Journal articles on the topic 'Fishes – Nutrition – Requirements'

It is widely believed that fishes require more dietary protein than other vertebrates. Many aspects of fish physiology, nutrition, and trophic ecology have been interpreted within the context of this high protein requirement. Here, fishes are compared with terrestrial homeotherms in terms of (1) protein requirement for maintenance, (2) relative protein concentration in the diet required for maximum growth rate, (3) protein intake rate required for maximum growth rate, (4) efficiency of protein retention in growth, and (5) weight of growth achieved per weight of protein ingested. The two animal groups compared differ only in relative protein concentration in the diet required for maximum growth rate. This difference is explained in terms of homeotherms' greater requirement for energy and does not reflect absolute differences in protein requirement. The remaining measures of protein requirement suggest that fishes and terrestrial homeotherms are remarkably similar in their use of protein as a nutritional resource. Reinterpretation of the role of protein in fish physiology, nutrition, and trophic ecology is perhaps in order.

AbstractThis study aimed to investigate the impacts of dietary threonine on intestinal immunity and inflammation in juvenile grass carp. Six iso-nitrogenous semi-purified diets containing graded levels of threonine (3·99–21·66 g threonine/kg) were formulated and fed to fishes for 8 weeks, and then challenged withAeromonas hydrophilafor 14 d. Results showed that, compared with optimum threonine supplementation, threonine deficiency (1) decreased the ability of fish against enteritis, intestinal lysozyme activities (except in the distal intestine), acid phosphatase activities, complement 3 (C3) and C4 contents and IgM contents (except in the proximal intestine (PI)), and it down-regulated the transcript abundances ofliver-expressed antimicrobial peptide(LEAP)-2A,LEAP-2B,hepcidin, IgZ, IgMandβ-defensin1(except in the PI) (P<0·05); (2) could up-regulate intestinal pro-inflammatory cytokinesTNF-α,IL-1β,IL-6, IL-8andIL-17DmRNA levels partly related toNF-κBsignalling; (3) could down-regulate intestinal anti-inflammatory cytokinetransforming growth factor(TGF)-β1,TGF-β2,IL-4/13A(notIL-4/13B) andIL-10mRNA levels partly by target of rapamycin signalling. Finally, on the basis of the specific growth rate, against the enteritis morbidity and IgM contents, the optimum threonine requirements were estimated to be 14·53 g threonine/kg diet (4·48 g threonine/100 g protein), 15.05 g threonine/kg diet (4·64 g threonine/100 g protein) and 15·17 g threonine/kg diet (4·68 g threonine/100 g protein), respectively.

The decline of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) in the Gulf of Alaska appears to have been associated with a switch of diet from one dominated by fatty forage fishes (such as herring; Clupea pallasi) to one dominated by low-fat fish (such as pollock; Theragra chalcogramma). Observations made during the decline include reduced body size of sea lions, low pregnancy rates, and high mortality. We used the general mammalian model, the laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus), to test whether changing the quality of prey consumed could cause changes in size and reproductive performance. Five groups of twelve female, weanling rats were fed diets composed of herring (H), pollock (P), pollock supplemented with herring oil (PH), pollock supplemented with pollock oil (PP), or a semi-purified diet (ICN). Mean body weights were greatest for H, followed by PH, P, PP and finally ICN, although ICN was the only group significantly different from the others (P<0·05). Food intakes before mating were 10 % higher for groups on the lower-fat diets (P and ICN), resulting in similar energy intakes in all groups. The protein efficiency ratio was highest for the H diet, slightly lower for all pollock diets, and significantly lower for ICN (P<0·05). The fetal weights for mothers fed P were significantly reduced (P<0·05). The present study shows that the energy content was a major limiting factor in the nutritional quality of pollock. When food intake was adjusted to meet energetic requirements, there were no detrimental consequences from eating pollock. However, supplementation of pollock meal with additional pollock oil may reduce growth and reproductive performance, although the reasons for this were not apparent.

