Academic literature on the topic 'Fire ecology – South Africa – Kwazulu-Natal'

The South African Peripatopsidae comprise two genera: Peripatopsis Pocock, 1894 (eight described species) and Opisthopatus Purcell, 1899 (two described species, and three subspecies currently debated). Recent collecting in South Africa produced a new and unusual onychophoran, Opisthopatus herbertorum sp. nov., from Mt. Currie Nature Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal. The new species is characterised by 17 pairs of legs, 15 complete dorsal plical folds per body segment, a lack of body-pigmentation, and reduced eyes. A key to the three species of Opisthopatus is provided. Other species of white onychophorans have been identified in South Africa, Australia and Jamaica; some of these species are cave-dwellers. The discovery of O. herbertorum sp. nov. from a small, isolated forest patch means that this species may be threatened with extinction, mainly through fire or other stochastic events. The habitat contains species of myriapods typical of forests, which suggests that the fauna is relictual, and that small forest patches have high conservation value. The discovery of the new species also highlights the lack of knowledge about forest invertebrates in South Africa, and raises the possibility of a far greater onychophoran diversity in the country.

The consequences of burning on grazer distributions in the landscape were investigated in a savanna system in South Africa. Distribution and extent of fires can be highly variable within and between years, but how this influences patterns of grazing is not well understood. Three years of fire and grazer distribution data from Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, KwaZulu Natal were used to describe how animals respond to different burn situations. Animals were attracted to the burnt areas after fires and this resulted in a decrease in grazer densities in unburnt areas. This effect was more pronounced when a larger area of the park had burnt, and increased over time as area burnt increased. Thus, grazing pressure in an area will depend on the size, timing and distribution of fires in a larger spatial context. Fires also seem to promote a more uniform grazing environment: although grazer density overall is higher in areas that have burnt, the grazers are more dispersed in these areas, and grazing at any one point may be less intense than in the unburnt areas (which are grazed patchily). Therefore at the beginning of the wet season—a key time of year for grass growth—fires are acting to decrease grazing pressure at any one point in both burnt and unburnt areas. The presence of fire in grazing systems could affect grass community composition because fire alters the intensity and frequency of utilisation of the grass sward.

Cyrtanthus aureolinus Snijman is a new, rare species of fire lily, which is localized in a vlei on the northern slopes of the Groot Swartberg, Western Cape. The upright or slightly spreading, yellow to cream-coloured flowers and the perigone tube which gradually widens to the throat suggest that it is closely related to the Western Cape endemic, C. ochroleucus (Herb.) Burch, ex Steud., and C. mackenii Hook.f., a variable species from southern KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape. The species differs mainly by the shape, size and position of the tepals and the length of the filaments. Cyrtanthus mackenii var. cooperi (Baker) R.A.Dyer is raised to subspecies rank as C. mackenii subsp. cooperi (Baker) Snijman. Its hysteranthous leaf habit and grassland habitat differ from the riverine habitat of the evergreen C. mackenii subsp. mackenii. Described in detail are C. aureolinus, C. ochroleucus, and C. mackenii.

Cryptic lineages present major challenges for evolutionary and conservation studies, particularly where these lineages remain undiscovered. Freshwater crabs are known to harbour cryptic diversity, in most cases with limited morphological differences. During the present study, we used a multilocus (12S rRNA, 16S rRNA, COI, 28S rRNA, DecapANT and PEPCK) Bayesian species delimitation to examine cryptic diversity within a freshwater crab species complex (Potamonautes clarus/P. depressus). We sampled 25 highland rivers in the Tugela and uMkomazi River drainage systems of the Drakensberg Mountain range, in the KwaZulu–Natal province of South Africa. Our results showed there to be at least eight lineages: six novel potamonautid freshwater crabs, and two described taxa P. clarus and P. depressus. Divergence from the most recent common ancestor occurred between the mid- and late Miocene (12.1 Mya), while divergence within the species complex occurred ~10.3 Mya up until the Holocene (0.11 Mya). The discovery of six novel lineages of freshwater crabs from a seemingly restricted distribution range has conservation implications, but to date most conservation planning strategies have focussed on freshwater vertebrates. By conducting a fine-scale phylogenetic survey using invertebrates, this study provides a platform for the inclusion of freshwater invertebrates in future conservation assessments.

The genus Pentatrachyphloeus Voss, 1974, with two known species, is redefined and compared with related genera. An additional thirty seven new species are described here: P. andersoni sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. baumi sp. nov. (South Africa, Gauteng); P. brevithorax sp. nov. (South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal); P. bufo sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. endroedyi sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. exiguus sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. frici sp. nov. (South Africa, Limpopo); P. grobbelaarae sp. nov. (South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal); P. hanzelkai sp. nov. (South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal); P. holubi sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. howdenae sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. hystrix sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. insignicornis sp. nov. (South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal); P. kalalovae sp. nov. (South Africa, Gauteng); P. kuscheli sp. nov. (South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal); P. laevis sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. lajumensis sp. nov. (South Africa, Limpopo); P. leleupi sp. nov. (Zimbabwe, Manica); P. lesothoensis sp. nov. (Lesotho, Qacha’s Nek); P. machulkai sp. nov. (South Africa, Free State); P. marshalli sp. nov. (South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal); P. muellerae sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. musili sp. nov. (South Africa, Limpopo); P. ntinini sp. nov. (South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal); P. oberprieleri sp. nov. (South Africa, Gauteng, North West); P. pavlicai sp. nov. (South Africa, Free State); P. rudyardi sp. nov. (South Africa, Limpopo); P. schoemani sp. nov. (South Africa, Limpopo); P. soutpansbergensis sp. nov. (South Africa, Limpopo); P. spinimanus sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. stingli sp. nov. (South Africa, Limpopo); P. tenuicollis sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. tuberculatus sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. vavrai sp. nov. (South Africa, Eastern Cape); P. vossi sp. nov. (South Africa, Mpumalanga); P. vrazi sp. nov. (South Africa, Limpopo) and P. zikmundi sp. nov. (South Africa, Free State). All of the species are keyed and illustrated; ecological information is presented only where available. All species seem to be very localised, being known only from one or only a very limited number of localities. Immature stages or host plants are not known for any of the species. The species are distributed as follows: South Africa: Mpumalanga (13), Limpopo (8), KwaZulu-Natal (7), Free State (3), Gauteng (3), Eastern Cape (3), North West (1); Lesotho: Qacha’s Nek (1) and Zimbabwe: Manica (1).

