Journal articles: 'Fire load'

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Lydersen, Jamie M., Brandon M. Collins, Eric E. Knapp, Gary B. Roller, and Scott Stephens. "Relating fuel loads to overstorey structure and composition in a fire-excluded Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest." International Journal of Wildland Fire 24, no. 4 (2015): 484. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf13066.

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Although knowledge of surface fuel loads is critical for evaluating potential fire behaviour and effects, their inherent variability makes these difficult to quantify. Several studies relate fuel loads to vegetation type, topography and spectral imaging, but little work has been done examining relationships between forest overstorey variables and surface fuel characteristics on a small scale (<0.05 ha). Within-stand differences in structure and composition would be expected to influence fuel bed characteristics, and thus affect fire behaviour and effects. We used intensive tree and fuel measurements in a fire-excluded Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest to assess relationships and build predictive models for loads of duff, litter and four size classes of downed woody fuels to overstorey structure and composition. Overstorey variables explained a significant but somewhat small percentage of variation in fuel load, with marginal R2 values for predictive models ranging from 0.16 to 0.29. Canopy cover was a relatively important predictor for all fuel components, although relationships varied with tree species. White fir abundance had a positive relationship with total fine woody fuel load. Greater pine abundance was associated with lower load of fine woody fuels and greater load of litter. Duff load was positively associated with total basal area and negatively associated with oak abundance. Knowledge of relationships contributing to within-stand variation in fuel loads can increase our understanding of fuel accumulation and improve our ability to anticipate fine-scale variability in fire behaviour and effects in heterogeneous mixed species stands.

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Vermeire, Lance T., and Matthew J. Rinella. "Fire Alters Emergence of Invasive Plant Species from Soil Surface-Deposited Seeds." Weed Science 57, no. 3 (June 2009): 304–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/ws-08-170.1.

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Restoration of historic fire regimes is complicated by concerns about exotic plant invasions, yet little is known of how the two may interact. Seeds of Japanese brome, spotted knapweed, Russian knapweed, and leafy spurge were subjected to fire at six fuel loads (100 to 700 g m−2) and a nonburned control. Fires were simulated with field-cured grass and time–temperature profiles were developed from thermocouples at the soil surface. Emergence was determined by species and fuel load in growth chambers. Fuel load explained 98% of variation in mean heat dosage and emergence decreased with increasing fuel load across species. Emergence was reduced 79 to 88% relative to nonburned treatment with 100 g m−2of fuel and at least 97% with 200 g m−2of fuel. Emergence probabilities were less than 0.01 for all species but spotted knapweed with a 300 g m−2fuel load. Results indicate high potential for fire to disrupt the life cycle of invasive species through direct seed mortality. The relationship between fuel load and seedling emergence provides good predictability of fire effects on surface-deposited seeds. A single fire is unlikely to eradicate many invasive species because they often produce abundant seeds and some will undoubtedly escape fire. However, abrupt reductions in seedling emergence with relatively light fuel loads indicate that fire may be an effective tool for increasing mortality of invasive plant seed across a broad range of habitats.

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Zhang, Qian, Wen-yu Wang, Song-song Bai, and Ying-hua Tan. "Response analysis of tunnel lining structure under impact and fire loading." Advances in Mechanical Engineering 11, no. 3 (March 2019): 168781401983447. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1687814019834473.

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Accidents and fires in tunnels hinder traffic and threaten the safety of personal and material resources, moreover, impact and temperature effects often cause damage to structures, affect structural performance, and shorten the service life of structures. In this article, the response behavior of the tunnel lining under the action of vehicle impact and fire load is simulated and analyzed. As the failure criterion of the lining dome settlement and the sidewall convergence displacement, the system compares the two interaction effect of the load, namely, the influence of the fire load on the impact resistance of the lining and the influence of the impact load on its fire resistance. The results show that the fire load reduces the impact resistance of the lining. Compared with the initial static load, the impact of temperature on the impact resistance is more significant; the impact load has an adverse effect on the fire resistance of the lining, when the tunnel lining is subject to explosion first. After the impact load working on the fire, the fire resistance of the lining will be significantly reduced with the increase of the static load ratio and the dynamic load ratio. The research can provide the reference for the design of fire protection and explosion protection parameters of tunnel support structures.

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Melinek, S. J. "The distribution of fire load." Fire Safety Journal 20, no. 1 (January 1993): 83–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0379-7112(93)90013-g.

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Hardin, Richard. "Fire Hydrant Lift Eases Load." Opflow 35, no. 9 (September 2009): 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8701.2009.tb02325.x.

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Kumar, Sunil, and C. V. S. Kameswara Rao. "Fire load in residential buildings." Building and Environment 30, no. 2 (April 1995): 299–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0360-1323(94)00043-r.

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Džolev, Igor, Mirjana Laban, and Suzana Draganić. "Survey based fire load assessment and impact analysis of fire load increment on fire development in contemporary dwellings." Safety Science 135 (March 2021): 105094. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.105094.

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Liu, Yong Jun, Chao Li, and When Jun Zhou. "Numerical Analysis on Tensile Properties of Grout-filled Splice Sleeve Rebars under ISO 834 Standard Fire." E3S Web of Conferences 38 (2018): 03036. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20183803036.

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This paper presents some numerical simulation results of tensile properties of reinforcing bars spliced by grout-filled coupling sleeves under fire conditions to identify the effect of load ratio on fire resistance time of spliced reinforcing bars, which provide a useful base for predicting structural behaviors of pre-cast reinforced concrete buildings in fires. A spliced rebar system investigated in this paper consists of two equal-diameter steel reinforcing bars with 25mm diameter and a straight coupling sleeve with 50mm outer and 45mm inner diameters. As a result, the thickness of grout between steel bars and sleeves are 20mm. Firstly, the temperature distributions in steel bars connected by grout- filled coupling sleeves exposed to ISO 834 standard fire were calculated utilizing finite element analysis software ANSYS. Secondly, the stress changes in heated steel bars connected by grout-filled coupling sleeves under different constant tensile loads were calculated step by step until the rebar system failed due to fire. Thus, the fire resistant time of rebar spliced by grout-filled coupling sleeves under different axial tensile loads can be determined, further, the relationship between fire resistance time and axial tensile loads ratio can could be obtained. Finally, the fire resistant times versus axial tensile load ratios curve of grout-filled splice sleeve rebars exposed to ISO 834 standard fire is presented.