The growing need to diversify animal production in the UK has Increased the interest in indigenous fibre production. Mohair production from Angora goats 1n this country dates back as recently as 1981 with the Importation of 15 Angora does and 3 bucks from New Zealand (Ryder, 1987). To date this production remains a very small enterprise producing less than 0.2% of the world's mohair production (Fisher, 1989) and is compared with an estimated 40% of the world's mohair Imported annually in the UK, valued at approximately £35 million (Fisher, 1989).There is relatively little information available concerning the nutritional requirements of British Angora goats in relation to mohair production. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of feeding basal diets supplemented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yea -Sacc, Alltech, Europe) and additional protein on growth performance, selected blood metabolites and fibre (mohair) growth 1n Angora goats.

This paper describes physiological characteristics of Entophlyctis sp. and Entophlyctis aureus Fisher. The two chytrids grew best at 20-25°C in a chemically defined medium, and at 20-30°C in nutrient solutions containing bactotryptone and glucose. The range of pH that supported good growth was 6.5-8.5. Both organisms utilized ammonium and nitrate nitrogen, several amino acids, and glucose, fructose, mannose, maltose, and raffinose. They were prototrophic with respect to vitamin requirements, and vitamin mixture at a concentration of 10 µg/mL inhibited growth. They are physiologically similar to Entophlyctis confervae-glomeratae (Cienkowski) Sparrow.Key words: Entophlyctis sp., Entophlyctis aureus, Entophlyctis confervae-glomeratae.

The topicality. The current state of nutrition of Ukraine population is analyzed in the article, draws conclusions about the possible improvement of the situation by creating products from fish raw materials with the addition of functional food ingredients of plant origin, which will have improved organoleptic characteristics and increased energy and nutritional value, as well as recommended as a functional product in the diet of certain categories of the population. Purpose and methods. The purpose of the study is to substantiate the recipe of a new type of fish semi-finished products “Zrazy fish slices chopped with poppy and sesame seeds” with enrichment with their functional ingredients. The object of research is the technology of the semi-finished product “Zrazy fish cut with poppy and sesame seeds”. The subject of the study are semi-finished products “Zrazy fish slices”, semi-finished products “Zrazy fish slices with poppy seeds and sesame seeds”, Atlantic mackerel fillets (DSTU 4378: 2006), sesame seeds (DSTU 7012: 2009) and poppy seeds (DSTU 7696: 2015). Research methods: the research was based on methods of theoretical generalization, comparative analysis, and calculation, organoleptic. Results. The results of theoretical and experimental research of creation of technology of fish semi-finished product “Zrazy fish cut with poppy and sesame seeds” of functional purpose have been shown. The chemical composition of the main raw material of the dish – Atlantic mackerel has been analyzed and its advantages in the recipe composition have been proved. Possibility of using poppy seeds and sesame seeds as functional ingredients in the dish has been confirmed. The organoleptic parameters of the dish were studied and the optimal ratio of poppy seeds and sesame seeds in breadcrumbs has been determined. The nutritional, energy value and vitamin-mineral composition of the dish “Fish slices chopped with poppy and sesame seeds” have been calculated. Conclusions and discussions. The traditional recipe of the dish “Zrazy fish cut” has been analyzed. The expediency of modification of the traditional recipe due to the complete replacement of the main fish raw material with Atlantic mackerel fillet and the functional ingredients introduction of plant origin, namely poppy seeds and sesame seeds in breadcrumbs zrazy has been proved. The optimal content of poppy seeds and sesame seeds has been determined in the recipe of the dish “Fish cut with poppy seeds and sesame seeds”, which is 1.2% of poppy seeds and 0.6% of sesame seeds in breadcrumbs. It has been found that the variant of the recipe № 3 dishes “Zrazy fish slices cut with poppy and sesame seeds” has the best organoleptic quality indicators: harmonious taste properties, and due to the introduction of breading poppy and sesame seeds acquire an attractive and original appearance. It has been proved that the introduction of Atlantic mackerel fish fillets, poppy seeds and sesame seeds into the recipe composition allows to significantly increase the content of fats (5 times chopped fish with poppy seeds and sesame seeds) in fats (5 times), unsaturated fatty acids (4.5 times) , PUFA (6.9 times). The content of such minerals as calcium, magnesium, iron, and vitamins B2, B3, B6, PP, K, D in the dish increased by more than 50%. The latest recipe “Fish cut with poppy and sesame seeds” ensures the absorption of calcium in full due to the presence in its chemical composition of the optimal ratio of Ca: P: Mg = 1: 1,48: 0,5. The energy value of the dish has increased almost 1.5 times. The degree of daily nutrient requirements for men of the III working age group aged 30 to 39 years of the dish “Fish cut with poppy and sesame seeds” in such as dietary fiber (13.05%), PUFA (36.6%), calcium (12.99%), magnesium (18.88%), phosphorus (19.23%), vitamin D (258.4%).