Vegetation data from southern KwaZulu-Natal were analysed. TWINSPAN classification separated the entire data set (547 releves) into five subsets. One subset, representing the vegetation of the wetlands of southern Kw aZulu-Natal, was further classified by Braun-Blanquet procedures. Eight plant communities and fourteen subcommunities were identified and described. The results can be integrated with existing phytosociological classifications of the Grassland Biome.

A new genus of Trachyphloeini, Epistomius gen. nov. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Entiminae) living in forest litter in the eastern part of South Africa is described, illustrated and its position in the subfamily Entiminae is discussed. Seven new species are described: E. bulirschi sp. nov. (KwaZulu-Natal), E. colonnellii sp. nov. (Eastern Cape), E. janaki sp. nov. (KwaZulu-Natal), E. natalensis sp. nov. (KwaZulu-Natal), E. ngomiensis sp. nov. (KwaZulu-Natal), E. niger sp. nov. (KwaZulu-Natal), and E. wanati sp. nov. (Mpumalanga), and included in this new genus. All species are keyed and illustrated.

An estuary, according to the National Water Act of 1998, is a partially or fully enclosed body of water which is open periodically or permanently to the sea within which the sea water can be diluted, to an extent that is measurable with freshwater from inland. Estuaries and the lands surrounding them are places of transition from land to sea, and from freshwater to saltwater. Although influenced by the tides, estuaries are protected from the full force of ocean waves, winds, and storms by the reefs, barrier islands, or fingers of land, mud, or sand that surround them. South Africa’s estuaries are important and irreplaceable habitats, especially for prawns, fish, wading birds and mangroves. They are home to numerous plants and animals that live in water that is partly fresh and partly salty. Estuaries are also homes to growing coastal communities as increasing number of people occupy watersheds. However, estuaries are also threatened. One of the threats is reduced river water inflow. This study applies the contingent valuation method (CVM) to elicit user’s willingness to pay to mitigate the negative impacts of reduced freshwater inflow into selected five Eastern Cape and Kwazulu-Natal estuaries: the Sundays, Gamtoos, Mdloti, Mgeni and Mvoti estuaries. In addition to the contingent valuation method, the travel cost method was used to generate comparative values. The contingent valuation method is a technique to establish the value of a good (or service) that is not bought or sold in an actual market. The CVM establishes the economic value of the good by asking the users of an environmental good to state their willingness to pay (WTP) for a hypothetical project to prevent, or bring about, a change in the current condition of the environmental good. The users’ WTP is aggregated to establish a total willingness to pay (TWTP) for the population of the users of the environmental good.