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Cruz, Miguel G., Andrew L. Sullivan, James S. Gould, Richard J. Hurley, and Matt P. Plucinski. "Got to burn to learn: the effect of fuel load on grassland fire behaviour and its management implications." International Journal of Wildland Fire 27, no. 11 (2018): 727. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf18082.

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The effect of grass fuel load on fire behaviour and fire danger has been a contentious issue for some time in Australia. Existing operational models have placed different emphases on the effect of fuel load on model outputs, which has created uncertainty in the operational assessment of fire potential and has led to end-user and public distrust of model outcomes. A field-based experimental burning program was conducted to quantify the effect of fuel load on headfire rate of spread and other fire behaviour characteristics in grasslands. A total of 58 experimental fires conducted at six sites across eastern Australia were analysed. We found an inverse relationship between fuel load and the rate of spread in grasslands, which is contrary to current, untested, modelling assumptions. This result is valid for grasslands where fuel load is not a limiting factor for fire propagation. We discuss the reasons for this effect and model it to produce a fuel load effect function that can be applied to operational grassfire spread models used in Australia. We also analyse the effect of fuel load on flame characteristics and develop a model for flame height as a function of rate of fire spread and fuel load.

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Kawohl, Anne Katherine, and Jörg Lange. "TESTS ON 10.9 BOLTS UNDER COMBINED TENSION AND SHEAR." Acta Polytechnica 56, no. 2 (April 30, 2016): 112. http://dx.doi.org/10.14311/ap.2016.56.0112.

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Prior investigations of the load-bearing capacity of bolts during fire have shown differing behaviour between bolts that have been loaded by shear or by tensile loads. A combination of the two loads has not yet been examined under fire conditions. This paper describes a series of tests on high-strength bolts of property class 10.9 both during and after fire under a combined shear and tensile load.

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Reid, Angela M., Kevin M. Robertson, and Tracy L. Hmielowski. "Predicting litter and live herb fuel consumption during prescribed fires in native and old-field upland pine communities of the southeastern United States." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 42, no. 8 (August 2012): 1611–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x2012-096.

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The ability to predict fuel consumption during fires is essential for a wide range of applications, including estimation of fire effects and fire emissions. This project identified predictors of fuel consumption for the dominant fuel bed components (litter (<0.6-cm diameter dead material) and live herbs) during 217 prescribed fires in native longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris Mill.) and old-field loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) – shortleaf pine ( Pinus echinata Mill.) communities in the southeastern United States. Additionally, these data were used to validate the First Order Fire Effects Model (FOFEM) fuel consumption computer model using custom and default fuel loads. Regression models using empirical data suggested that litter and live herb fuel consumption can be predicted by prefire litter and live herb fuel loads, litter and live herb fuel moisture, litter fuel bed bulk density, season of burn, years since fire, days since last rain ≥0.64 cm, relative humidity, energy release component, community type, pine and hardwood basal areas, and the Keetch–Byram drought index. FOFEM’s prediction of fuel consumption for litter, live herbs, and duff combined using default fuel loads was 1.5 times the measured fuel consumption (where duff fuel load was zero). Refinement of FOFEM’s fuel load and consumption calculations in the studied community types using the newly collected data and suggestions for model improvement would provide more accurate air quality inventories and assist in guiding appropriate regulation of prescribed fire.

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Kim, Hayoung, and Dongho Rie. "Study on Fire Risk Assessment Method by Considering Warehouse Characteristics." Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation 20, no. 2 (April 30, 2020): 105–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.9798/kosham.2020.20.2.105.

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Large spaces, such as warehouses where internal loads are stored, exhibit higher fire loads and faster fire growths than general fires. In addition, the volume of the internal load reduces the space required for the smoke to stay, thereby accelerating the decline in smoke height. To prevent fire hazards in such spaces, it is necessary to evaluate the fire risk during the design stage. However, it is difficult to evaluate various settings because the evaluation method using the existing computational fluid dynamics utilize considerable amount of time. In this study, an algorithm was developed to evaluate the internal loads by using formulas related to the existing fire risk assessment. The developed algorithm is designed to easily calculate the detection time of the detector, smoke fall time, and sprinkler operation time. This algorithm could be used to design an optimized fire protection system in the initial design stage.

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13

Rissi, Mariana Ninno, M. Jaime Baeza, Elizabeth Gorgone-Barbosa, Talita Zupo, and Alessandra Fidelis. "Does season affect fire behaviour in the Cerrado?" International Journal of Wildland Fire 26, no. 5 (2017): 427. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf14210.

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Fire has played an important role in the plant dynamics and diversity of the Cerrado for millions of years. We evaluated fire behaviour in different fire seasons in areas of an open savanna, providing information for fire management plans. It has been hypothesised that early fires (May – end of the rainy season) will be less intense than those conducted in the middle and end of the dry season (July and October) owing to the amount of dead biomass accumulated. Therefore, we compared fire behaviour in early, mid- and late dry season, evaluating the main fire and environmental variables. Fire intensity was mainly influenced by the combination of dead fuel percentage and fuel load. Even though this combination was the best model to explain fire intensity variability, fire parameters (including fire intensity) did not differ between fire seasons. Flame height was best explained by dead fuel percentage + fuel moisture content, dead fuel percentage + fuel load and also by dead fuel percentage. Our study showed that, in areas with fire exclusion for 2 years, fire season did not influence fire parameters and fire behaviour and the main factors influencing fire intensity were the proportion of dead biomass and total fuel load.

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Kweon, Oh-Sang, and Heung-Youl Kim. "The Study on Compartment Fire Experiment According to Fire Load." Fire science and engineering 31, no. 6 (November 30, 2017): 16–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.7731/kifse.2017.31.6.016.

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15

Dimitrakopoulos, A. P. "Mediterranean fuel models and potential fire behaviour in Greece." International Journal of Wildland Fire 11, no. 2 (2002): 127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf02018.