Fish is very good for health because it contains various important nutrients such as protein, fat, and minerals. Food fortification uses fish’s sources is an effort to obtain physiological effects and improve the nutritional status of fortified foods. This study aims to examine the potential of Bulan-bulan fish (Megalops cyprinoides) as flour for food fortification. This research was divided into two stages, namely characterization of the fresh fish and preliminary analysis of its potential as fish flour. The data obtained were analyzed descriptively. The results showed that the edible portion of fresh fish was only 42.81%, whereas the remaining of 57.19% was processing waste. The fish had a high protein content of 21.43%, fat content was 13.32%, ash content was 12.80%, moisture content was 42.29% and carbohydrate content was 10.19%. The yield of the fish flour was 22.75%, with sensory characteristics: powdered form; clean, normal, and bright appearance; bright brownish yellow color; specific aroma; non-lumpy and quite dry texture. The Protein content of the fish flour was 55.44% which comply with the protein’s requirement of quality II fish flour.

Bio-floc technology is the blue revolution in aquaculture & new technique of enhancing water quality & utilizing feed wastes in the aquaculture system. It follows the concept of conversion of ammonium in addition to organic nitrogenous wastes into bacterial biomass in where heterotrophic bacterial growth is stimulated & nitrogen uptake through the production of microbial proteins is promoted by the addition of carbohydrates to the pond. Nitrogen generated by uneaten feed and excreta of cultured organisms is converted into proteinaceous feed available for those same organisms. This technique recycles nutrients & nitrogenous wastes by maintaining a high carbon: nitrogen ratio and provides essential & higher quality nutrition to the shrimps & fishes in achieving fast growth, lesser FCR & possibility to prevent diseases. Water requirement in BFT is extremely less & it is advantageous than the conventional system where there is continuous water & nutrient recycling, lower FCR. On the other hand, many challenges are existing in practicing bio-floc in Nepal as it requires frequent pond monitoring by the technical manpower. The choice of carbon source should be made wisely and correctly as the performance of fish and water quality in the bio-floc ponds depend highly upon carbon source. Further, vitamins required for fish may not be produced by microbes thus needed to identify them and supply through the feed. However, the practice of bio-floc technology will be proven worth for farmers in Nepal. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 8(2): 140-145

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) are associated with an increased whole-body protein turnover. In certain drug-induced experimental models of IBD, disturbances of protein synthesis in tissues have been reported recently, but it is unclear if similar disturbances occur in other chronic intestinal diseases. Therefore we investigated changes in protein synthesis in different tissues of HLA-B27 (human leucocyte antigen B27) transgenic rats that develop spontaneously chronic inflammation, with major involvement of the colon. Protein synthesis rate in HLA-B27 rats was shown to be higher in nine different tissues compared with control (Fisher 344) rats. The absolute rate of protein synthesis was highly stimulated at the main inflammatory site (+290% in the colon). However, liver, muscle and skin appeared to be major contributors to the increased protein synthesis observed at the whole-body level. Despite the increased protein synthesis, HLA-B27 rats presented a marked atrophy of muscles, which suggests an increased proteolysis. These results contrast with metabolic disturbances described in acute inflammation and colitis induced by drugs (i.e. dextran sodium sulphate). The present study suggests that the modifications of protein metabolism are strongly influenced by the type of the inflammatory diseases and thus by the underlying mechanisms, which result in different metabolic adaptations and specific nutritional requirements.

