metabolites within the fig. Our research focuses on the analysis of linoleic acid metabolism, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, and flavonoid biosynthesis pathways. Our findings suggest that the entry of wasps triggers alterations in the metabolic regulatory mechanisms of figs. Prior to wasp entry, metabolites primarily regulate fig growth and development. However, after wasp entry, metabolites predominantly govern lipid accumulation and the establishment of defense mechanisms, indicating a transition in fig development. This metabolic perspective explains why figs promptly enter an interflower phase that is not attractive to pollinating fig wasps after their entry, and how figs achieve reproductive balance through the regulation of different metabolic pathways. This study provides scientific evidence for elucidating the stability mechanism of the fig wasp mutualistic system.
10
Farache, Fernando Henrique Antoniolli, Cecilia Bernardo Pereira, Cristiana Koschnitzke, et al. "The unknown followers: Discovery of a new species of Sycobia Walker (Hymenoptera: Epichrysomallinae) associated with Ficus benjamina L. (Moraceae) in the Neotropical region." Journal of Hymenoptera Research 67 (December 31, 2018): 85–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/jhr.67.29733.
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Biotic invasion in mutualistic communities is of particular interest due to the possible establishment of new relationships with native species. Ficus species are widely cultivated as ornamental plants, and they host specific communities of chalcid wasps that are strictly associated with the fig inflorescences. Some introduced fig species are capable of establishing new relationships with the local fig wasps, and fig wasp species may also be concomitantly introduced with their host plants. Ficusbenjamina L. is widely cultivated across the world, but the associated fig wasps are not reported outside of the species native range. We describe for the first time a non-pollinating fig wasp associated with F.benjamina inflorescences outside its native distribution. Sycobiahodites Farache & Rasplus, sp. n. is the third known species of the genus and was recorded in populations of F.benjamina introduced in the Neotropical region throughout several localities in Argentina, Brazil and Colombia. Sycobia is a gall-inducing non-pollinating fig wasp genus associated with fig trees in the Oriental and Australasian regions. This species competes with pollinators for oviposition sites and may hinder the future establishment of the native pollinator of F.benjamina, Eupristinakoningsbergeri Grandi, 1916 in the New World. However, the occurrence of a gall inducing species in this host plant may open ecological opportunities for the establishment of species belonging to other trophic levels such as cleptoparasite and parasitoid wasps.
11
Farache, Fernando Henrique Antoniolli, Cecilia Bernardo Pereira, Cristiana Koschnitzke, et al. "The unknown followers: Discovery of a new species of Sycobia Walker (Hymenoptera: Epichrysomallinae) associated with Ficus benjamina L. (Moraceae) in the Neotropical region." Journal of Hymenoptera Research 67 (December 31, 2018): 85–102. https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.67.29733.
Full textAbstract:
Biotic invasion in mutualistic communities is of particular interest due to the possible establishment of new relationships with native species. Ficus species are widely cultivated as ornamental plants, and they host specific communities of chalcid wasps that are strictly associated with the fig inflorescences. Some introduced fig species are capable of establishing new relationships with the local fig wasps, and fig wasp species may also be concomitantly introduced with their host plants. Ficus benjamina L. is widely cultivated across the world, but the associated fig wasps are not reported outside of the species native range. We describe for the first time a non-pollinating fig wasp associated with F. benjamina inflorescences outside its native distribution. Sycobia hodites Farache & Rasplus, sp. n. is the third known species of the genus and was recorded in populations of F. benjamina introduced in the Neotropical region throughout several localities in Argentina, Brazil and Colombia. Sycobia is a gall-inducing non-pollinating fig wasp genus associated with fig trees in the Oriental and Australasian regions. This species competes with pollinators for oviposition sites and may hinder the future establishment of the native pollinator of F. benjamina, Eupristina koningsbergeri Grandi, 1916 in the New World. However, the occurrence of a gall inducing species in this host plant may open ecological opportunities for the establishment of species belonging to other trophic levels such as cleptoparasite and parasitoid wasps.
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Jandér, K. C. "Fitness costs for fig wasps that fail to pollinate their host Ficus perforata." Symbiosis 84, no. 2 (2021): 171–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13199-021-00781-5.
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AbstractMutualisms are of fundamental ecological importance, but risk breaking down if one partner stops paying the costs yet still takes the benefits of the interaction. To prevent such cheating, many mutualisms have mechanisms that lower the fitness of uncooperative symbionts, often termed host sanctions. In mutualisms where the interacting partners are species-specific, we would expect to see coevolution of the levels of host sanctions and partner cooperation across species-pairs. In the mutualism between fig trees and their species-specific pollinating fig wasps, host sanctions vary greatly in strength, and wasp cooperation levels vary accordingly. Here I show experimentally that in Panamanian Ficus perforata (section Urostigma, Americana) there are fitness costs for wasps that do not pollinate. These fitness costs are caused by a combination of abortions of unpollinated figs and reduced proportion of wasp larvae that successfully develop to adults. The relative fitness of wasps that do not pollinate compared to wasps that pollinate is 0.59, leading to the intermediate sanction strength 0.41. Next, by screening pollinators of F. perforata I found that 1.9% of wasp individuals in natural populations failed to carry pollen. Across five actively pollinated Neotropical fig species and their pollinators, fig species with stronger host sanctions had fewer uncooperative wasps, as would be expected if sanctions promote cooperation.
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Yang, Xiaoyan, Yunfang Guan, Changqi Chen, et al. "The Effect of Ficus semicordata Fig Quality on the Sex Ratio of Its Pollinating Wasp Ceratosolen gravelyi." Diversity 16, no. 5 (2024): 298. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d16050298.