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The Mediterranean vegetation types of Greece were classified into typical fuel models by measuring the following fuel parameters in 181 representative natural fuel complexes: 1-h, 10-h, 100-h and 1000-h fuel loads; foliage load; litter load and depth; total fuel load; average height and soil cover of the herbaceous, small shrub (up to 0.5 m) and tall shrub (0.5-3.0 m) vegetation layers. The data set was statistically analysed by a two-stage clustering procedure that produced seven distinct fuel models: two for evergreen-sclerophyllous shrublands (maquis), one for kermes oak shrublands, two for phrygana, one for grasslands and one for the litter layer of Mediterranean pine forests. The indicative range (upper and lower limit) of potential fire behavior for every fuel model was calculated with the BEHAVE fire behavior prediction system, using as inputs the specific fuel parameter values of every model. The shrubland fuel models resulted in fires with high intensity and rate of spread, while the phrygana and grassland models in fast fires of medium to low intensity. The litter layer of the pine forests provided the least severe burning conditions.

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Savadogo, Patrice, Didier Zida, Louis Sawadogo, Daniel Tiveau, Mulualem Tigabu, and Per Christer Odén. "Fuel and fire characteristics in savanna - woodland of West Africa in relation to grazing and dominant grass type." International Journal of Wildland Fire 16, no. 5 (2007): 531. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf07011.

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Fuel characteristics, fire behaviour and temperature were studied in relation to grazing, dominant grass type and wind direction in West African savanna–woodland by lighting 32 prescribed early fires. Grazing significantly reduced the vegetation height, total fuel load, and dead and live fuel fractions whereas plots dominated by perennial grasses had higher values for vegetation height, total fuel load and the quantity of live fuel load. Although fire intensity remained insensitive (P > 0.05) to any of these factors, fuel consumption was significantly (P = 0.021) reduced by grazing, rate of spread was faster in head fire (P = 0.012), and flame length was shorter in head fire than back fire (P = 0.044). The average maximum temperature was higher (P < 0.05) on non-grazed plots, on plots dominated by annual grasses, on plots subjected to head fire, and at the soil surface. Lethal temperature residence time showed a nearly similar trend to fire temperature. Wind speed and total fuel load were best predictors of fire behaviour parameters (R2 ranging from 0.557 to 0.862). It can be concluded that grazing could be used as a management tool to modify fire behaviour, back fire should be carried out during prescribed burning to lower fire severity, and the fire behaviour models can be employed to guide prescribed early fire in the study area.

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Rao, Leela E., John R. Matchett, Matthew L. Brooks, Robert F. Johnson, Richard A. Minnich, and Edith B. Allen. "Relationships between annual plant productivity, nitrogen deposition and fire size in low-elevation California desert scrub." International Journal of Wildland Fire 24, no. 1 (2015): 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf13152.

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Although precipitation is correlated with fire size in desert ecosystems and is typically used as an indirect surrogate for fine fuel load, a direct link between fine fuel biomass and fire size has not been established. In addition, nitrogen (N) deposition can affect fire risk through its fertilisation effect on fine fuel production. In this study, we examine the relationships between fire size and precipitation, N deposition and biomass with emphasis on identifying biomass and N deposition thresholds associated with fire spreading across the landscape. We used a 28-year fire record of 582 burns from low-elevation desert scrub to evaluate the relationship of precipitation, N deposition and biomass with the distribution of fire sizes using quantile regression. We found that models using annual biomass have similar predictive ability to those using precipitation and N deposition at the lower to intermediate portions of the fire size distribution. No distinct biomass threshold was found, although within the 99th percentile of the distribution fire size increased with greater than 125 g m–2 of winter fine fuel production. The study did not produce an N deposition threshold, but did validate the value of 125 g m–2 of fine fuel for spread of fires.

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Thauvoye, C., B. Zhao, J. Klein, and M. Fontana. "Fire Load Survey and Statistical Analysis." Fire Safety Science 9 (2008): 991–1002. http://dx.doi.org/10.3801/iafss.fss.9-991.

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Zhang, Gang, Shuan Hai He, Hong Jun Guo, and Wei Hou. "Deflection for Pre-Stressing Concrete Thin-Wall Box Girders Bridge under Action of Multi-Span Loads Exposed to Fire." Applied Mechanics and Materials 204-208 (October 2012): 2188–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.204-208.2188.

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The deflection for pre-stressing concrete thin-wall box girders bridges under action of multi-span loads exposed to fire was presented in this paper. Based on thermal and mechanics parameters, the fire and load model was designed, the space analysis procedure was performed to analyze the maximum deflection of each span during prophase and anaphase of extending-fire time, altogether 4 kind of load case. The studied results indicate: under condition of the whole span fire and load model of multi span, the mid-span deflection of the second span is down-warping during the fire prophase which its time is about 20 minutes, and up-warding or horizontal during the fire anaphase which its time is about 50 minutes; the deflection of the first and third span is down-warping with extending time during the whole fire time.

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Wang, Jian Min, Neng Jun Wang, Li Li Yuan, and Wen Ting Jiang. "Experiment of the Mechanical Performance of Reinforced Ceramsite Lightweight Aggregate Concrete Beams after Fire." Advanced Materials Research 594-597 (November 2012): 2219–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.594-597.2219.

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The effect of fire exposure on the mechanical performance of reinforced ceramsite lightweight aggregate concrete was investigated. Two groups of beams were cast at the same time, exposed to fire at about 800 °C and then naturally cooled. The beams were tested by applying two point transverse loads incrementally. The load-deflection relationships both of bending and shear tests were recorded. For bending test, the disappearance of crack turning points in the loading curves, reduction of yielding and ultimate loads, and increase in deflection were observed. The reduction of ultimate load and increase in deflection of beams after fire in shear test were also observed. After loading test, the load-deflection relationships of main reinforcing bars and stirrups were tested to discuss the effect of fire on the reinforcing bars in beams.