These days, one of the global challenges is the growing demand for food. To be more specific, seafood bases play a key role in filling the nutritional requirements of human beings. In Africa (Ethiopia) the public expenses to improve productive capacity in aquatic food are increasing. Additionally, the expenses in dams and in fishers’ capacity building have increased households’ engagement in the fishery sector in Ethiopia. Cooperatives’ productive capacity has been strengthened by the government and other non-government organizations with the supply of fishing boats, refrigerators, fish nets and other office supplies. However, the effect of such public expenses in bringing changes in the households’ livelihood and welfare has never been assessed in this study area. This paper aims to investigate what motivates the households to fish and assess the effect of fisheries on the households’ livelihood and welfare. A structured survey consisting of 313 rural households was administered using trained enumerators in two kebeles located close to the Tekeze dam, Northern Ethiopia. The result indicates that socioeconomic characteristics, such as age (young), sex, education, and active family size were driving the households to fishing. Access to market and access to support are driving farmers to fisheries. There is a significant difference in fishing households’ income which is higher than non-fishing households. The results also indicate that there are lesser income inequalities among fishery households operating in cooperatives compared to private fishery households.

Proximate composition and microbial quality of three aquarium fish feeds commonly found in Bangladesh were collected from fish feed market of Dhaka city. Significantly higher moisture content (2.12 ± 0.06%) was found in Super NovaTM fish feed while similar moisture content was detected in other two feeds (p<0.05). On the other hand ash content detected in OptimumTM and Osaka 2000TM aquarium fish feed was significantly higher than that of Super NovaTM (10.67±0.19%) (p<0.05).Protein content found in OptimumTM (42.21 ± 0.12%) was significantly higher than that of Osaka 2000TM and Super NovaTM (p<0.05). However, similar lipid content was found in OptimumTM (1.06 ± 0.03%) and Super NovaTM (1.13 ± 0.01%) aquarium fish feed which were significantly higher than that of Osaka 2000TM (p<0.05). The Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were found in all feeds. However Vibrio sp was not found in any feed. Total bacterial count was significantly higher in Osaka 2000TM feed than that of others (P<0.05). However S. aureus was significantly higher in Super NovaTM than that of others while E. coli count was significantly higher in OptimumTM fish feed than that of others (p<0.05). Nutritional quality of the aquarium fish feed was qualified to some extent to meet the minimum requirement of the aquarium fish while microbial quality indicates some degrees of deterioration which may cause diseases of the aquarium fishes. Thus proper storage condition, hygienic handling and processing should be maintained to prevent the microbial contamination in aquarium fish feeds. There should be a monitoring cell from the government to assess the quality of this expensive imported feeds for aquarist.Bangladesh J. Zool. 42(2): 283-294, 2014

Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala are the two Indian major carps and chief components of polyculture system in the local population. Proximate body composition is the analysis of water, fat, protein and ash contents of fish. Values are vary considerably within and between species, size, sexual condition, feeding season and physical activity. The percentage of water is a good indicator of its relative contents of energy, proteins and lipids. Determination of some proximate profiles such as protein content, lipid, ash and other nutrients is often necessary to ensure that they are within the range of dietary requirement and commercial specifications. Based on this background the present study was aimed to evaluate the nutritional value of some major craps (Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala) fishes of Peshawar Carp Hatchery and training centre Sherabad. The proximate composition of Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala samples were determined and data was evaluated statistically by performing t-test through Sigma Plot and graphs were made by using Graph Pad Prism. The average value of crude protein for Cirrhinus mrigala was found higher than Labeo rohita (51.7% and 39.04%) similarly the water contents were also found higher in Cirrhinus mrigala than Labeo rohita (75.88% and 73.95%). The average value of dry matter and muscle fats contents were lowered in Cirrhinus mrigala than Labeo rohita (24.11% and 26.04%) and (13.00% and 13.45%) respectively. However, the ash contents were similar in both of experimental species (23.91% and 23.93%). From these results, it is concluded that both Cirrhinus mrigala than Labeo rohita are very proteineous and have low fats contents so it is very good for the health of consumers. Further research is recommended on the other parameters and miss rays of this work.