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The interaction between fig wasps and their host fig trees (Ficus spp.) is a striking example of an obligate pollination mutualism. Male and female fig wasps are confined within their natal patch instead of panmictic; under this circumstance, mating only occurs between individuals of the same patch. This is known as a local mate competition (LMC). It pays foundresses to invest mainly in daughters and to only produce enough sons to ensure that all female offspring can be fertilized, but in nature, pollinating fig wasps may face many problems with host quality, such as limitation of oviposition sites and the nutrition deficiency of the host fig. The sex ratio of wasps can determine the stability of fig–fig wasp mutualistic system and, thus, the stability of other species associated with it. In this study, we controlled the quality of host figs in three ways. The results showed that the host fig age can influence the sex ratio of pollinator offspring, while the foundress numbers and the presence of pollen have no significant effect on it. A compelling explanation for this result is that the sex-dependent mortality occurs. This is a novel finding of how host quality influences the interaction of fig and fig wasps, which can also help us understand the evolution and stability mechanism of this symbiotic system.
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Koutsoukos, Evangelos, Anastasia Konstantopoulou, Aristeidis Parmakelis, et al. "The fellowship of the fig continues its journey: Fig wasps (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) associated with Ficus microcarpa in Greece." NeoBiota 98 (March 28, 2025): 93–115. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.98.139650.
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The number of alien species continues to climb uninterrupted with a proportion of them becoming invasive, impacting native biodiversity and socioeconomic parameters. Many alien species are plants, transported outside their native range, sometimes alongside their associated insects hitching a ride to new destinations. Ficus microcarpa L. (Moraceae) is a common ornamental plant in the Mediterranean, which has been found to host a large ecological network of associated chalcid wasps (also called fig wasps). Amongst them, the plant’s pollinator Eupristina verticillata Waterston (Agaonidae), enhances the plant’s successful pollination and subsequent germination, thus allowing it to establish viable populations and even become invasive in some parts of the world. Other associated wasps, also called non-pollinating fig wasps, have likewise followed and these are parasitoids, inquilines or gallers. These species can be either beneficial or injurious to F. microcarpa, with some even proposed as potential biological control agents mitigating the plant’s spread. Seven fig wasp species have been reported from Greece, hitherto. Here, we present the first national survey of fig wasp fauna for Greece. We found 13 species, with six representing new records for the country (Eufroggattisca okinavensis Ishii, Micranisa degastris Chen, Philotrypesis okinavensis Ishii, Philotrypesis taiwanensis Chen, Odontofroggatia quinifuniculus Feng & Huang, Sycophila curta Chen) and two (O. quinifuniculus, S. curta) being reported outside their native range for the first time. Philotrypesis emeryi is removed from previous checklists upon molecular characterization of specimens as being Philotrypesis okinavensis. We discuss the distribution, introduction period and ecology of these fig wasps. Further, we present records of seedlings for F. microcarpa and discuss the potential implications of the fig wasp fauna for the establishment and control of this alien plant species.
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Compton, Stephen G., Alexander D. Ball, Margaret E. Collinson, Peta Hayes, Alexandr P. Rasnitsyn, and Andrew J. Ross. "Ancient fig wasps indicate at least 34 Myr of stasis in their mutualism with fig trees." Biology Letters 6, no. 6 (2010): 838–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2010.0389.
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Fig wasps and fig trees are mutually dependent, with each of the 800 or so species of fig trees ( Ficus , Moraceae) typically pollinated by a single species of fig wasp (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae). Molecular evidence suggests that the relationship existed over 65 Ma, during the Cretaceous. Here, we record the discovery of the oldest known fossil fig wasps, from England, dated at 34 Ma. They possess pollen pockets that contain fossil Ficus pollen. The length of their ovipositors indicates that their host trees had a dioecious breeding system. Confocal microscopy and scanning electron microscopy reveal that the fossil female fig wasps, and more recent species from Miocene Dominican amber, display the same suite of anatomical characters associated with fig entry and pollen-carrying as modern species. The pollen is also typical of modern Ficus . No innovations in the relationship are discernible for the last tens of millions of years.
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Koutsoukos, Evangelos, Anastasia Konstantopoulou, Aristeidis Parmakelis, et al. "The fellowship of the fig continues its journey: Fig wasps (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) associated with Ficus microcarpa in Greece." NeoBiota 98 (March 28, 2025): 93–115. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.98.139650.
Full textAbstract:
The number of alien species continues to climb uninterrupted with a proportion of them becoming invasive, impacting native biodiversity and socioeconomic parameters. Many alien species are plants, transported outside their native range, sometimes alongside their associated insects hitching a ride to new destinations. <i>Ficus microcarpa</i> L. (Moraceae) is a common ornamental plant in the Mediterranean, which has been found to host a large ecological network of associated chalcid wasps (also called fig wasps). Amongst them, the plant's pollinator <i>Eupristina verticillata</i> Waterston (Agaonidae), enhances the plant's successful pollination and subsequent germination, thus allowing it to establish viable populations and even become invasive in some parts of the world. Other associated wasps, also called non-pollinating fig wasps, have likewise followed and these are parasitoids, inquilines or gallers. These species can be either beneficial or injurious to <i>F. microcarpa</i>, with some even proposed as potential biological control agents mitigating the plant's spread. Seven fig wasp species have been reported from Greece, hitherto. Here, we present the first national survey of fig wasp fauna for Greece. We found 13 species, with six representing new records for the country (<i>Eufroggattisca okinavensis</i> Ishii, <i>Micranisa degastris</i> Chen, <i>Philotrypesis okinavensis</i> Ishii, <i>Philotrypesis taiwanensis</i> Chen, <i>Odontofroggatia quinifuniculus</i> Feng & Huang, <i>Sycophila curta</i> Chen) and two (<i>O. quinifuniculus</i>, <i>S. curta</i>) being reported outside their native range for the first time. <i>Philotrypesis emeryi</i> is removed from previous checklists upon molecular characterization of specimens as being <i>Philotrypesis okinavensis</i>. We discuss the distribution, introduction period and ecology of these fig wasps. Further, we present records of seedlings for <i>F. microcarpa</i> and discuss the potential implications of the fig wasp fauna for the establishment and control of this alien plant species.