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Azarov, S., R. Shevchenko, and S. Shcherbak. "EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT AFFECTED BY FOREST FIRE UNDER COMPLEX RADIATION CONDITIONS OF FIREFIGHTING." Municipal economy of cities 1, no. 154 (April 3, 2020): 333–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.33042/2522-1809-2020-1-154-333-338.

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The paper deals with the problem of formation of general procedures for experimental study of environmental impact due to forest fire in complex radiation conditions of fire load formation and its further testing on the example of the ChNPP exclusion zone. The study carried out an experimental verification of the adequacy of the previously proposed methodological apparatus and identified the main directions of its further use as a basis for solving the problems of predicting the negative environmental impact on the environment. To this end, the following tasks have been solved:the general procedures of the methodology of experimental study of environmental impact due to forest fire in complex radiation conditions of fire load formation are formulated; a comprehensive experimental study was carried out using the developed method on the example of the fire load of the Chernobyl exclusion zone. Conducted studies in the field indicate that the content of radioactive smoke in the ground atmosphere of the Exclusion Zone can be dramatically increased by several orders of magnitude due to forest fires. Short-term (sever-al days) increased content of radioactive combustion products in the surface air can reach the level of radiation hazard for both the environment and directly for the life of the population living in a clean area at considerable distances (up to 30 km along the track axis) wildfire. The fires in the forests contaminated with Chornobyl radionuclide in the western trace due to the loss of TUE are of particular environmental danger, since the presence of plutonium combustion products in radioactive products results in significant dose loads for the environment and the population. The practical significance of the obtained results lies in the possibility of their application for carrying out complex ecological audit of the territory, which is subject to secondary radiation influence both inside and outside the exclusion zone of the Chornobyl NPP. Keywords: ecological safety, forest fire, radiation exposure, complex fire load

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Li, Zhengpeng, Hua Shi, James E. Vogelmann, Todd J. Hawbaker, and Birgit Peterson. "Assessment of Fire Fuel Load Dynamics in Shrubland Ecosystems in the Western United States Using MODIS Products." Remote Sensing 12, no. 12 (June 12, 2020): 1911. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12121911.

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Assessing fire behavior in shrubland/grassland ecosystems of the western United States has proven especially problematic, in part due to the complex nature of the vegetation and its relationships with prior fire history events. Our goals in this study were (1) to determine if we can effectively leverage the high temporal resolution capabilities of current remote sensing systems such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) to improve upon shrub and grassland mapping and (2) to determine if these improvements alter and improve fire behavior model results in these grass- and shrub-dominated systems. The study focused on the shrublands and grasslands of the Owyhee Basin, which is located primarily in southern Idaho. Shrubland and grassland fuel load dynamics were characterized using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Net Primary Production (NPP) datasets (both derived from MODIS). NDVI shrub and grassland values were converted to biomass, and custom fire behavior fuel models were then developed to evaluate the impacts of surface fuel changes on fire behaviors. Results from the study include the following: (1) high intra- and interannual spectral variability characterized these shrubland/grassland ecosystems, and this spectral variability was highly correlated with climate variables, most notably precipitation; (2) fire activity had a higher likelihood of occurring in areas where the NDVI (and biomass) differential between spring and summer values was especially high; (3) the annual fuel loads estimated from MODIS NPP showed that live herbaceous fuel loads were closely correlated with annual precipitation; (4) estimated fuel load accumulation was higher on shrublands than grasslands with the same vegetation productivity; (5) the total fuel load on shrublands was impacted by shrubland age, and live woody fuel load was over 66% of the total fuel load; and (6) comparisons of simulated fire behavior and spread between dynamic and static fuel loads, the latter estimates being obtained from the operational and nationwide LANDFIRE program, showed clear differences in fire indices and fire burn areas between the dynamic fuel loads and the static fuel loads. Current standard fuel models appear to have bias in underestimating the fire spread and total burnable area.

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Hwang, Ju-young, Hyo-Gyoung Kwak, and Yonghoon Lee. "Numerical Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Frame Structures Under Various Fire Scenarios." Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation 20, no. 2 (April 30, 2020): 189–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.9798/kosham.2020.20.2.189.

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Since structural damage by fire in modern Reinforced Concrete (RC) structures causes significant loss of human life and property, it is important to evaluate the residual capacity of fire-damaged RC structures exposed to high temperatures. In this study, the behavior of fire-damaged RC frame structures (single-bay & three-bay frame), considering non-mechanical strain, was investigated by applying numerical analysis. The behavior mechanism was analyzed by numerical results of the single-bay frame and similar behavior was observed in each member of the three-bay frame. Principally, regarding the three-bay frame structure, the time of fire-resistance was evaluated under various fire scenarios, which included symmetrical and asymmetrical fires within the structure. The results of numerical analysis showed that, as the story load action on the structure increases, the fire-resistance time decreases. Finally, asymmetric fires should be considered for safety assessment against fire because the fire-resistance time under asymmetric fire conditions is shorter than that under symmetric fire conditions for all load conditions.

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Yeo, In Hwan, Bum Yean Cho, Jae Hong An, and Byung Youl Min. "Fire Resistance Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Columns Using Axial Load Ratio and Slenderness Ratio." Advanced Materials Research 905 (April 2014): 268–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.905.268.

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Since the column members in buildings deal with both vertical and horizontal loads, appropriated amount of load should be estimated in order to evaluate the fire resistance performance of the columns under loaded condition. However, according to the ISO 834, the international standard for the evaluation of structural members, the fire resistance performance evaluation of column members is only based on the displacement and displacement rate under loaded condition in a standard fire. The purpose of this study is to suggest appropriate axial load ratios for the evaluation of fire resistance performance. The test conducted in this study produced appropriate axial load ratios for different slenderness ratios. They are expected to contribute to more accurate estimation of fire resistance performance and more efficient and cost-effective structural design.

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Kim, Robin, Kiho In, and Inhwan Yeo. "Wireless Network for Assessing Temperature Load of Large-Scale Structures Under Fire Hazards." Sensors 19, no. 1 (December 25, 2018): 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19010065.