Small indigenous fish species (SIS) are rich in nutrients and can be ensure nutritional security even in their dried state. Four dried cyprinid food fishes viz. Salmophasia bacaila , Aspidoparia morar , Amblypharyngodon mola and Puntius sophore were studied. All the four species are rich in protein content so they are important source of animal protein. The results showed variation in moisture, protein, fat, ash, fiber and in mineral content. Moisture was estimated 5.69% ( P. sophore ) to 7.42% ( A. morar ). Protein content varied from 52.32% ( S . bacaila ) to 60.79% ( A. morar ). Fat, ash, fiber, Ca and P content varied from 15.56% to 29.76%, 11.52% to 17.96%, 0.09% to 0.35%, 3.17% to 5.87% and 1.54% to 3.06% respectively. Higher levels of protein in SIS make them an important dietary supplement to promote growth and tissue healing and can be able to reduce the animal protein requirements for increasing human population. The overall result reveals that the SIS of the region are highly nutritious.

Two stage rearing (nursery and grow-out) of two mullet species, Mugil cephalus and Liza parsia was demonstrated in afarmer’s pond. In the nursery phase, wild collected grey mullet (1.65±0.2 g) and gold spot mullet (1.03±0.1 g) fry numbering450 and 4000, respectively were stocked in pen enclosures. After 30 days of nursery rearing, they were released intothe same pond and reared for 7 months using dry pelleted feed produced in the feed mill of ICAR-Central Institute ofBrackishwater Aquaculture (ICAR-CIBA), Chennai. Feed was formulated using locally available ingredients to contain33.4% crude protein and 5.7% ether extract. The fishes were fed with crumbles (0.8 mm) and pellets (2 and 3 mm) in thenursery and grow-out phases, respectively. The production of both the mullet species together at harvest was 1262 kg ha-1(L. parsia 851 and M. cephalus, 411 kg ha-1). The nutrient composition of the two farmed sympatric mullet species whencompared with their respective wild samples showed a significant variation. Higher lipid content in the farmed fishes wasobserved compared to their respective wild originates. The effect of size was highly significant in lipid content, its valueincreasing proportionately with size (p<0.05) in both wild and cultured fishes. Cultured M. cephalus contained significantly(p<0.05) higher levels of Ca, K, Mn, Cu and Zn, while wild M. cephalus had significantly (p<0.05) higher concentrations ofNa and Fe. The wild collected L. parsia had significantly (p<0.05) higher mineral content compared to the cultured fishes.The dietary value (DV%) of mullets indicates that consumption of 100 g fish could meet the daily requirements of Ca and Pfor adult human being. Mullet could provide 60-75% of dietary value for Se, which is an important micronutrient that playsa major role in scavenging the free radicals due to its anti-oxidative properties. The results of this study demonstrated thetechno-economic viability of mullet culture in farmer’s pond. Mullets are an ideal choice for diversification of brackishwateraquaculture and could serve as an alternative livelihood source and nutritional security for the coastal population.

An experiment was conducted in the laboratory of the Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh to determine protein and major mineral nutrients (viz. Ca, Mg, Na, K, P, S and Fe) in different available fish species of the Brahmaputra River of Bangladesh. Total 32 fish samples of 15 fish species were collected from three locations of the river during November 2017. The highest amount of Ca (2.00%), Mg (4.17%), Na (0.41%), K (3.24%), P (0.17%), S (0.129%) and Fe (226.9 mg kg−1) were obtained from chela (Salmophasia bacaila), chanda (Chanda nama), chingri (Macrobrachium sp.), shingi (Heteropneustes fossilis), bele (Glossogobius giuris), baim (Macrognathus aculeatus) and mola (Amblypharyngodon mola), respectively and the sequence of the mineral nutrients was K > Mg > Ca > Na > P > S > Fe. The study results revealed that 100% of daily Ca requirement can be replenished by consuming 100 g fish flesh portion of the chela (Salmophasia bacaila)/ chingri (Macrobrachium sp.)/ bele (Glossogobius giuris). Similarly, among the 15 fish species, 11 and 12 species alone can contribute 100% of Mg and K requirement for human by taking 100 g fish flesh, respectively. The maximum content of N (3.88%) was obtained from shingi (Heteropneustes fossilis), while the minimum (2.81%) was recorded from mola (Amblypharyngodon mola). The protein content among the fish samples varied between 17.6-24.3% with a mean value of 21.2%. Finally, the study results concluded that the common fishes available in the Brahmaputra River are a good source of protein and major mineral nutrients, which contributes in nutrition to the local people of the country.