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Chou, Po-An, Anthony Bain, Bhanumas Chantarasuwan, and Hsy-Yu Tzeng. "Parasitism Features of a Fig Wasp of Genus Apocrypta (Pteromalidae: Pteromalinae) Associated with a Host Belonging to Ficus Subgenus Ficus." Insects 14, no. 5 (2023): 437. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects14050437.
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Non-pollinating fig wasps (NPFWs), particularly long-ovipositored Sycoryctina wasps, exhibit a high species specificity and exert complex ecological effects on the obligate mutualism between the plant genus Ficus and pollinating fig wasps. Apocrypta is a genus of NPFWs that mostly interacts with the Ficus species under the subgenus Sycomorus, and the symbiosis case between Apocrypta and F. pedunculosa var. mearnsii, a Ficus species under subgenus Ficus, is unique. As fig’s internal environments and the wasp communities are distinct between the two subgenera, we addressed the following two questions: (1) Are the parasitism features of the Apocrypta wasp associated with F. pedunculosa var. mearnsii different from those of other congeneric species? (2) Is this Apocrypta species an efficient wasp that lives in its unique host? Our observation revealed that this wasp is an endoparasitic idiobiont parasitoid, as most congeneric species are, but developed a relatively long ovipositor. Furthermore, the relationships of the parasitism rate versus the pollinator number, the fig wall, and the sex ratio of the pollinator, respectively, showed that it possessed a higher parasitism ability than that of other congeners. However, its parasitism rate was low, and thus it was not an efficient wasp in its habitat. This difference between parasitism ability and parasitism rate might be a consequence of its oviposition strategy and the severe habitat conditions. These findings may also provide insights into the mechanism to maintain the interaction between the fig tree and the fig wasp community.
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Di Giusto, Bruno, and Anthony Bain. "Local ecological factors, not interference competition, drive the foundress number of two species of fig wasp sharing Ficus septica figs." PLOS ONE 19, no. 1 (2024): e0290439. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0290439.
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Recent studies have challenged assumptions about the classic fig-fig wasp pollination mutualism model, suggesting that further investigation into the receptive phase of fig development is needed. This study assessed the pollination mechanisms of Ficus septica in southern Taiwan and identified two species of wasps as the primary pollinators. Machine learning was used to identify and rank the factors that explain the relative abundance of these wasps. The two wasp species showed the highest level of cohabitation ever reported in the literature, with three-quarters of the figs containing multiple foundresses. The study also reported re-emerged foundresses and a 10% ratio of pollinated figs without foundresses. Local factors, such as the sampling period and tree identity, were the best predictors of the presence and number of each foundress species, with fig size also affecting the number of foundresses. The study highlights the variability in pollinator abundance between figs, crops, and trees. It also shows that the local environment of the trees and the availability of figs are crucial factors in determining which figs the pollinator wasps choose. These findings challenge assumptions about the classic mutualism model and suggest that long-term surveys are needed to estimate the relative contributions of each partner and provide data for evolutionary and ecological models. This study also provides valuable insights into the factors that affect the abundance and interactions of pollinator wasps during the receptive phase of fig development, with implications for understanding the behaviour of pollinating wasps and advancing our knowledge of population dynamics in Ficus species.
19
Chen, Lianfu, Simon T. Segar, Bhanumas Chantarasuwan, et al. "Adaptation of Fig Wasps (Agaodinae) to Their Host Revealed by Large-Scale Transcriptomic Data." Insects 12, no. 9 (2021): 815. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects12090815.
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Figs and fig wasps are highly species-specific and comprise a model system for studying co-evolution and co-speciation. The evolutionary relationships and molecular adaptations of fig wasps to their fig hosts are poorly understood, and this is in part due to limited sequence data. Here, we present large-scale transcriptomic datasets of 25 fig wasp species with the aim of uncovering the genetic basis for host specificity. Our phylogenetic results support the monophyly of all genera associated with dioecious figs, and two genera associated with monoecious figs, Eupristina and Platyscapa, were revealed to be close relatives. We identified gene loss and gain, potentially rapidly evolving genes, and genes under positive selection. Potentially functional changes were documented and we hypothesize as to how these may determine host specificity. Overall, our study provides new insights into the evolutionary diversification of fig wasps and contributes to our understanding of adaptation in this group.
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Kobbi, May, Claude Edelin, Georges Michaloud, and Mohamed Chaieb. "Relationship between a mutualist and a parasite of the laurel fig, Ficus microcarpa L." Canadian Journal of Zoology 74, no. 10 (1996): 1831–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z96-205.
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Since 1986, the sterile populations of the laurel fig, Ficus microcarpa L., in Tunisia have become fertile with the arrival of the species-specific pollinating wasp Parapristina verticillata. However, the invasion in 1992 by one of several species-specific parasitic wasps, Odontofroggatia galili, has changed the parameters of this mutualistic relationship. A fig sample collected at Sfax, Tunisia, was analysed, and randomization of the results showed a highly significant negative correlation between the numbers of wasps and parasites. Moreover, the presence of parasites decreases the fecundity of the figs. The consequences of the competition between O. galili and P. verticillata on this fig – fig pollinator mutualism are discussed.
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Fa-Jian, XU, CHEN Guo-Hua, PENG Yan-Qiong, XIE Xiao-Bo, and YANG Da-Rong. "IMPACTS OF NON_POLLINATING FIG WASPS ON FIG-POLLINATING WASP MUTUALISM." Chinese Journal of Plant Ecology 31, no. 5 (2007): 969–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.17521/cjpe.2007.0123.