Gastropods are one of the most diverse species groups in mangrove habitats, however, many of their specific roles in relation to ecological patterns and processes are currently largely unknown. The overall aim of this research project was to provide basic ecological information for key gastropod species from subtropical mangroves within a protected area. South African mangroves cover relatively small areas and are restricted to estuaries, these habitats therefore present unique opportunities and challenges to the species that occur in them. Three gastropod species, Terebralia palustris, Cerithidea decollata, and Melanoides tuberculata, all occur at their natural southernmost range limit within South Africa and were selected based on their prominence and occurrence in mangrove habitats of the iSimangaliso Wetland Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Trophic linkages and resource partitioning, resource utilization rates, and ecological resilience were investigated respectively using: 1) a stable isotope (δ15N and δ13C) approach; 2) an experimental approach to quantify feeding dynamics (ingestion rate, consumption/digestion efficiency and grazing impact); and 3) a mixed-effects modelling approach to relate population responses to environmental variables. The diet of T. palustris was seasonally variable and a number of sources were incorporated by different sized snails, but their grazing impact on microphytobenthos was not significant. The results also indicated an ontogenetic shift in the dietary niche for T. palustris through robust partitioning of resources between different size classes. The diets of C. decollata and M. tuberculata were dominated by different primary resources as a function of where they occurred in the mangroves. Melanoides tuberculata consumed a wide variety of primary resources, a typical trait of an opportunistic generalist species. The ingestion rate of M. tuberculata was not dependent on the availability of microphytobenthos, and was highest when conditions were oligotrophic. The resilience of C. decollata was related to the tree-climbing behaviour of this species and its occurrence was best explained by sediment conductivity. These responses were considered in conjunction to what has previously been reported on the resilience of the mangrove trees. The results of this research project have provided new basic ecological information for all three gastropod species in this data-deficient subtropical region. This information can potentially be used in comparative studies for these species in other regions or in broader scale ecological studies. Terebralia palustris has recently experienced a range contraction along the South African coastline. This research project has shown that the diet of this species is highly variable and that food limitation and competition for resources should be considered as potential drivers of the local decline. Cerithidea decollata has in contrast expanded its distributional range in this region. This research project has shown that this species has a generalist diet and exhibits traits in relation to tolerance that are expected to have facilitated its expansion into temperate saltmarsh habitats that occur in dynamic estuaries. Melanoides tuberculata is a globally invasive species, and as South African populations are within its native range, ecological information from this region is valuable as it can be used to investigate the potential ecological effects following introduction into new habitats beyond the native range. Biological drivers have a significant impact on mangrove ecosystem functioning, particularly in relation to recycling and the retention of organic carbon generated through primary productivity. Understanding the ecological linkages that maintain ecological functioning and stability is therefore an important step towards conserving and sustainably managing threatened ecosystems such as mangrove forests.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2002.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: African Acacia species are often major contributors to the progressive increase in the woody component of savannas, a phenomenon commonly referred to as bush encroachment. In Hluhluwe- Umfolozi Park, the numbers of adult Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex Del. trees per hectare far exceed (by III) that of A. karroo Hayne adults. The relative dominance is reversed in the juvenile stage with A. karroo (725 ha') outnumbering A. nilotica (225 ha-I) threefold outside closed woodlands. African acacias produce large quantities of seed and may have large soil-stored seed banks. They suffer pre-dispersal predation by bruchid beetles and may be either wind or animal dispersed. Once dispersed they are vulnerable to post-dispersal attack. This study tested several hypotheses regarding various aspects of seed ecology of A. karroo and A. nilotica. The null hypothesis that seed ecology does not contribute to the success of A. karroo over A. nilotica, was tested. Acacia karroo trees were smaller (mean basal diameter: 7.8 cm) than A. ni/otica trees (mean basal diameter: 18.5 cm) on average, but produced more seeds (A. karroo mean: 1628; A. nilotica mean: 992) for a given basal diameter size class. It was found that A. karroo showed less bruchid infestation (mean: 1.36-3.81%) than A. nilotica (mean: 14.67-86.70%) at all stages of pod development with a proportion of A. karroo seeds (7.1 %) being able to germinate after bruchid attack. Bruchid attack rendered A. ni/otica seeds unviable. There was no difference between the two species with regards to the soil-stored seed bank and the viability of seeds found in the soil. Acacia karroo showed higher germination levels (5.1%) and better establishment (4.9%) than A. nilotica (1.5% and 0.4% respectively). On average, there was no difference in germination levels between burnt and unbumt seeds, but there was a significant difference in germination of burnt seeds in both burnt (4.5%) and unbumt (2.5%) sites and unbumt seeds in both burnt (2.8%) and unbumt (4.9%) sites when considered separately. Post-dispersal predation of A. karroo seeds (21.8%) was higher than that of A. nilotica (12.7%). There was more rodent predation in tall grass areas (26.0%) than short grass (10.7%) or canopy areas (15.2%), and most seeds were lost from unprotected control groups. Rodent presence was a significant factor in unexplained seed disappearance. The ability of A. karroo to germinate easily and the low levels of beetle predation experienced by this species seemed to be its main advantage over A. nilotica as an encroaching species in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Acacia spesies van Afrika is dikwels belangrike bydraers tot die progressiewe toename in die houtkomponent van savannas. Hierdie verskynsel word algemeen na verwys as bosindringing. In die Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park is die aantal volwasse Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex Del. bome per hektaar aansienlik meer (l l l meer) as die aantal volwasse A. karroo Hayne bome. In die jong stadium is die oorheersing omgekeerd, met driekeer soveel A. karroo (725 ha-I) as A. nilotica (225 ha-I) bome buite beboste gedeeltes. Afrika se Acacia spesies produseer groot hoeveelhede saad en kan oor aansienlike grond-gebergde saadbanke beskik. Voor verspreiding word die saad aan predasie deur bruchid-kewers blootgestel. Die saad kan óf deur wind óf diere versprei word en na verspreiding word dit ook aan predasie blootgestel. Hierdie studie het verskillende hipoteses rakende verskeie aspekte van die saadekologie van A. karroo en A. nilotica getoets. Die nulhipotese dat saadekologie nie tot die groter sukses van A. karroo teenoor A. nilotica bydrae nie, is getoets. Acacia karroo bome was oor die algemeen kleiner (gemid. basale omtrek: 7.8 cm) as A. nilotica (gemid. basale omtrek: 18.5 cm) bome maar het meer saad (A. karroo gemid.: 1628; A. nilotica gemid.: 992) per gegewe basale diameter grootte klas gelewer. Daar is geen verskil tussen die twee spesies rakende grondgebergde saadbanke en die lewensvatbaarheid van hierdie saad gevind nie. Acacia karroo het hoër vlakke van ontkieming (5.1%) en beter vestiging (4.9%) as A. nilotica (l.5% en .4% respektiewelik) getoon. Daar was oor die algemeen geen verskil in die ontkiemingsvlakke van gebrande en ongebrande sade nie, maar wel 'n beduidende verskil in die ontkieming van gebrande sade in beide gebrande (4.5%) en ongebrande (2.5%) areas en ongebrande sade in gebrande (2.8%) en ongebrande (4.9%) areas as dit afsonderlik geëvalueer is. Die predasie van A. karroo saad na verspreiding (21.8%) was hoër as dié van A. nilotica (12.7%). Daar was meer knaagdier-predasie in gebiede met lang gras (26.0%) as dié met kort gras (10.7%) of boomryke gedeeltes (15.2%). Die meeste saad is in onbeskermde kontrolegroepe verloor. Die teenwoordigheid van knaagdiere het 'n belangrike rol in die onverklaarde verdwyning van saad gespeel. Dit is gevind dat A. karroo se vermoë om maklik te ontkiem, asook die lae vlakke van insek skade aan die saad, die belangrikste voorsprong is wat dié spesie oor A. nilotica as 'n indringer in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park het.