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While the construction of high-rise buildings has become popular in big cities, an average of over 15,000 structure fires in those buildings are being reported in the United States. Especially because the fire in a building can result in a failure or even the collapse of the structure, assessing its integrity during and after the fire is of importance. Thus, in this paper, a framework with temperature sensors using wireless communication technology has been proposed. Associated hardware and software are carefully chosen and developed to provide an easy and effective solution for measuring fire load on large-scale structures during a fire. With an autonomous measurement system enabled, the key functions of the framework have been validated in a fire testing laboratory, using a real-scale steel column subject to standard fire. Unlike existing solutions of wireless temperature networks, the proposed solution can provide the user definable sampling frequencies based on the surface temperature and the means to assess the load redistribution of the structure due to fire loading in real-time. The results of the study show the great potential of using the developed framework for monitoring fire in a structure, allowing more accurate estimations of fire load in the design criteria, and advancing fire safety engineering.

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Cheney, NP, JS Gould, and WR Catchpole. "The Influence of Fuel, Weather and Fire Shape Variables on Fire-Spread in Grasslands." International Journal of Wildland Fire 3, no. 1 (1993): 31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf9930031.

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Fire-spread was measured on 121 grass fires in a 2500 ha experimental site in the Northern Territory, Australia. Selected plots were harvested to alter the height, load and bulk density of the fuel-bed. Fires were lit from a line and allowed to travel up to 400 m down-wind. Fire-spread was correlated with fuel, weather and fireshape variables using multiple regression techniques. Wind speed had most effect on fire-spread. The influence of the other variables was examined after a model for wind speed and moisture content had been fitted. Fuel load did not influence fire-spread. Fires in natural swards burnt 18% faster than fires in cut grass, but this increase could not be fully explained by changes in the height or bulk density of the fuel bed. Grass type characterised either by species group or by surface-area-to-volume ratio of the fuel particle, did not appear to significantly influence fire-spread. Differences in spread rates between the two grasses were attributed to differences in grass curing. The influence of grass curing appeared to be less than indicated by published models. Models of fire-spread in grasslands currently in use need to be revised. Ignition line length was a significant variable influencing fire-spread and this must be taken into consideration when using experimental fires to validate theoretical models or develop empirical models from field observations.

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S. S., Nurud, Abdullah I., Saari M, NorMariah A., and Rafee B. "Fire load survey in multi-storey wholesale premise – a case study." International Journal of Engineering Technology and Sciences 5, no. 1 (June 4, 2018): 53–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.15282/ijets.v5i1.2824.

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A combustible material is one of fire hazard where the amount of combustible materials or fire load could affect the heat release and fire severity in enclosure. The fire severity in the context of fire load is related to intensity and duration of fire in enclosure. Fire load survey is conducted in this study to estimate the amount of combustible materials in wholesale premise since it become threat to life safety and property loss. The determinations of fire load in 3-storey wholesale premise in Kuantan city is conducted by using combination fire load survey method; weighing and inventory method. Result from fire load survey can help to determine the sufficient requirements of fire suppression in premise as well as fire fighters intervention strategy. An extension of this study, the data could be used as an important input to design fire for deterministic analysis in fire risk assessment to quantify the level of fire risk towards life, property and environment.

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Shnal, Taras, Serhii Pozdieiev, Oleksandr Nuianzin, and Stanislav Sidnei. "Improvement of the Assessment Method for Fire Resistance of Steel Structures in the Temperature Regime of Fire under Realistic Conditions." Materials Science Forum 1006 (August 2020): 107–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.1006.107.

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There was researched the influence of fire temperature regimes, obtained by the proposed mathematical models, on the mechanical characteristics of metal structures. As a result, the identified patterns of the influence of the parameters of the premises with fires are shown as the slit coefficient decreases and the fire load density increases, the actual limit of fire resistance begins to decrease, as well as at values of fire load density less than 600 [MJ/m2], there is an area where the occurrence of a boundary state is not observed and Nomograms for determining the limit of fire resistance for steel structures at standard values of critical temperature were constructed and an appropriate method was developed.

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OHMIYA, Yoshifumi, Jun KITAHORI, Kazunori HARADA, Ken MATSUYAMA, and Norichika KAKAE. "INVESTIGATION INTO FIRE LOAD CONSIDERING DISTRIBUTION OF FURNITURE ETC.(Fire Safety)." AIJ Journal of Technology and Design 11, no. 22 (2005): 227–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.3130/aijt.11.227_2.

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Shalabi, Hossam, and George Hadjisophocleous. "CANDU FIRE LOAD DENSITIES IN CANADIAN NUCLEAR PLANTS." CNL Nuclear Review 8, no. 2 (December 1, 2019): 171–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.12943/cnr.2019.00004.

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A fuel survey was carried out at all operating CANDU reactors in Canada in 5 sites (Bruce A, Bruce B, Darlington, Pickering, and Point Lepreau). The survey used the National Fire Protection Association 557 combination method for the fire zones that contain fire safe shutdown analysis equipment. A fire zone group list for the sites was developed to combine fire zones with similar functions; 38 fire zone groups were produced from this exercise. The results of the survey show that the average fuel load density for all 1230 fire zones is 170.1 MJ/m2, and the average fuel load is 79 183 MJ. The maximum fuel load density is 1319 MJ/m2, and the maximum fuel load is 2 785 404 MJ. High-energy arcing faults risk was found in 254 fire zones out of the 1230 fire zones. Electric fault is the highest ignition source risk present in all 1230 fire zones.

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31

Ke, Gao, Liu Zimeng, Jia Jinzhang, Liu Zeyi, Aiyiti Yisimayili, Qi Zhipeng, Wu Yaju, and Li Shengnan. "Study on Flame Spread Characteristics of Flame-Retardant Cables in Mine." Advances in Polymer Technology 2020 (February 10, 2020): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/8765679.

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Polymer combustion is an important factor in mine fires. Based on the actual environment in a mine tunnel, a cable combustion experiment platform was established to study the regularities of the cable fire spread speed and smoke temperature under different conditions, including various fire loads and ventilation speeds. The flame change and molten dripping behaviour during the fire spread process were also analyzed. The experimental results show that the flame-retardant cable can be ignited and continuously burnt at a certain wind speed, but the combustion can be restrained at high wind speed. The combustion speed of the flame-retardant cable is affected by the fire load and ventilation speed. The combustion droplets can change the shape of the flame, which can consequently ignite other combustible materials. The analysis of the experimental results provides an important basis for the prevention of tunnel fires.