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Zhang, F. P., and D. R. Yang. "Study on mating ecology and sex ratio of three internally ovipositing fig wasps of Ficus curtipes." Bulletin of Entomological Research 100, no. 2 (2009): 241–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485309990204.
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AbstractStudies on mating ecology and sex allocation in fig-parasitizing wasps ovipositing from outside the fig have given valuable insights into known factors that are responsible for the theory of sex ratio. Similarly, internally ovipositing fig-parasitizing wasps and fig-pollinating wasps provide interesting models for comparative analysis. In addition to the fig-pollinating wasp Eupristina sp., we found that Ficus curtipes hosts two species of internally ovipositing fig-parasitizing wasps: D. yangi and Lipothymus sp. Eupristina sp. males showed less aggression. Eupristina sp. has wingless males that mate only within the natal patch, providing excellent examples of full local-mate competition. D. yangi males showed high levels of aggression and lethal combat. D. yangi has winged males but mate mostly within the natal patch. Only a few matings occur after male dispersal. Its sex ratio was lower than the prediction of partial local mate competition theory. Wingless male Lipothymus sp., which mate partly after dispersal, did not present fatal fight. Therefore, the mating behaviour of D. yangi and Lipothymus sp. did not follow predicted patterns, based on wing morph. The mating pattern of D. yangi and Lipothymus sp. should follow the partial local mate competition theory. Furthermore, there was not a significant correlation between the proportion of males and the proportion of fruit parasitized in both winged D. yangi males and wingless Lipothymus sp. males.
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Jia, Ling-Yi, Jin-Hua Xiao, Li-Ming Niu, et al. "Delimitation and description of the immature stages of a pollinating fig wasp, Ceratosolen solmsi marchali Mayr (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae)." Bulletin of Entomological Research 104, no. 2 (2013): 164–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485313000606.
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AbstractThe mutualism between fig trees and their wasp pollinators is a model system for many ecological and evolutionary studies. However, the immature stages of pollinating fig wasps have rarely been studied. We monitored developing fig wasps of known ages and performed a series of dissections at 24 h intervals to identify key developmental traits of Ceratosolen solmsi marchali Mayr (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae), a pollinator of Ficus hispida L. (Moraceae). We identified where in the Ficus ovary eggs were deposited and time to hatch. We were also able to identify the timing and key underlying characters of five larval instars, three sub-pupal stages, and a single prepupal stage. We provide detailed morphological descriptions for the key stages and report some behavioral observations of the wasps in the several developmental stages we recorded. Scanning electron microscope images were taken.
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Jauharlina, J., A. Anhar, and M. Minarti. "Fig trees (Ficus spp.) and their pollinating wasps in Universitas Syiah Kuala Campus, Banda Aceh, Indonesia." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 951, no. 1 (2022): 012062. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/951/1/012062.
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Abstract Fig trees (Ficus spp.) and their pollinating wasps (Hymenoptera; Agaonindae) are a unique system to study mutualism. Female fig wasps deposit eggs and develop their progeny in galled female flowers inside the figs, while fig wasps pollinate females flower inside the same figs. A study investigating fig tree species composition and pollinating wasps was conducted at Universitas Syiah Kuala campus, Banda Aceh. We recorded all fig tree species found in the area from Dec 2020 until June 2021. Ten semi-ripe fig fruits on each fig tree were sampled and brought to the laboratory to examine the wasps inside. We recorded 112 individuals fig trees that belonged to 11 species; most of them were monoecious species. The most abundant species was Ficus altissima, followed by F. Benjamina, and F. macrocarpa, while the least was F.racemosa and F. carica. A number of 20.7± 6.5 (Mean ± SE) female pollinator Eupristina koningsbergeri was counted in a single fig of F. benjamina compared to 350.4±45.4 (Mean ± SE) Ceratosolen fusciceps female wasps in fig of F.racemosa. This study has provided an example of obligate mutualism between different species in the local area, which has been observed since a long time ago.
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Xin, Zhaozhe, Dawei Huang, Dan Zhao, Jiaxing Li, Xianqin Wei, and Jinhua Xiao. "Genome-Wide Analysis of Chemosensory Protein Genes (CSPs) Family in Fig Wasps (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea)." Genes 11, no. 10 (2020): 1149. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes11101149.
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Chemosensory proteins (CSP) are a class of acidic soluble proteins which have various functions in chemoreception, resistance and immunity, but we still have very little knowledge on this gene family in fig wasps, a peculiar insects group (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) that shelter in the fig syconia of Ficus trees. Here, we made the first comprehensive analysis of CSP gene family in the 11 fig wasps at whole-genome level. We manually annotated 104 CSP genes in the genomes of the 11 fig wasps, comprehensively analyzed them in gene characteristics, conserved cysteine patterns, motif orders, phylogeny, genome distribution, gene tandem duplication, and expansion and contraction patterns of the gene family. We also approximately predicted the gene expression by codon adaptation index analysis. Our study shows that the CSP gene family is conserved in the 11 fig wasps; the CSP gene numbers in pollinating fig wasps are less than in non-pollinating fig wasps, which may be due to their longer history of adaptation to fig syconia; the expansion of CSP gene in two non-pollinating fig wasps, Philotrypesis tridentata and Sycophaga agraensis, may be a species-specific phenomenon. These results provide us with useful information for understanding the evolution of the CSP gene family of insects in diverse living environments.
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Baofa, Sun, Wang Ruiwu, and Hu Zhong. "Diet segregation of fig wasps and the stability of fig-fig wasp mutualism." Biodiversity Science 16, no. 6 (2008): 525. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1003.2008.08216.