Thesis (MScConEcol)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of the research presented in this dissertation was to investigate localised acridid outbreaks causing damage to sugarcane in Empangeni, Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Reports of outbreaks with increasing severity have occurred for the last six or seven years, which prompted this research. In general, little is known about acridid outbreaks in sugarcane due to their sporadic nature, therefore this project set out to identify morphologically and molecularly, all species associated with Empangeni sugarcane and to determine the ecology and population dynamics of the most important species, to provide baseline data for the development of an integrated pest management (IPM) plan against these crop pests. A year-long population survey was conducted on a number of affected farms and adjacent grassland sites to determine the life cycles, population density and composition of this acridid complex on these farms. Surveys showed that this complex comprised five species: Nomadacris septemfasciata, Petamella prosternalis, Ornithacris cyanea, Cyrtacanthacris aeruginosa and Cataloipus zuluensis. Observed damage was recorded throughout the year in order to correlate with species densities. It was found that damage was closely associated with two species, namely Petamella prosternalis and Nomadacris septemfasciata, therefore these two species are of particular concern due to their higher densities and large body size resulting in them being the biggest threat to Empangeni sugarcane. All five species are univoltine but two different life cycle strategies were discovered, 3 species exhibit a winter egg diapause while 2 species exhibit a winter adult reproductive diapause, an important finding considering the knowledge intensive method of control which has been proposed. Population surveys revealed a large difference in species composition among farms (sugarcane sites) and among grassland sites. Nomadacris septemfasciata and Petamella prosternalis showed a significant preference for sugarcane while species such as Cyrtacanthacris aeruginosa, Zonocerus elegans and Orthocta sp. seemed to prefer grassland sites. Feeding potential trials were completed on the two most economically important species, Nomadacris septemfasciata and Petamella prosternalis. The results showed that Petamella prosternalis has a significantly higher feeding potential (% leaf damage) compared to Nomadacris septemfasciata even though in terms of dry weight and length, it is a smaller specimen. Feeding data were used to determine the voracity of these two species under laboratory conditions. Petamella prosternalis eats roughly 1.83 grams of fresh sugarcane per day while Nomadacris septemfasciata eats approximately 1.16 grams per day. These results were then compared to observed field damage data in order to gauge their accuracy and applicability within a field setting, which showed that although sugarcane field damage is significantly correlated with the population fluctuations of both these species, it is more closely associated with Petamella prosternalis resulting in a correlation coefficient of 0.429143 while Nomadacris septemfasciata had a correlation coefficient of 0.250. Phase polyphenism in the red locust Nomadacris septemfasciata was investigated using three methods including traditional morphometrics (Elytra/Femur (E/F) ratio), hopper colouration and eye stripe data. The E/F ratio indicated that the majority of the Empangeni population sampled is in the transiens and gregarious phase with a mean E/F ratio of 2.0063 and that they seem to be becoming more gregarious over time, with populations in 2012 having a mean E/F ratio of 1.9973 and in 2013 a mean E/F ratio of 2.01315. Hopper colouration also indicates that populations are generally showing gregarious tendencies with the majority of hoppers exhibiting gregarious type colouration. Eye stripe data showed that the majority of adult specimens observed had seven eye stripes, an indication of gregarious individuals. Geometric morphometrics, a relatively new, software based technique which has not been used in phase polyphenism studies before was used as a means to accurately measure variations among populations of N. septemfasciata by measuring the variation in forewing shape according to allocated landmarks. The resulting shape variation were compared to traditional morphometrics in an attempt to relate the two techniques so that geometric morphometrics can possibly be used as a tool to study phase polyphenism in locusts in the future. The results indicate that similarities in terms of location and gender exist between the two methods, however the exact same individuals should be used for both methods which will improve the accuracy of comparisons. This study, for the first time identified the acridid complex causing damage to Empangeni sugarcane and provided a broad summary of the potential impact the complex has on the crop as well as what may be causing them to occur in this area such as optimal habitat conditions and sugarcane as a preferable host plant being two factors which are likely to be having an influence. The findings of this study provide the baseline data needed in order to develop a more integrated and sustainable approach to controlling these acridids pests. Understanding the biology of the species enables practitioners to make more effective management decisions which is clearly needed as the current techniques being used have not solved the ‘grasshopper problem’.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die navorsing wat in hierdie verhandeling was om ondersoek in te gelokaliseerde acridid uitbrekings veroorsaak skade aan suikerriet in Empangeni, KwaZulu-Natal, Suid-Afrika. Verslae van die uitbreek met toenemende erns plaasgevind het vir die laaste 6-7 jaar, wat gelei het tot hierdie navorsing. In die algemeen, is min bekend oor acridid uitbreek in suikerriet as gevolg van hul sporadiese aard, daarom is hierdie projek uiteengesit morfologies en molekulêre identifiseer, al die spesies wat verband hou met Empangeni suikerriet en die ekologie en bevolkingsdinamika van die belangrikste spesies te bepaal, te voorsien basislyn data vir die ontwikkeling van 'n geïntegreerde plaagbestuur (GPB) plan teen hierdie oes peste. 'N jaar lank bevolking opname is uitgevoer op 'n aantal plase wat geraak is en aangrensende grasveld plekke om die lewensiklus te bepaal, bevolkingsdigtheid en samestelling van hierdie acridid kompleks op die plase . Opnames het getoon dat hierdie komplekse bestaan uit vyf spesies: Nomadacris septemfasciata, Petamella prosternalis, Ornithacris Cyanea, Cyrtacanthacris aeruginosa en Cataloipus zuluensis Waargeneem skade is aangeteken deur die jaar ten einde te ooreenstem met spesie digtheid. Daar is gevind dat die skade was nou verbind met twee spesies, naamlik P. prosternalis en N. septemfasciata, dus is die twee spesies van besondere belang as gevolg van hul hoër digtheid en 'n groot liggaam grootte lei daartoe dat hulle die grootste bedreiging vir die Empangeni suikerriet. Al vyf spesies is univoltine maar twee verskillende lewensiklus strategieë ontdek, 3 spesies toon 'n winter eier diapouse terwyl 2 spesies toon 'n winter volwasse reproduktiewe diapouse, 'n belangrike bevinding oorweging van die kennis intensiewe metode van beheer wat is voorgestel. Bevolking opnames openbaar 'n groot verskil in spesies samestelling onder plase (suikerriet webwerwe) en onder grasveld webwerwe. Nomadacris septemfasciata en Petamella prosternalis het 'n beduidende voorkeur vir suikerriet, terwyl spesies soos Cyrtacanthacris aeruginosa, Zonocerus elegans en Orthocta SP. gelyk grasveld webwerwe te verkies. Voeding potensiaal proewe is op die twee mees ekonomies belangrike spesies voltooi, Nomadacris septemfasciata en Petamella prosternalis Die resultate het getoon dat Petamella prosternalis het 'n aansienlik hoër voeding potensiaal(% blaarskade) in vergelyking met Nomadacris septemfasciata selfs al in terme van droë gewig en lengte, is dit is 'n kleiner model. Voeding data is gebruik om die gulzig van hierdie twee spesies onder laboratorium toestande te bepaal. Petamella prosternalis eet ongeveer 1.83 gram vars suikerriet per dag, terwyl Nomadacris septemfasciata eet ongeveer 1,16 gram per dag. Hierdie resultate is dan in vergelyking met waargeneem veld skade data om die akkuraatheid en toepaslikheid in 'n veld omgewing, wat getoon het dat hoewel suikerriet veld skade beduidend gekorreleer met die bevolking skommelinge van beide hierdie spesies, is nouer dit verband hou met Petamella prosternalis te meet lei tot 'n korrelasie koëffisiënt van 0.429143 terwyl Nomadacris septemfasciata het 'n korrelasie koëffisiënt van 0.250408 Fase polyphenism in die rooisprinkaan Nomadacris septemfasciata is ondersoek met behulp van drie metodes, insluitend tradisionele Morphometricsveld (Elytra/Femur (E/F) verhouding), hopper kleur en oog streep data. Die Elytra te Femur verhouding (E/F -verhouding) het aangedui dat die meerderheid van die bevolking is Empangeni in die transiens en gesellige fase met 'n gemiddelde E/F verhouding van 2,0063 en dat dit lyk asof hulle meer kuddedier met verloop van tyd, met bevolkings in 2012 met 'n gemiddelde E/F verhouding van 1,9973 en in 2013 'n gemiddelde E/F verhouding van 2,01315 . Hopper kleur dui ook aan dat die bevolking in die algemeen toon kuddedier neigings Thye meerderheid van hoppers uitstal gesellige tipe kleur. Oog streep het getoon dat die meerderheid van die volwasse eksemplare waargeneem het sewe oog strepe: 'n aanduiding van die gesellige individue. Geometriese Morphometricsveld, 'n relatief nuwe, sagteware gebaseer tegniek wat nie gebruik is in fase polyphenism studies voor was gebruik as 'n middel tot verskille tussen bevolkings van die rooisprinkaan akkuraat te meet deur die variasie meet in voorvlerk vorm volgens toegeken landmerke Die gevolglike vorm variasie is in vergelyking met die tradisionele Morphometricsveld in 'n poging om die twee tegnieke in verband te bring , sodat meetkundige Morphometricsveld kan moontlik as 'n instrument fase polyphenism om te studeer in sprinkane in die toekoms gebruik kan word. Die resultate dui daarop dat die ooreenkomste in terme van ligging en geslag bestaan tussen die twee metodes is egter presies dieselfde individue moet gebruik word vir beide metodes wat die akkuraatheid van vergelykings verbeter. Hierdie studie, wat vir die eerste keer geïdentifiseer die acridid kompleks om skade aan Empangeni suikerriet en verskaf 'n breë opsomming van die potensiële impak van die kompleks het op die gewas sowel as wat kan veroorsaak word om hulle te kom in hierdie gebied soos optimale habitat toestande en suikerriet as 'n beter gasheer plant. Die bevindinge van hierdie studie verskaf die basislyn data wat nodig is om 'n meer geïntegreerde en volhoubare benadering tot die beheer van hulle as die begrip van die biologie van die spesie in staat stel om praktisyns meer effektiewe bestuur besluite wat duidelik nodig is as 'n die huidige tegnieke gebruik moet maak om te ontwikkel nie opgelos die "sprinkaan probleem".