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Lee, Byeong-Heun, Seung-Hyun Jin, and Young-Jin Kwon. "A Comparative Study on the Fire load of Structures by Usage in Korea and Japan." Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation 20, no. 5 (October 31, 2020): 135–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.9798/kosham.2020.20.5.135.

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In this Study, to secure data for the fire safety design of buildings, we calculated the fire load of domestic buildings through combustible investigation and based on existing studies. In addition, we classified the use of rooms according to the purpose of building. In addition, we reclassified the survey data and compared it with data from Japan. The comparison showed that the living room fire load was 417.14 (MJ/m2), the bedroom fire loads of buildings except housing were 1,005.9 (MJ/m2), and the fire loads of office facilities and similar facilities were 1,354.8 (MJ/m2). These values are 1.8 to 4.3 times higher than the Japanese standard.

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Johnston, D. C., M. R. Turetsky, B. W. Benscoter, and B. M. Wotton. "Fuel load, structure, and potential fire behaviour in black spruce bogs." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 45, no. 7 (July 2015): 888–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2014-0334.

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Boreal peatlands in Canada comprise a substantial store of soil organic carbon (peat), and this peat is vulnerable to extensive burning during periods of extended drying. Increased frequency of extreme weather events in boreal regions is expected with future climate change, and the conditions that would support sustained smouldering peat combustion within peatlands may be more common. Organic soils tend to burn by smouldering combustion, a very slow-moving process in fuels such as those found in peatlands. Thus the most extreme conditions for carbon loss to the atmosphere due to the burning of peat likely occur when widespread propagation of flaming combustion leads to widespread initiation of smouldering. To investigate the potential for large-scale, high-intensity fire spread across forested bogs, we examined the fuel conditions in forested bogs necessary to support active crown fire. We measured surface and canopy fine fuels (those available to contribute to the propagating energy flux of the main flaming front) across a postfire chronosequence of forested boreal bog from central Alberta, Canada. We found that fuel load of fine surface material remained relatively constant across the chronosequence and at levels large enough to support crown fire initiation. Black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P.) regeneration begins to fill in the crown space with increasing time since disturbance and achieves crown bulk densities similar to black spruce upland forests. We estimated that after about 80 years, the black spruce canopy has developed enough available fuel to support active crown fire on between 10% to 40% of days in a typical fire season in central Alberta, Canada. Broad-scale propagation of high-intensity fire across a peatland when coincident with drought-induced lower moisture in deep peatland layers has the potential to lead to a substantial release of stored terrestrial carbon.

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Yan, Kai, Wen Zhong Zheng, and Ying Wang. "Modelling and Analysis of the Bottom Frames of Multi-Story Masonry Buildings Exposed to Fire." Advanced Materials Research 255-260 (May 2011): 704–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.255-260.704.

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The multi-story masonry buildings with reinforced concrete frames on ground floors collapse more easily than pure frames when bottom frames exposed to fire, for reasons that fire load of its ground floors is relatively large, and the ratio of dead load to the total loads is also large, deformations of joists caused by fire produce adverse effect on arch mechanism of masonry. For the purpose of loading temperature on steel bars and concrete for fire resistance analysis of reinforced concrete structures in ABAQUS, separated loading method is proposed firstly in this article. The Hill yield criterion for compression and the Rankine yield criterion for tension are adopted to establish anisotropic elasto-plastic material model for masonry. The process simulation from temperature rises to buildings collapse is realized. A parametric study is conducted to investigate the effects on fire resistance of the bottom frames when the bottom floors exposed to fire due to the change in effective load ratio, section size and reinforcement ratio. The study shows that the failure mode of the bottom frames exposed to fire is mainly due to columns collapse. Bottom fames designed with seismic class I and II have relatively more safety storage than non-seismic designed bottom frames to resist the fire load effect, and they can satisfy time limits of fire resistance.

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Bénichou, Noureddine, Hossein Mostafaei, Mark F. Green, and Kevin Hollingshead. "The impact of fire on seismic resistance of fibre reinforced polymer strengthened concrete structural systems." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 40, no. 11 (November 2013): 1044–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjce-2012-0521.

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This paper presents the results of a research project to study the seismic resistance of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) strengthened concrete members after fire exposure. Specifically, the paper presents results of FRP strengthened reinforced concrete columns exposed to a standard fire including temperatures measured during the test and a discussion of the loads applied to the columns. Finally, the paper also presents the impact of lateral loading on structural columns after fire to assess the effectiveness of structural resistance of fire-damaged FRP strengthened building elements in case of an earthquake. Numerical models to simulate the lateral behaviour are presented and the predictions are compared to the test results. Since the FRP strengthened columns were insulated with fire protection, the lateral load resistance of the unstrengthened column was reduced by less than 5% due to fire exposure.

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Zhou, Jun, and Lu Wang. "Repair of Fire-Damaged Reinforced Concrete Members with Axial Load: A Review." Sustainability 11, no. 4 (February 13, 2019): 963. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11040963.

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It is common knowledge that structural fires have led to a great loss of buildings and damage to property in the past two decades. Therefore, there is a growing need to provide approaches for post-fire repair of structural members to enhance their structural safety. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review on the repair of fire-damaged reinforced concrete (RC) members with axial load. The investigations into the effects of loading method, physical dimension and bonding behavior on the residual strength of members are presented. In the meantime, the available experimental investigations on the performance of fire-damaged RC members with axial load repaired with concrete jacketing, steel jacketing and fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) jacketing are summarized. Moreover, models for predicting the residual strength of fire- damaged columns are reviewed.

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Liu, Yan Chao, Dong Dong Liu, Jin Ping Wang, Wei Hong Chen, and Bin Zhao. "Probability Model of Beijing Residentials’ Fire Load." Advanced Materials Research 368-373 (October 2011): 993–1002. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.368-373.993.