Breast milk is the most ideal and valuable food for the growing infant since it suffices most of the nutritional requirements if given adequately and in appropriate manner. The aim of the study is to assess the knowledge, attitude and practices of mother regarding lactation and impact of counselling to mothers. A questionnaire based cross sectional study was planned and the patients were divided in groups. Statistical analysis was done using IBM SPSS version 22 software.Chi square/Fisher Extract/Student t test and ANOVA test had been used. Most of the ladies had initiated early breastfeeding in both the groups.Hospital staff and family support were the key components influencing the knowledge of breastfeeding.Successful breastfeeding is an important child rearing skill to be learnt and practiced. More IEC activities targeted to promote institutional deliveries will give more opportunity for lactation counselling besides various other advantages like reducing MMR, NMR thus marching towards achieving millennium development goals.We recommend that in every hospital where deliveries are happening, employment of trained lactation counsellors should be made mandatory to improve breastfeeding rates.

Sea lamprey (SL; Petromyzon marinus), one of the oldest living vertebrates, have a complex metamorphic life cycle. Following hatching, SL transition into a microphagous, sediment burrowing larval stage, and after 2–10+ years, the larvae undergo a dramatic metamorphosis, transforming into parasitic juveniles that feed on blood and bodily fluids of fishes; adult lamprey cease feeding, spawn, and die. Since gut microbiota are critical for the overall health of all animals, we examined the microbiota associated with SLs in each life history stage. We show that there were significant differences in the gut bacterial communities associated with the larval, parasitic juvenile, and adult life stages. The transition from larval to the parasitic juvenile stage was marked with a significant shift in bacterial community structure and reduction in alpha diversity. The most abundant SL-associated phyla were Proteobacteria, Fusobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Verrucomicrobia, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes, with their relative abundances varying among the stages. Moreover, while larval SL were enriched with unclassified Fusobacteriaceae, unclassified Verrucomicrobiales and Cetobacterium, members of the genera with fastidious nutritional requirements, such as Streptococcus, Haemophilus, Cutibacterium, Veillonella, and Massilia, were three to four orders of magnitude greater in juveniles than in larvae. In contrast, adult SLs were enriched with Aeromonas, Iodobacter, Shewanella, and Flavobacterium. Collectively, our findings show that bacterial communities in the SL gut are dramatically different among its life stages. Understanding how these communities change over time within and among SL life stages may shed more light on the role that these gut microbes play in host growth and fitness.