The long-beaked common dolphin, Delphinus capensis (Gray 1828), is one of the most enigmatic predators feeding in the annual sardine run (Sardinops sagax) off the coast of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), South Africa. In recent years, unpredictable inter-annual variations in the timing, spatial extent and intensity of the sardine run have been documented, possibly resulting in changes in the suite of prey available to the common dolphin during winter. Although the diets of a number of predators during the sardine run have been studied in detail (e.g. sharks and flying seabirds), little is known about the diet of long-beaked common dolphins during this period. Each year, a low number of common dolphins are incidentally caught in the anti-shark nets in the waters of KwaZulu-Natal. These captures provide a valuable source of data on selected aspects of the ecology of the long-beaked common dolphins along the KwaZulu-Natal coastline. The objective of this study was to provide new dietary data for the common dolphins feeding in the waters of KwaZulu-Natal during winter over the period 2000 to 2009, as well as to determine if any dietary changes had taken place since the common dolphin diet was last assessed, over 15 years ago. Stomach contents from 95 common dolphins (55 females, 40 males) caught between 2000 and 2009 were analysed and compared to historical data from dolphins caught between 1974 and 1992. Mesopelagic fish and squid dominated the diet, with 23 fish and 5 squid species represented in adult dolphins. Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) indicated that there was no resource partitioning between adult male and female dolphins. Numerical analyses indicated that there was a shift in the principal prey species consumed by the dolphins over the past decade, particularly during the winter. Prior to 1992, sardine comprised up to 49% of the total stomach contents, while chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus) was the dominant prey item (66% by mass) recorded in the stomach contents over the period 2000 to 2009. The shift in the relative contributions of sardine and mackerel in the diets of the dolphin appeared to correspond to fluctuations in the availability of the two principal prey species. Between 2000 and 2009, the diversity of the dolphins' diets was highest during the sardine run, reflecting the presence of a wide suite of predatory teleosts in the waters of KwaZulu-Natal during the annual sardine run. Conversely, prior to 2000, the diet was dominated by sardine during the peak of the sardine run, whilst diet diversity increased after this period. Apart from sardine and chub mackerel, elf (Pomatomus saltatrix), maasbanker (Trachurus delagoa), strepie (Sarpa salpa) and flying fish (Exocoetid sp.) also formed important components of the diet both prior to 1992, and over the last decade. Blubber thickness was assessed as an indicator of animal condition. No significant change in blubber total weight (R² = 0.0016, N = 185), nor dorsal, lateral or ventral blubber thickness (R² = 0.3146, R² = 0.0003, and R² = 0.0003 respectively, N = 78) was seen over the last 30 years (1970 to 2009). Results of stable isotope analyses conducted on tissue derived from the teeth of D. capensis indicated that there has been no significant shift in the trophic position (δ¹⁵N) and potential prey consumed (δ¹³C) over the corresponding period. These data would suggest that the long-beaked common dolphins along the KwaZulu-Natal coastline can be considered as opportunistic predators generally consuming the most abundant prey species available locally. As common dolphins feed opportunistically, this dietary shift appears to indicate changes in the shoaling characteristics of the most abundant fish prey in KwaZulu-Natal during winter. Given the “Data Deficient” status of the long-beaked common dolphin on the IUCN Red Data List, and the strong climatic forcing of the sardine run, such dietary data have important implications for their conservation in the light of expanding fisheries and climate change.