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Michailides, Themis J., and David P. Morgan. "Spread of Endosepsis in Calimyrna Fig Orchards." Phytopathology® 88, no. 7 (1998): 637–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/phyto.1998.88.7.637.
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Pollination of the edible fig (Ficus carica cv. Calimyrna) is mediated by a small symbiotic wasp, Blastophaga psenes, that inhabits the syconium cavity of the spring crop of fig pollinator trees (caprifigs). These fig wasps also carry propagules, mainly of Fusarium verticillioides (formerly F. moniliforme) and other Fusarium spp., which cause endosepsis, from pollinator figs to the edible Calimyrna figs in California. Spread of endosepsis was studied in one experimental and up to four commercial Calimyrna fig orchards from 1989 through 1995. The incidence of endosepsis in fruit collected from the tree canopy at either <2.0 m (low) or >2.0 m (high) height, from the north and south of the tree canopy, and from the outer (direct sunlight) and inner (shaded) canopy were similar. More wasps were captured in fig trees located 3.5 to 10 m east or west of the source than in trees 48 to 63 m from the source. In addition, significantly more wasps entered the syconia of trees closest (9 to 12.7 m) to the source than the syconia of the second or third trees (18 to 38.2 m) from the source. Endosepsis decreased with distance from the source, decreasing faster to the south than in other directions from the source. In addition, the disease-vectoring wasps decreased with increased distance from the source, which also described the disease spread from the contamination source for most directions, with a sharper decline south of the source. A 3-year study in three commercial Calimyrna orchards showed there is no secondary spread of fig endosepsis in the field. Although endosepsis can complete as many cycles (three to four) as its vector in fig pollinator trees, in Calimyrna figs it is considered a monocyclic disease. Because fig wasp pollinators prefer to stay close to the contamination source when receptive Calimyrna figs are available in close proximity, only disease sources (caprifigs trees) found among Calimyrna trees or at a distance less than 50 m from the borders of Calimyrna orchards affect endosepsis incidence in commercial orchards.
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Al-Beidh, Sarah, Derek W. Dunn, and James M. Cook. "Spatial Stratification of Internally and Externally Non-Pollinating Fig Wasps and Their Effects on Pollinator and Seed Abundance in Ficus burkei." ISRN Zoology 2012 (March 8, 2012): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.5402/2012/908560.
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Fig trees (Ficus spp.) are pollinated by tiny wasps that enter their enclosed inflorescences (syconia). The wasp larvae also consume some fig ovules, which negatively affects seed production. Within syconia, pollinator larvae mature mostly in the inner ovules whereas seeds develop mostly in outer ovules—a stratification pattern that enables mutualism persistence. Pollinators may prefer inner ovules because they provide enemy-free space from externally ovipositing parasitic wasps. In some Australasian Ficus, this results in spatial segregation of pollinator and parasite offspring within syconia, with parasites occurring in shorter ovules than pollinators. Australian figs lack non-pollinating fig wasps (NPFW) that enter syconia to oviposit, but these occur in Africa and Asia, and may affect mutualist reproduction via parasitism or seed predation. We studied the African fig, F. burkei, and found a similar general spatial pattern of pollinators and NPFWs within syconia as in Australasian figs. However, larvae of the NPFW Philocaenus barbarus, which enters syconia, occurred in inner ovules. Philocaenus barbarus reduced pollinator abundance but not seed production, because its larvae replaced pollinators in their favoured inner ovules. Our data support a widespread role for NPFWs in contributing to factors preventing host overexploitation in fig-pollinator mutualisms.
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Jevanandam, Nanthinee, Alexander G. R. Goh, and Richard T. Corlett. "Climate warming and the potential extinction of fig wasps, the obligate pollinators of figs." Biology Letters 9, no. 3 (2013): 20130041. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2013.0041.
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Figs ( Ficus ) have a reciprocally obligate mutualism with tiny, short-lived (1–2 days) fig wasps (Agaonidae). The small size and short life of these pollinators is expected to make them more vulnerable to climate change than their larger and longer-lived hosts. We experimentally tested the thermal tolerances of four species of adult female fig wasp from equatorial Singapore. The results suggest that an increase of 3°C or more above the current temperatures experienced across much of the equatorial tropics would markedly decrease the active adult lifespan of all four species. Fig plants are the centre of an intricate web of specialist and generalist animals. Unless fig wasps can acclimate or adapt to warmer temperatures in time, these responses may disrupt the mutualism, potentially affecting multiple trophic levels.
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Bain, Anthony, Bhanumas Chantarasuwan, Lieng-Siang Shou, Martine Hossaert McKey, Bertrand Schatz, and Finn Kjellberg. "A New Case of Ants Nesting within Branches of a Fig Tree: the Case of Ficus subpisocarpa in Taiwan." Sociobiology 59, no. 2 (2014): 415. http://dx.doi.org/10.13102/sociobiology.v59i2.604.
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Ficus is one of many plant genera involved in interactions with ants. The interaction is however little documented. We show here that ants, belonging mainly to the genus Crematogaster, nest in hollow internodes of young branches of Ficus subpisocarpa, a monoecious fig species studied in Taiwan. The ants feed on the mutualistic fig-pollinating wasps as well as on parasitic non-pollinating fig wasps. Nevertheless fig-wasps may not constitute a sufficient food source to ensure permanent presence of ants on the tree as the ants were observed to be frequently associated with hemipterans such as coccids and aphids. Fig wasps seem to constitute a reliable and sufficient food source on some dioecious Ficus species. On the contrary, in monoecious Ficus species, resident ants have always been observed to tend homopteran in addition to feeding on fig wasps. Frequent fruiting, prolonged fruit ripening period, ramiflory and rapid growth could constitute traits facilitating strong association based on fig-wasps' consumption of the monoecious F. subpisocarpa with ants. Despite these traits, ants were observed to tend hemipterans, and F. subpisocarpa does not seem to have evolved specialized morphological traits to facilitate the association.