We need a clear, unified, and consistent voice to effect the complete dismantling, the abolition, of the mechanisms of animal exploitation.And that will only come from what we say and do, no matter who we are.— Gary L. Francione, animal rights theoristThe history of hashtags is relatively short but littered with the remnants of corporate hashtags which may have seemed a good idea at the time within the confines of the boardroom. It is difficult to understand the rationale behind the use of hashtags as an effective communications tactic in 2019 by corporations when a quick stroll through their recent past leaves behind the much-derided #qantasluxury (Glance), #McDstories (Hill), and #myNYPD (Tran).While hashtags have an obvious purpose in bringing together like-minded publics and facilitating conversation (Kwye et al. 1), they have also regularly been the subject of “hashtag takeovers” by activists and other interested parties, and even by trolls, as the Ecological Society of Australia found in 2015 when their seemingly innocuous #ESA15 hashtag was taken over with pornographic images (news.com.au). Hashtag takeovers have also been used as a dubious marketing tactic, where smaller and less well-known brands tag their products with trending hashtags such as #iphone in order to boost their audience (Social Garden). Hashtags are increasingly used as a way for activists or other interested parties to disrupt a message. It is, I argue, predictable that any hashtag related to an even slightly controversial topic will be subject to some form of activist hashtag takeover, with varying degrees of success.That veganism and the dairy industry should attract such conflict is unsurprising given that the two are natural enemies, with vegans in particular seeming to anticipate and actively engage in the battle for the opposing hashtag.Using a comparative analysis of the #Veganuary and #Februdairy hashtags and how they have been used by both pro-vegan and pro-dairy social media users, this article illustrates that the enthusiastic and well-meaning social media efforts of farmers and dairy supporters have so far been unable to counteract those of well-organised and equally passionate vegan activists. This analysis compares tweets in the first week of the respective campaigns, concluding that organisations, industries and their representatives should be extremely wary of engaging said activists who are not only highly-skilled but are also highly-motivated. Grassroots, ideology-driven activism is a formidable opponent in any public space, let alone when it takes place on the outspoken and unstructured landscape of social media which is sometimes described as the “wild West” (Fitch 5) where anything goes and authenticity and plain-speaking is key (Macnamara 12).I Say Hashtag, You Say Bashtag#Februdairy was launched in 2018 to promote the benefits of dairy. The idea was first mooted on Twitter in 2018 by academic Dr Jude Capper, a livestock sustainability consultant, who called for “28 days, 28 positive dairy posts” (@Bovidiva; Howell). It was a response to the popular Veganuary campaign which aimed to “inspire people to try vegan for January and throughout the rest of the year”, a campaign which had gained significant traction both online and in the traditional media since its inception in 2014 (Veganuary). Hopes were high: “#Februdairy will be one month of dairy people posting, liking and retweeting examples of what we do and why we do it” (Yates). However, the #Februdairy hashtag has been effectively disrupted and has now entered the realm of a bashtag, a hashtag appropriated by activists for their own purpose (Austin and Jin 341).The Dairy Industry (Look Out the Vegans Are Coming)It would appear that the dairy industry is experiencing difficulties in public perception. While milk consumption is declining, sales of plant-based milks are increasing (Kaiserman) and a growing body of health research has questioned whether dairy products and milk in particular do in fact “do a body good” (Saccaro; Harvard Milk Study). In the 2019 review of Canada’s food guide, its first revision since 2007, for instance, the focus is now on eating plant-based foods with dairy’s former place significantly downgraded. Dairy products no longer have their own distinct section and are instead placed alongside other proteins including lentils (Pippus).Nevertheless, the industry has persevered with its traditional marketing and public relations activities, choosing to largely avoid addressing animal welfare concerns brought to light by activists. They have instead focused their message towards countering concerns about the health benefits of milk. In the US, the Milk Processing Education Program’s long-running celebrity-driven Got Milk campaign has been updated with Milk Life, a health focused campaign, featuring images of children and young people living an active lifestyle and taking part in activities such as skateboarding, running, and playing basketball (Milk Life). Interestingly, and somewhat inexplicably, Milk Life’s home page features the prominent headline, “How Milk Can Bring You Closer to Your Loved Ones”.It is somewhat reflective of the current trend towards veganism that tennis aces Serena and Venus Williams, both former Got Milk ambassadors, are now proponents for the plant-based lifestyle, with Venus crediting her newly-adopted vegan diet as instrumental in her recovery from an auto-immune disease (Mango).The dairy industry’s health focus continues in Australia, as well as the use of the word love, with former AFL footballer Shane Crawford—the face of the 2017 campaign Milk Loves You Back, from Lion Dairy and Drinks—focusing on reminding Australians of the reputed nutritional benefits