The ichthyofauna of three small Natal estuaries, the Mhlanga, Damba and Zotsha was sampled over a period of two years. A total of 68 kinds of fishes representing 24 families, 39 genera and 56 species were captured during this study. Forty seven kinds of fishes were recorded in the Mhlanga of which Gilchristella aestuaria,Oreochromis mossambicus, Valamugil cunnesius, Valamugil sp. and juvenile mugilids numerically dominated. In terms of biomass, O. mossambicus, V. cunnesius, Liza alata, Myxus capensis and Mugil cephalus dominated the ichthyofauna of the Mhlanga. In the Damba, 24 kinds of fishes were recorded. The most abundant fishes captured were Glossogobius callidus, M. capensis and O. mossambicus. M. capensis, M. cephalus, O. mossambicus and G. callidus dominated the fish biomass captured in the Damba. A total of 56 kinds of fishes were recorded in the Zotsha during this study. The ichthyofauna of the Zotsha was numerically dominated by juvenile mugilids, G. aestuaria, O. mossambicus, Rhabdosargus holubi, Terapon jarbua, Ambassis productus and G. callidus. The species which dominated the fish biomass in the Zotsha were O. mossambicus, L. alata, Valamugil robustus, Valamugil buchanani, M. capensis, M. cephalus and V. cunnesius. Classifying the species captured according to whether they were resident estuarine species, freshwater species, estuarine-dependent marine species and marine species revealed that the first three groups were all well represented in the systems. The only system in which marine species made any significant contribution to the ichthyofauna was the Zotsha. Oreochromis mossambicus was the dominant freshwater species in all three estuaries during this study. Gilchristella aestuaria and Glossogobius callidus were the principal estuarine species in the Mhlanga and the Damba respectively. Both G. aestuaria and G. callidus were the dominant estuarine species captured in the Zotsha. The principal estuarine-dependent marine fishes captured in the Mhlanga were V. cunnesius, Valamugil sp., juvenile mugilids, M. capensis, M. cephalus and L. alata. In the Damba, M. capensis and M. cephalus were the dominant estuarine-dependent marine species and in the Zotsha juvenile mugilids, R. holubi, T. jarbua, A . productus, M. capensis, V. cunnesius, V. robustus, M. cephalus and L. alata predominated. The results of this study indicate that the estuaries are dominated at different periods by different assemblages of fishes. This is linked to the spawning and migration patterns of the various species as well as the hydrological regime of each estuary. During the winter these systems are normally closed with relatively deep waters and high food resource and habitat availability. Freshwater and estuarine species mainly inhabit the upper reaches of the systems while estuarine-dependent marine species mainly occupy the middle and lower reaches and dominate the fish community. When these systems open with the onset of the spring/summer rains, adult and sub-adult estuarine-dependent marine species emigrate to the marine environment and juveniles begin recruiting into the systems. Spring is also the peak breeding period of resident estuarine and freshwater species, resulting in an increase in the contribution of these fishes to the overall population during this period. When closed estuaries open many of them drain and this results in the fishes concentrating in the lower reaches of the system where moderate water depths are present, thus further contributing to an increase in the proportion of freshwater and estuarine species in this region. The breaching of closed estuaries also results in a slump in food resources and habitat availability. Competition and possible increased vulnerability to avian predation (due to the shallow nature of the systems), may contribute to a decrease in the proportion of estuarine and freshwater species in summer. The prolonged spawning and recruitment of 0+ juveniles of estuarine-dependent marine species results in an increase in the proportion of these fishes present in the estuaries during summer. In autumn, these systems normally close, water levels rise and available food resources and habitat increase. This allows the redistribution of freshwater and estuarine species upstream, leaving estuarine-dependent marine species to dominate the middle and lower reaches. Although temporarily open/closed estuaries along the Natal coast may not be as diverse as permanently open estuaries in terms of their ichthyofauna, their importance must not be underestimated since by providing a continuous sequence of sheltered habitats along the coast they may contribute significantly to the viability of estuarine-dependent marine fish stocks.

Lake St Lucia in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, experiences severe ecological stress during dry periods largely as a result of diminishing freshwater supplies and conditions of hypersalinity. Possible intervention involves diverting the Mfolozi River to the St Lucia Lake system. However, due to high sediment loading, water from the Mfolozi river requires considerable filtration before a link can be established. A suggested option considered in this study is to restore the existing sugarcane farmlands on the Mfolozi Floodplain (~20 800 ha) to previous wetland conditions to reinstate a sediment removal function amongst other benefits. Proposed restoration will have a direct impact on the industries currently supported by the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the Mfolozi Floodplain (tourism, sugar, conservation). to understand a measure of such impacts, ecosystem services for both Lake St Lucia and the Mfolozi Floodplain were analysed (flood alleviation, water provision, water purification, sediment regulation, tourism, fisheries, vegetation for harvest, existence, cultural and research). Annual economic values for each ecosystem service were determined by means of valuation methods that included benefit transfer and replacement cost. Results showed a current annual minimum value of the Mfolozi Floodplain and Lake St Lucia as greater than R21 million and R1.1 billion respectively. Partial restoration of the floodplain (~6 000 ha) is expected to increase the sum of all ecosystem services values by approximately 26% for the Mfolozi Floodplain and by 23% for the St Lucia System. Full restoration (~20 800 ha) increases the total ecosystem services value by 88% and 50% for the Mfolozi Floodplain and St Lucia System respectively. Results showed that economic values for existence, fisheries, tourism and water provision increase by the greatest percentage for the St Lucia System under both restoration scenarios. Partial and full restoration of the floodplain will result in the greatest increases in economic value for the services existence, tourism, fisheries and the harvesting of vegetation on the Mfolozi Floodplain.