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Wong, Da-Mien, Anthony Bain, Shiuh-Feng Shiao, and Lien-Siang Chou. "Fighting injuries, fig exit, and dimorphism in two species of sycoryctine fig wasp (Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae)." Journal of Hymenoptera Research 74 (December 30, 2019): 105–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/jhr.74.36461.
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Similar to many vertebrate and invertebrate species, many fig wasp species are fighting other members of their species for mates. Fighting between the males of many non-pollinating fig wasp species involves injuries and fatalities. Studies have shown that large males fight for mates, whereas conspecific small males tend to adopt nonfighting, sneaky behaviors. To analyze male morphs in two non-pollinating fig wasps (Philotrypesis taida Wong &amp; Shiao, 2018 and Sycorycteridea taipeiensis Wong &amp; Shiao, 2018) associated with the fig tree Ficus benguetensis, the head and mandible allometry and injuries were examined as well as the morphologies of their heads and mandibles. Male fig wasps of these two nonpollinating species can be divided into two morphological groups according to their head and mandible shapes. Approximately 88% of the Philotrypesis and 62% of the Sycorycteridea males were injured and no males belonging to largest morphs were decapitated. Moreover, nearly 31% of the Philotrypesis and 45% of the Sycorycteridea males left their natal figs. No difference in injury level or male exit rate between the male morphs was observed. This study reveals slight morphological and behavioral differences that may hint towards different mating strategies among morphs.
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Wong, Da-Mien, Anthony Bain, Shiuh-Feng Shiao, and Lien-Siang Chou. "Fighting injuries, fig exit, and dimorphism in two species of sycoryctine fig wasp (Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae)." Journal of Hymenoptera Research 74 (December 30, 2019): 105–21. https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.74.36461.
Full textAbstract:
Similar to many vertebrate and invertebrate species, many fig wasp species are fighting other members of their species for mates. Fighting between the males of many non-pollinating fig wasp species involves injuries and fatalities. Studies have shown that large males fight for mates, whereas conspecific small males tend to adopt nonfighting, sneaky behaviors. To analyze male morphs in two non-pollinating fig wasps (Philotrypesis taida Wong & Shiao, 2018 and Sycorycteridea taipeiensis Wong & Shiao, 2018) associated with the fig tree Ficus benguetensis, the head and mandible allometry and injuries were examined as well as the morphologies of their heads and mandibles. Male fig wasps of these two nonpollinating species can be divided into two morphological groups according to their head and mandible shapes. Approximately 88% of the Philotrypesis and 62% of the Sycorycteridea males were injured and no males belonging to largest morphs were decapitated. Moreover, nearly 31% of the Philotrypesis and 45% of the Sycorycteridea males left their natal figs. No difference in injury level or male exit rate between the male morphs was observed. This study reveals slight morphological and behavioral differences that may hint towards different mating strategies among morphs.
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Zhang, Ting, K. Charlotte Jandér, Jian-Feng Huang, et al. "The evolution of parasitism from mutualism in wasps pollinating the fig, Ficus microcarpa, in Yunnan Province, China." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 32 (2021): e2021148118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021148118.
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Theory identifies factors that can undermine the evolutionary stability of mutualisms. However, theory’s relevance to mutualism stability in nature is controversial. Detailed comparative studies of parasitic species that are embedded within otherwise mutualistic taxa (e.g., fig pollinator wasps) can identify factors that potentially promote or undermine mutualism stability. We describe results from behavioral, morphological, phylogenetic, and experimental studies of two functionally distinct, but closely related, Eupristina wasp species associated with the monoecious host fig, Ficus microcarpa, in Yunnan Province, China. One (Eupristina verticillata) is a competent pollinator exhibiting morphologies and behaviors consistent with observed seed production. The other (Eupristina sp.) lacks these traits, and dramatically reduces both female and male reproductive success of its host. Furthermore, observations and experiments indicate that individuals of this parasitic species exhibit greater relative fitness than the pollinators, in both indirect competition (individual wasps in separate fig inflorescences) and direct competition (wasps of both species within the same fig). Moreover, phylogenetic analyses suggest that these two Eupristina species are sister taxa. By the strictest definition, the nonpollinating species represents a “cheater” that has descended from a beneficial pollinating mutualist. In sharp contrast to all 15 existing studies of actively pollinated figs and their wasps, the local F. microcarpa exhibit no evidence for host sanctions that effectively reduce the relative fitness of wasps that do not pollinate. We suggest that the lack of sanctions in the local hosts promotes the loss of specialized morphologies and behaviors crucial for pollination and, thereby, the evolution of cheating.
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Bronstein, Judith L. "Predators of Fig Wasps." Biotropica 20, no. 3 (1988): 215. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2388236.
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Cook, James M., and Stuart A. West. "Figs and fig wasps." Current Biology 15, no. 24 (2005): R978—R980. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2005.11.057.
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COOK, JAMES M., and SIMON T. SEGAR. "Speciation in fig wasps." Ecological Entomology 35 (January 2010): 54–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2311.2009.01148.x.
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Michaloud, G. "Fighting in fig wasps." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3, no. 3 (1988): 77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(88)90022-5.
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Wei, Xianqin, Jiaxing Li, Tao Wang, Jinhua Xiao, and Dawei Huang. "Genome-Wide Identification and Analysis of Lipases in Fig Wasps (Chalcidoidea, Hymenoptera)." Insects 13, no. 5 (2022): 407. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects13050407.