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We analyses 418 of fire load data of Beijing residential in city subdivision and suburban district which collected by Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture and Institute of Building Fire Research. Suppose the probability density function of several fire load, using maximum likelihood estimation method to obtain the parameters, and use the K-S test examine the probability density function model, the final selections of Generalized extreme value distribution and Log logistic fit better as a Beijing residential fire load distribution probability distribution models. Finally using these models, according to the JCSS rules, the fire load standard value of Beijing residential is put forward.

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Eames, Tom, Jeremy Russell-Smith, Cameron Yates, Andrew Edwards, Roland Vernooij, Natasha Ribeiro, Franziska Steinbruch, and Guido R. van der Werf. "Instantaneous Pre-Fire Biomass and Fuel Load Measurements from Multi-Spectral UAS Mapping in Southern African Savannas." Fire 4, no. 1 (January 14, 2021): 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fire4010002.

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Landscape fires are substantial sources of (greenhouse) gases and aerosols. Fires in savanna landscapes represent more than half of global fire carbon emissions. Quantifying emissions from fires relies on accurate burned area, fuel load and burning efficiency data. Of these, fuel load remains the source of the largest uncertainty. In this study, we used high spatial resolution images from an Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) mounted multispectral camera, in combination with meteorological data from the ERA-5 land dataset, to model instantaneous pre-fire above-ground biomass. We constrained our model with ground measurements taken in two locations in savanna-dominated regions in Southern Africa, one low-rainfall region (660 mm year−1) in the North-West District (Ngamiland), Botswana, and one high-rainfall region (940 mm year−1) in Niassa Province (northern Mozambique). We found that for fine surface fuel classes (live grass and dead plant litter), the model was able to reproduce measured Above-Ground Biomass (AGB) (R2 of 0.91 and 0.77 for live grass and total fine fuel, respectively) across both low and high rainfall areas. The model was less successful in representing other classes, e.g., woody debris, but in the regions considered, these are less relevant to biomass burning and make smaller contributions to total AGB.

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Jin, Juan, and Seung-Kyou Choi. "Operation Method of a Load Test Device Using an Energy Storage System for Site Acceptance Test of a Fire-Fighting Emergency Generator." Energies 14, no. 17 (August 30, 2021): 5395. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14175395.

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Emergency generators are important facilities that supply emergency power to fire-fighting facilities in the event of a power outage. Accordingly, a load test of the emergency generator should be performed by cutting off the power source of the fire-fighting target in order to accurately confirm the performance and condition of the emergency generator in normal circumstances. However, the test has usually been carried out without loads due to serious problems, which are caused by a shutdown of the power source for the load test of emergency generators, such as the shutdown of emergency load, etc. In order to overcome these problems, this paper proposes an operation method and algorithm of a load test device using ESS, which can conform to characteristics of emergency loads installed in fire-fighting targets by interconnecting it with the emergency generator. In addition, this paper performs a modeling of an emergency power system using PSCAD/EMTDC, and then this paper confirms the usefulness of the proposed method and operation algorithm of the load test device using ESS.

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40

Wang, Jin Ping. "The Discussion on Fire Load Maximum of Building." Applied Mechanics and Materials 166-169 (May 2012): 2709–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.166-169.2709.

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Fire load exists in the building, and it is generally not the origin of fire occurred and spread, so attention has not been beloved paid although the fire size is closely related with it. It plays an important role in performance-based fireproof design, but the abroad data is used always, then which is not in accordance to the situation of our country. The article is based on national and international standards, and calculated the fire load theoretical maximum of the building to protect the building fire safety and can be referred by performance-based fireproof designer, so we can control the fire dangerous of the building, and then grasp the critical moment while the fire happened.

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41

Wang, Jin Ping. "Survey of Fire Load in Building Furniture Store." Applied Mechanics and Materials 580-583 (July 2014): 2642–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.580-583.2642.

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There are many combustible materials in building furniture stores with complex people traffic and high risk of fire disaster. Fire load as the represent of flammable material, and the building fire risk can be grasped by the data obtained. Through investigation and statistics on the fire load density value of building furniture store, it is convenient for performance fire safety design. According to the survey, fire load density average value is determined of 382.71 , the standard deviation is of 143.46 . After fitting the survey data, the data distribution do not refuse to obey the extreme-value Idistribution, so this distribution can be the basis of fire design in other corresponding building furniture stores.

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Ahn, Jaekwon, Inhwan Yeo, Gyuhwan Cho, and Kyujae Hwang. "Fire Resistance of Steel Composite Beams without Fire Protection." Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation 20, no. 5 (October 31, 2020): 83–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.9798/kosham.2020.20.5.83.

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In this study, the fire resistance of steel composite beams typically used in building structures was investigated through standard fire and loading tests. For the tests, fire-exposure conditions depending on the steel section shape and load ratio applied to the beams were considered as the test parameters. Based on the test results, the applicability of fire design methods for composite beams recommended in current domestic and overseas fire design codes was analyzed. The results indicate that the current temperature-based design method and reduced flexural capacity method specified by the American Institute of Steel Construction may lead to the conservative fire design of steel composite beams owing to the underestimation of the effects of the fire-exposure conditions and load ratios.

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Álvarez-Ruiz, Lola, Josabel Belliure, Xavier Santos, and Juli G. Pausas. "Fire reduces parasite load in a Mediterranean lizard." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 288, no. 1954 (July 14, 2021): 20211230. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.1230.

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Wildfires are a natural disturbance in many ecosystems. However, their effect on biotic interactions has been poorly studied. Fire consumes the vegetation and the litter layer where many parasites spend part of their life cycles. We hypothesize that wildfires reduce habitat availability for parasites with consequent potential benefits for hosts. We tested this for the lizard Psammodromus algirus and its ectoparasites in a Mediterranean ecosystem. We predicted that lizards in recently burned areas would have lower parasite load (cleaning effect) than those in unburned areas and that this phenomenon implies that lizards spending their entire lives in postfire conditions experience a lower level of parasitism than those living in unburned areas. We compared the ectoparasite load of lizards between eight paired burned/unburned sites, including recent (less than 1 year postfire) and older fires (2–4 years). We found that lizards' ectoparasites prevalence was drastically reduced in recently burned areas. Likewise, lizards in older burned areas showed less evidence of past parasitic infections. Fire disrupted the host–parasite interaction, providing the opportunity for lizards to avoid the negative effects of ectoparasites. Our results suggest that wildfires probably fulfil a role in controlling vector-borne diseases and pathogens, and highlight ecological effects of wildfires that have been overlooked.