Thesis (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.<br>ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Land use change is leading to rapid biodiversity loss in terrestrial ecosystems worldwide. Ecological networks (ENs) are systems of remnant natural habitat which remain intact in a transformed matrix, and have been suggested as a means to mitigate the effects of habitat loss and transformation and the resulting loss of biodiversity. Conceptually, ENs are similar to habitat corridors but are larger in scale and more heterogeneous in their design and management. Like corridors, the efficacy of ENs for biodiversity conservation has been called into question and requires empirical investigation. South Africa boasts a unique system of extensive ENs associated with exotic timber plantations, mostly within the highly endangered grassland biome and Indian Ocean Coastal Belt in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. In these regions, grasshoppers respond sensitively to management practices such as grazing, mowing and burning, justifying their a priori selection as an ecological indicator. In this study, I utilize grasshopper assemblages to determine the efficacy of ENs for biodiversity conservation and suggest guidelines for EN optimization. Specifically, I assess grasshopper assemblage sensitivity and robustness to habitat quality within ENs, congruence of grasshoppers with butterflies, and I identify indicator species which can be utilized by managers for EN assessment in future. I also perform a case study of isolated fragment utilization by a highly mobile generalist species, the bird locust, Ornithacris cyanea (Stoll, 1813) (Acrididae: Cyrtacanthacridinae). Grasshopper assemblages were sampled within ENs in two geographic regions (Zululand and the KwaZulu-Natal Midlands) and in two years (2007 and 2008) during the peak season of grasshopper abundance, late summer (February-April). Local-scale environmental variables relating to management practices and landscape-scale environmental variables relating to design of the ENs were quantified. Management practices explained, on average, two-thirds of the variability in grasshopper assemblages that could be explained, while design variables explained one-third. Grass height and the time since the last fire event were most consistently influential, while area, context, isolation, proportion of bare ground and proportion of forbs at a site, proved influential in some analyses but not others. This response was robust over time and among geographic regions. Grasshopper species richness and abundance were highly congruent with that of butterflies and did not differ among isolated fragments, connected corridors and reference sites, although they did differ among geographic regions. Not all grasshopper species responded similarly to ENs. There was a strong phylogenetic signal in species response to environmental variables, with the distribution of highly mobile families varying more among years. Linear, heavily disturbed power line servitudes had higher grasshopper abundance, and generalist species consistent with early successional assemblages. Reference sites had more graminivorous species and those with intermediate mobility. Three species of grasshopper were identified with IndVal and validated on an independently collected dataset as indicators of high habitat quality. A case study of the bird locust showed that populations of this highly mobile species were effectively isolated and undergoing anthrovicariance even at short distances. These results indicated that heterogeneous ENs supported diverse grasshopper assemblages, although movement among isolated fragments may have been limited. A grasshopper bioindication method for South Africa’s ENs is suggested and has great potential for assessment of a crucial and sensitive trophic layer within the ENs. This method should be field-tested and revised over time as grasshopper relative abundances and species compositions may change. Increased heterogeneity, simulation of multiple successional stages, and increased connectivity are expected to positively impact biodiversity, particularly of insect primary herbivores. Globally, ENs, if managed and designed appropriately, have potential to enhance biodiversity, particularly of smaller resident organisms which can utilize the ENs for movement and live within them.<br>AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Veranderinge in grondgebruik lei tot ‘n vinnige verlies van biodiversiteit in terrestriële ekosysteme wêreldwyd. Ekologiese netwerke (ENs) is sisteme van oorblywende natuurlike habitat wat ongeskonde bly in getransformeerde matrikse, en is voorgestel as ‘n manier om die verlies aan biodiversiteit as gevolg van habitatverlies en transformasie te verminder. Konseptueel, is ENs soortgelyk aan habitat korridors, maar is groter in omvang en meer heterogeen in hulle ontwerp en bestuur. Soos korridors, is die effektiwiteit van ENs om biodiversiteit te bewaar bevraagteken, en vereis dit empiriese ondersoek. Suid-Afrika spog met ‘n unieke stelsel van uitgebreide ENs wat geassossieer is met uitheemse plantasies, meestal in die hoogs bedreigde grasveld bioom en Indiese Oseaan kusstrook in KwaZulu- Natal Provinsie, Suid Afrika. In hierdie streek reageer sprinkane sensitief op bestuurspraktyke soos beweiding, sny en brand. In hierdie studie het ek sprinkaan gemeenskappe gebruik om die effektiwiteit van ENs vir bewaring van biodiversiteit te bepaal en om riglyne te stel vir EN optimering. Spesifiek het ek sprinkaan gemeenskap sensitiwiteit en robustness tot habitat kwaliteit bepaal, oreenstemming tussen sprinkane en skoenlappers getoets, en het ek indikator species geïdentifiseer wat in die toekoms deur bestuurders gebruik kan word vir EN assessering. Ek het ook ‘n gevallestudie gedoen van geïsoleerde fragment benutting deur ‘n hoogs mobiele, algemene spesie, Ornithacris cyanea (Stoll, 1813) (Acrididae: Cyrtacanthacridinae). Sprinkaan gemeenskappe was versamel in twee geografiese gebiede (Zululand en die KwaZulu-Natal Midlands) en in twee jare (2007 en 2008) gedurende die seisoen van hoogste sprinkaan aktiwiteit, laat somer (Februarie – April). Plaaslike-skaal omgewingsveranderlikes met betrekking tot bestuurspraktyke en landskap-skaal omgewingsveranderlikes met betrekking tot die ontwerp van ENs is gekwantifiseer. Bestuurspraktyke verduidelik, gemiddeld, twee derdes van die variasie in die sprinkaan gemeenskappe, terwyl ontwerpveranderlikes een derde verduidelik. Grashoogte en tyd sedert die laaste brand was konsekwent invloedryk, terwyl area, konteks, isolasie, hoeveelheid kaal grond en hoeveelheid kruidagtige plantegroei invloedryk was in sekere analyses, maar in ander nie. Hierdie reaksie was konstant oor tyd en tussen geografiese gebiede. Sprinkaan spesies rykheid en hoeveelheid was hoogs kongruent met die van skoenlappers, en het nie verskil tussen geïsoleerde fragmente, verbinde korridors en verwysingsareas nie, maar hulle het verskil tussen geografiese streke. Nie alle sprinkaan spesies het soortgelyk gereageer tot ENs nie. Daar was ‘n sterk filogenetiese sein in spesies reaksies op die omgewingsveranderlikes, met meer variasie tussen jare in die verspeiding van hoogs mobiele families. Liniêre, hoogs versteurde kraglyn dienspaaie het hoer sprinkaan hoeveelhede gehad en algemene spesies wat geassosieer is met gemeenskappe in vroeë stadiums van suksessie. Verwysingsareas het meer graminivorous spesies gehad en spesies met intermediêre mobiliteit. Drie sprinkaan spesies is geïdentifiseer met IndVal en bevestig met ‘n onafhanklik versamelde dataset as indikators van hoë kwaliteit habitat. ‘n Gevallestudie op O. cyanea het aangedui dat populasies van hierdie hoogs mobiele spesie geïsoleerd is en dat hulle anthrovicariance ondergaan, selfs op kort afstande. Hierdie resultate dui aan dat heterogene ENs diverse sprinkaan gemeenskappe ondersteun, hoewel beweging tussen geïsoleerde fragmente dalk beperk is. Verhoogde heterogeneïteit, simulasie van verskeie suksessiewe fases en meer konnektiwiteit sal moontlik ‘n positiewe invloed op biodiversiteit hê, aangesien sprinkane verteenwoordigend was van insek primêre herbivore. Wêreldwyd, as ENs op ‘n gepaste manier bestuur en ontwerp word, het dit die potensiaal om biodiversiteit te bevorder. Dit is veral belangrik vir kleiner, plaaslike organisms wat ENs kan benut vir beweging en as leefhabitat. ‘n Sprinkaan bioindikasie metode vir Suid-Afrika se ENs is voorgestel en het groot potensiaal vir die assessering van ‘n belangrike en sensitiewe trofiese laag binne die ENs. Hierdie metode moet in die praktyk getoets word en hersien word oor tyd om veranderinge in sprinkaan relatiewe hoeveelhede en spesies komposisies in ag te neem.