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Lipases are the main enzymes involved in lipid metabolism. However, the characteristics of lipases in insects were scarcely investigated. Here, we screened the recently sequenced genomes of 12 fig wasp species consisting of seven pollinator fig wasps (PFWs) and five non-pollinating fig wasps (NPFWs) for the six major lipase gene families. In total, 481 lipase genes were identified, and the two most numerous families were the neutral and acid lipases. Tandem duplication accounted for the expansion of the gene family. NPFWs had significantly more lipases than PFWs. A significant gene family contraction occurred in the clade of PFWs. The difference of lipases between NPFWs and PFWs might contribute to their distinction in life histories and feeding regimes. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the lipase genes of each fig wasp species was almost equally distributed in each clade, indicating that the lipase genes were conserved. The gene structures were similar within each clade, while they were different among clades. Most of the neutral and acid lipases were signal peptides and located extracellularly. The pathways of lipases involved were predicted. This genome-wide study provides a systematic analysis of lipase gene families in 12 hymenopteran insects and further insights towards understanding the potential functions of lipases.
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Peng, Yan-Qiong, Da-Rong Yang, and Zhu-Biao Duang. "The population dynamics of a non-pollinating fig wasp on Ficus auriculata at Xishuangbanna, China." Journal of Tropical Ecology 21, no. 5 (2005): 581–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467405002634.
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All fig wasps are confined to figs as larvae, and their specialized diets are restricted to fig embryos, galled fig ovaries or other fig wasp larvae (Boucek 1988). Almost all of the ∼800 Ficus species (Moraceae) are involved in species-specific obligate mutualism with a pollinating fig wasp (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae), which also strictly depends on its host fig for reproduction (Berg 2003, Ramirez 1970, Wiebes 1979). More than half of all fig species are functionally dioecious, with male and female functions relegated to separate plants, called gall and seed figs (Kjellberg et al. 1987). Gall figs are functionally male because they foster the pollinator larvae that disperse the fig's pollen as adults. Seed figs are functionally female and produce only seeds. The styles are too long for pollinator ovipositors to reach the ovules, and hence they cannot lay eggs. Gall fig styles are short (Ganeshaiah et al. 1995, Weiblen et al. 1995).
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Zhou, Yi, Dawei Huang, Zhaozhe Xin, and Jinhua Xiao. "Evolution of Oxidative Phosphorylation (OXPHOS) Genes Reflecting the Evolutionary and Life Histories of Fig Wasps (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea)." Genes 11, no. 11 (2020): 1353. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes11111353.
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Fig wasps are a peculiar group of insects which, for millions of years, have inhabited the enclosed syconia of fig trees. Considering the relatively closed and dark environment of fig syconia, we hypothesize that the fig wasps’ oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) pathway, which is the main oxygen consumption and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production system, may have adaptively evolved. In this study, we manually annotated the OXPHOS genes of 11 species of fig wasps, and compared the evolutionary patterns of OXPHOS genes for six pollinators and five non-pollinators. Thirteen mitochondrial protein-coding genes and 30 nuclear-coding single-copy orthologous genes were used to analyze the amino acid substitution rate and natural selection. The results showed high amino acid substitution rates of both mitochondrial and nuclear OXPHOS genes in fig wasps, implying the co-evolution of mitochondrial and nuclear genes. Our results further revealed that the OXPHOS-related genes evolved significantly faster in pollinators than in non-pollinators, and five genes had significant positive selection signals in the pollinator lineage, indicating that OXPHOS genes play an important role in the adaptation of pollinators. This study can help us understand the relationship between gene evolution and environmental adaptation.
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Compton, S. G., H. Newton, M. Stavrinides, and C. Kaponas. "First confirmed records of fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) associated with the Sycamore Fig Ficus sycomorus on a Mediterranean Island." Entomologist's Gazette 71, no. 2 (2020): 121–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.31184/g00138894.712.1735.
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The Sycamore Fig and two of its associated fig wasps, Sycophaga sycomori (L.) and Apocrypta longitarsus Mayr, were introduced to the southern shores of the Mediterranean thousands of years ago. Here we record that these species are also present in Limassol, Cyprus. These are the first confirmed records for either species from the islands of the Mediterranean. Three extra-European Ficus species, in addition to the Edible Fig, are now known to support fig wasps in Cyprus.
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Jauharlina, Hartati Oktarina, Rina Sriwati, et al. "Association of Fig Pollinating Wasps and Fig Nematodes inside Male and Female Figs of a Dioecious Fig Tree in Sumatra, Indonesia." Insects 13, no. 4 (2022): 320. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects13040320.
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Nematodes can grow within the inflorescences of many fig trees (Ficus spp., Moraceae); however, the feeding behaviour of most nematodes is not known. Fig pollinating wasps (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae) transfer nematodes into young figs upon the wasps’ entry into the figs to deposit their eggs. Most Asian fig trees, however, are functionally dioecious, and the pollinating wasps that enter female figs are unable to reproduce. They fail to produce the offspring required to carry the new generations of nematodes. We examined whether female figs of F. hispida can nonetheless support the development of phoretic nematode populations. Nematodes were extracted from male and female figs sampled in Sumatra, Indonesia, to compare the growth of their populations within the figs. We found three species of nematodes that grew within figs of male and female trees of F. hispida: Ficophagus cf. centerae (Aphelenchoididae), Martininema baculum (Aphelenchoididae) and Caenorhabditis sp (Rhabditidae). The latter species (Caenorhabditis sp.) has never been reported to be associated with F. hispida before. Nematode populations peaked at around 120–140 individuals in both sexes of figs, at the time when a succeeding generation of adult fig wasps appeared within male figs. The female figs could support the growth and reproduction of the three nematodes species; however, the absence of vectors meant that female figs remained as traps from which there could be no escape.