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Fernández-Alaiz, Florencio, Ana Maria Castañón, Fernando Gómez-Fernández, and Marc Bascompta. "Mine Fire Behavior under Different Ventilation Conditions: Real-Scale Tests and CFD Modeling." Applied Sciences 10, no. 10 (May 13, 2020): 3380. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10103380.

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Fires in underground spaces are especially relevant due to their potential mortality. However, there is not much research in real-scale spaces done so far. In this study, several fire scenarios were analyzed in an underground drift, taking into account the main environmental variables: airflow, temperature, oxygen, and pollutants. The behavior before and after the fire load was determined, as well as the evolution of the fire over time throughout the drift and its cross-section, finding important trends of the fire based on the airflow–fuel load ratio. Furthermore, the five most representative scenarios were modeled using the fire dynamics simulator (FDS). Results obtained in the simulations, with the adjusted parameters, display a good correlation between simulated and experimental values, being able to extrapolate these values to know the performance of potential fires in other underground spaces or mines. The outcomes could also be a very useful tool to study the effectiveness of possible emergency measures or the potential impact of a fire in this type of environments.

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İnan, M., E. Bilici, and A. E. Akay. "USING AIRBORNE LIDAR DATA FOR ASSESSMENT OF FOREST FIRE FUEL LOAD POTENTIAL." ISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences IV-4/W4 (November 13, 2017): 255–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/isprs-annals-iv-4-w4-255-2017.

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Forest fire incidences are one of the most detrimental disasters that may cause long terms effects on forest ecosystems in many parts of the world. In order to minimize environmental damages of fires on forest ecosystems, the forested areas with high fire risk should be determined so that necessary precaution measurements can be implemented in those areas. Assessment of forest fire fuel load can be used to estimate forest fire risk. In order to estimate fuel load capacity, forestry parameters such as number of trees, tree height, tree diameter, crown diameter, and tree volume should be accurately measured. In recent years, with the advancements in remote sensing technology, it is possible to use airborne LIDAR for data estimation of forestry parameters. In this study, the capabilities of using LIDAR based point cloud data for assessment of the forest fuel load potential was investigated. The research area was chosen in the Istanbul Bentler series of Bahceköy Forest Enterprise Directorate that composed of mixed deciduous forest structure.

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Wang, Xin Tang, Ming Zhou, and Ping Xin Sun. "Study of Post-Fire Behavior of a Profiled Sheet-Ceramsite Concrete Composite Floor." Applied Mechanics and Materials 117-119 (October 2011): 1857–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.117-119.1857.

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To study the post-fire behavior of the profiled sheet-ceramsite concrete composite floor after exposure to fire load, experimental research on post-fire bearing capacity of a profiled sheet-ceramsite concrete composite floor subjected to dead load, which has shearing nails, is carried out here. Based on the experimental results, the post-fire bearing capacity of the composite floor after exposure to fire is analyzed. It is shown that the failure form of the profiled sheet-ceramsite concrete composite floor after exposure to fire has obvious change compared with the floor not subjected to fire load, but the composite floor subjected to fire load exhibits higher bending capacity, and the ultimate value of the equivalent distributed load is up to 30.86 kN/m2, which may be used as basis of strengthening and repairing of the profiled sheet-ceramsite concrete composite floor after exposure to fire.

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Lee, Jiman, and Semyeoung Lee. "Estimation of Fire Load in Daegu Seomun Market." Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation 20, no. 5 (October 31, 2020): 73–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.9798/kosham.2020.20.5.73.

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In this study, the fire load, which is a critical data in fire-risk assessment, of Seomun Market in Daegu, was calculated empirically. From the results of this study, the fire load on the 3rd floor of Seomun Market 2nd District was 53,405.24 MJ, and the fire load per unit area divided by the area of the sample block was 2,139.63 MJ/m2. These values were confirmed to be relatively high compared to the fire load on similar sales facilities in other countries. It is expected that the fire load value derived in this study could be used as a reference for the installation of an adequate firefighting facility in Daegu Seomun Market.

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Ricotta, C., D. Guglietta, and A. Migliozzi. "No evidence of increased fire risk due to agricultural land abandonment in Sardinia (Italy)." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 12, no. 5 (May 9, 2012): 1333–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-1333-2012.

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Abstract. Different land cover types are related to different levels of fire hazard through their vegetation structure and fuel load composition. Therefore, understanding the relationships between landscape changes and fire behavior is of crucial importance for developing adequate fire fighting and fire prevention strategies for a changing world. In the last decades the abandonment of agricultural lands and pastoral activities has been the major driver of landscape transformations in Mediterranean Europe. As agricultural land abandonment typically promotes an increase in plant biomass (fuel load), a number of authors argue that vegetation succession in abandoned fields and pastures is expected to increase fire hazard. In this short paper, based on 28 493 fires in Sardinia (Italy) in the period 2001–2010, we show that there is no evidence of increased probability of fire ignition in abandoned rural areas. To the contrary, in Sardinia the decreased human impact associated with agricultural land abandonment leads to a statistically significant decrease of fire ignition probability.

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HIRAI, Noriyuki, Yuji HASEMI, Hiroki NAGAMORI, Koji HARADA, Yasuo IIJIMA, and Naoyuki ITAGAKI. "FIRE LOAD IN SCHOOL GYMNASIUMS -INVESTIGATION AND IMPLICATION TO FIRE RESISTANT DESIGN." AIJ Journal of Technology and Design 17, no. 36 (2011): 549–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3130/aijt.17.549.

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Xie, Qinghai, Jianzhuang Xiao, Paolo Gardoni, and Kexu Hu. "Probabilistic Analysis of Building Fire Severity Based on Fire Load Density Models." Fire Technology 55, no. 4 (April 19, 2018): 1349–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10694-018-0716-0.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Fire load'

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