Assessing the outputs and outcomes of wetland rehabilitation activities is recognised by the 'Working for Wetlands' programme in South Africa as important, but to date has been limited. An assessment of the ecological outcomes and the structural outputs of the Working for Wetlands rehabilitation implemented in the Killarney and Kruisfontein wetlands, KwaZulu-Natal, in 2005 was undertaken. The assessment of outcomes included an evaluation of the changes in terms of ecological integrity and the supply of ecosystem services, using WET-Health and WET- EcoServices assessment techniques respectively, and vegetation composition. Improvements in hydrological and geomorphic integrity were recorded in both wetlands, resulting in improved ecosystem services delivery. However, investigation of vegetation composition using the Wetland Index Value and Floristic Quality Assessment Index showed that, seven years after rehabilitation, KiNamey's vegetation composition had improved, but Kruisfontein's vegetation was still largely dominated by pioneer species and appeared to be stable, but in a severely transformed state. The response of these wetlands has shown that sites for rehabilitation should be screened before work begins, and wetlands requiring intensive management of vegetation recovery should be assessed in terms of the objectives and the anticipated benefits of the project. The assessment of the outputs included an evaluation of structural integrity, survival and cost- effectiveness. Limited issues, mostly relating to deviations from the designs during construction, were identified with regards to the structural outputs at each of the wetlands. However, the spreader canals at both Killarney and Kruisfontein wetlands were not functioning as intended and concentrated flows from the spreader canals were evident in both wetlands. The use of spreader canals should therefore be carefully planned and implemented for future wetland rehabilitation projects. Consideration of ZAR per hectare equivalent re-instated/secured provided a useful initial means of determining the cost-effectiveness of the wetland rehabilitation. However, additional factors need to be considered, such as, the nature of the rehabilitation activities, the type and size of the problem being addressed, rehabilitation of priority wetlands, limitations imposed by funders, and risks that need to be addressed by the rehabilitation strategy. Furthermore, the evaluation of the Killarney and Kruisfontein wetlands highlighted the need to revise the Water Research Commission's Wetland Management Series, especially those documents or guidelines relating to rehabilitation planning (WET-RehabPlan), interventions (WET-RehabMethods), and monitoring and evaluation (WET-RehabEvaluate).

Despite the fact that wetlands have been understood to be important for a wide range of ecosystem services, wetlands continue to be degraded globally. There has been a growing need to develop biomonitoring tools that reflect the present ecological state of wetlands, but very few attempts have been made in South Africa to achieve this, and those that have attempted this have generally achieved limited success. This study was conducted to develop and test the congruency of four selected biological indicators (dragonflies, frogs, macroinveterbrates and plants) in relation to the assessment of present ecological state using an existing method in South Africa, "WET-Health". WET-Health assessments rely primarily on transformations to a wetland that result from human impacts in both the catchment and the wetland itself. Using the tool, a health score is obtained that is consistent with the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) current "present ecological state” as applied to river health assessment. The study was conducted in agricultural settings of the Midlands of KwaZulu-Natal based on 13 wetlands. The selected wetlands were scored using WET - Health and grouped in four different ecological condition classes (A, B, C and D). Physical characteristics (wetland area, mean depth), biological characteristics (species cover/abundance, presence and species richness), and chemical characteristics (ammonia, pH, sulphate, nitrogen and phosphate) were also recorded in the selected wetlands. Nineteen different species of dragonfly were recorded in this study. The study demonstrated that dragonflies are a promising bioindicator of wetland present ecological state as the dragonfly index was found to be closely correlated with WET- Health scores. Open water bodies within the selected wetlands were the focus of dragonfly sampling, as male dragonflies are territorial and they will patrol or be found around this habitat. Emergent vegetation dominated by sedges formed the focus of macroinvertebrate sampling in this study because greater numbers of macroinvertebrate families were found in this biotope in comparison to open water areas with no emergent vegetation. A total of 47 macroinvertebrate families were recorded in this study, but SASS5 scores based on macroinvetebrates showed no correlation with WET-Health scores. A total of 10 different frog species were recorded in this study. All the species were common frog species found in most parts of the country. Frog species richness and occurrence showed no correlation with WET- Health scores. A total of twenty samples of two meter radius were measured per wetland and sampled for plant species and estimation of cover-abundance of each species per sample. Over 50 different plant species were recorded in this study, and both species accumulation and species richness showed a degree of correlation with WET-Health scores. All the wetlands in class A had generally higher species accumulation rate and species richness compared to the other wetland classes. In addition to testing the congruency of four selected biological indicators with WET- Health, water quality was measured in all the wetlands. Wetlands in class A were associated with improved water quality as the water passes through the wetland. However, wetlands in class C and D did not show consistently improved water quality between the apex and the toe of these wetlands. In some cases the water quality deteriorated as it passed through wetlands in these two classes.