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Wong, Da-Mien, Songle Fan, and Hui Yu. "Seven Sycoryctine Fig Wasp Species (Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae) Associated with Dioecious Ficus hirta Inhabiting South China and Southeast Asia." Biology 11, no. 6 (2022): 801. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biology11060801.
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Even though non-pollinating fig wasps are essential components in tropical and subtropical habitats, yet they are poorly described in the Oriental communities. This study presented seven new sycoryctine fig wasp species associated with Ficus hirta fig trees inhabiting South China and Southeast Asia. These new sycoryctine species belong to the genera Philotrypesis, Sycoryctes, and Sycoscapter. They can be easily distinguished by their adaptive morphologies such as face sculpture, body-color, and ovipositors. An identification key is provided to differentiate between them, and the relationships with their host fig trees are also discussed. The holotypes and paratypes are both deposited in the South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China.
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Cornille, A., J. G. Underhill, A. Cruaud, et al. "Floral volatiles, pollinator sharing and diversification in the fig–wasp mutualism: insights from Ficus natalensis , and its two wasp pollinators (South Africa)." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1734 (2011): 1731–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1972.
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Combining biogeographic, ecological, morphological, molecular and chemical data, we document departure from strict specialization in the fig-pollinating wasp mutualism. We show that the pollinating wasps Elisabethiella stuckenbergi and Elisabethiella socotrensis form a species complex of five lineages in East and Southern Africa. Up to two morphologically distinct lineages were found to co-occur locally in the southern African region. Wasps belonging to a single lineage were frequently the main regional pollinators of several Ficus species. In South Africa, two sister lineages, E. stuckenbergi and E. socotrensis , pollinate Ficus natalensis but only E. stuckenbergi also regularly pollinates Ficus burkei . The two wasp species co-occur in individual trees of F. natalensis throughout KwaZulu-Natal. Floral volatile blends emitted by F. natalensis in KwaZulu-Natal were similar to those emitted by F. burkei and different from those produced by other African Ficus species. The fig odour similarity suggests evolutionary convergence to attract particular wasp species. The observed pattern may result from selection for pollinator sharing among Ficus species. Such a process, with one wasp species regionally pollinating several hosts, but several wasp species pollinating a given Ficus species across its geographical range could play an important role in the evolutionary dynamics of the Ficus -pollinating wasp association.
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Jauharlina, J., Muhammad Sayuthi, H. Halimursyadah, Amalia Husna, and Aulia Maharani. "Comparison of body size and ovipositor length among fig wasps developing inside the figs of Ficus hispida L." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1476, no. 1 (2025): 012071. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1476/1/012071.
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Abstract Fig wasps (pollinators and non-pollinators) develop in the same fig of a fig tree. This study was conducted to compare the body size and ovipositor length of the fig wasps developing inside the figs of a dioecious fig tree, Ficus hispida L. D-phase figs were sampled from F. hispida male trees grown naturally in Lam Kruet Village, Lhoknga, Aceh Besar. Upon emergence, fig wasps’ body size and ovipositor length were measured at the Biological Control Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Syiah Kuala University. The results showed that the pollinator Ceratosolen solmsi marchali accounted for 70.82% of all fig wasps in F. hispida. The non-pollinators: Apocrypta bakeri, Philotrypesis pilosa, and Philotrypesis sp. accounted for 13.47%, 11.47%, and 4.24%, respectively. The average body size of pollinators was 1.92 ± 0.01 mm, while the body sizes of non-pollinators ranged from 2.07 ± 0.01 mm to 2.09 ± 0.01 mm. The ovipositor length of pollinators was 0.84 ± 0.00 mm. The ovipositor length of non-pollinators was significantly longer than that of pollinators, with the average length of A. bakeri being 5.77 ± 0.03 mm, P. pilosa being 7.64 ± 0.07 mm, and Philotrypesis sp. being 7.48 ± 0.08 mm. The ovipositor length of non-pollinators was four times longer than their body size. The difference in ovipositor length was related to the different egg-laying methods. The female pollinators enter the fig through the ostiole and lay eggs directly into the female flowers. In contrast, non-pollinators lay their eggs by injecting their ovipositor through the fig wall.
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Ding, Gu, Peng Yanqiong, and Yang Darong. "Convergence in host recognition behavior between obligate pollinating fig wasps and non-pollinating fig wasps." Biodiversity Science 20, no. 3 (2013): 324–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1003.2012.06012.
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Pereira, R. A. S., and A. P. Prado. "Effect of local mate competition on fig wasp sex ratios." Brazilian Journal of Biology 66, no. 2b (2006): 603–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1519-69842006000400004.
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In fig wasps, mating takes place among the offspring of one or a few foundress mothers inside the fig from which mated females disperse to found new broods. Under these conditions, related males will compete with each other for mating and several studies have shown female bias in brood sex ratios as a response to Local Mate Competition (LMC). Studying Pegoscapus tonduzi which pollinates Ficus citrifolia in Brazil, we analysed the effect of LMC (number of foundresses) on the sex ratio of the offspring of pollinating wasps. The relationship between the foundress number and brood sex ratio qualitatively followed the theory, however the empirical sex ratio was more female biased than expected from theoretical values. The model for an optimal sex ratio considers that each foundress wasp contributes the same number of eggs to be bred and that the violation of this assumption may explain the lack of adjustment in relation to the theory.
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Hardy, Ian C. W., and James M. Cook. "Vicious fig wasps in viscous populations." Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16, no. 5 (2001): 224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02142-5.
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HERRE, E. A. "Sex Ratio Adjustment in Fig Wasps." Science 228, no. 4701 (1985): 896–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.228.4701.896.
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Joseph, K. J., and U. C. Abdurahiman. "Biosystematics of fig wasps (Chalcidoidea: Hymenoptera)." Proceedings: Animal Sciences 96, no. 5 (1987): 533–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03179608.
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