of milk (Dawson).Dairy Australia meanwhile launched their Legendairy campaign with a somewhat different focus, promoting and lauding Australia’s dairy families, and with a message that stated, in a nod to the current issues, that “Australia’s dairy farmers and farming communities are proud, resilient and innovative” (Dairy Australia). This campaign could be perceived as a morale-boosting exercise, featuring a nation-wide search to find Australia’s most legendairy farming community (Dairy Australia). That this was also an attempt to humanise the industry seems obvious, drawing on established goodwill felt towards farmers (University of Cambridge). Again, however, this strategy did not address activists’ messages of suffering animals, factory farms, and newborn calves being isolated from their grieving mothers, and it can be argued that consumers are being forced to make the choice between who (or what) they care about more: animals or the people making their livelihoods from them.Large-scale campaigns like Legendairy which use traditional channels are of course still vitally important in shaping public opinion, with statistics from 2016 showing 85.1% of Australians continue to watch free-to-air television (Roy Morgan, “1 in 7”). However, a focus and, arguably, an over-reliance on traditional platforms means vegans and animal activists are often unchallenged when spreading their message via social media. Indeed, when we consider the breakdown in age groups inherent in these statistics, with 18.8% of 14-24 year-olds not watching any commercial television at all, an increase from 7% in 2008 (Roy Morgan, “1 in 7”), it is a brave and arguably short-sighted organisation or industry that relies primarily on traditional channels to spread their message in 2019. That these large-scale campaigns do little to address the issues raised by vegans concerning animal welfare leaves these claims largely unanswered and momentum to grow.This growth in momentum is fuelled by activist groups such as the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) who are well-known in this space, with 5,494,545 Facebook followers, 1.06 million Twitter followers, 973,000 Instagram followers, and 453,729 You Tube subscribers (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals). They are also active on Pinterest, a visual-based platform suited to the kinds of images and memes particularly detrimental to the dairy industry. Although widely derided, PETA’s reach is large. A graphic video posted to Facebook on February 13 2019 and showing a suffering cow, captioned “your cheese is not worth this” was shared 1,244 times, and had 4.6 million views in just over 24 hours (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals). With 95% of 12-24 year olds in Australia now using social networking sites (Statista), it is little wonder veganism is rapidly growing within this demographic (Bradbury), with The Guardian labelling the rise of veganism unstoppable (Hancox).Activist organisations are joined by prominent and charismatic vegan activists such as James Aspey (182,000 Facebook followers) and Earthling Ed (205,000 Facebook followers) in distributing information and images that are influential and often highly graphic or disturbing. Meanwhile Instagram influencers and You Tube lifestyle vloggers such as Ellen Fisher and FreeLee share information promoting vegan food and the vegan lifestyle (with 650,320 and 785,903 subscribers respectively). YouTube video Dairy Is Scary has over 5 million views (Janus) and What the Health, a follow-up documentary to Cowspiracy: The Sustainability Secret, promoting veganism, is now available on Netflix, which itself has 9.8 million Australian subscribers (Roy Morgan, “Netflix”). BOSH’s plant-based vegan cookbook was the fastest selling cookbook of 2018 (Chiorando).Additionally, the considerable influence of celebrities such as Miley Cyrus, Beyonce, Alicia Silverstone, Zac Efron, and Jessica Chastain, to name just a few, speaking publicly about their vegan lifestyle, encourages veganism to become mainstream and increases its widespread acceptance.However not all the dairy industry’s ills can be blamed on vegans. Rising costs, cheap imports, and other pressures (Lockhart, Donaghy and Gow) have all placed pressure on the industry. Nonetheless, in the battle for hearts and minds on social media, the vegans are leading the way.Qualitative research interviewing new vegans found converting to veganism was relatively easy, yet some respondents reported having to consult multiple resources and required additional support and education on how to be vegan (McDonald 17).Enter VeganuaryUsing a month, week or day to promote an idea or campaign, is a common public relations and marketing strategy, particularly in health communications. Dry July and Ocsober both promote alcohol abstinence, Frocktober raises funds for ovarian cancer, and Movember is an annual campaign raising awareness and funds for men’s health (Parnell). Vegans Matthew Glover and Jane Land were discussing the success of Movember when they raised the idea of creating a vegan version. Their initiative, Veganuary, urging people to try vegan for the month of January, launched in 2014 and since then 500,000 people have taken the Veganuary pledge (Veganuary).The Veganuary website is the largest of its kind on the internet. With vegan recipes, expert advice and information, it provides all the answers to Why go vegan, but it is the support offered to answer How to go vegan that truly sets Veganuary apart. (Veganuary)That Veganuary participants would use social media to discuss and share their experiences was a foregone conclusion. Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram are all utilised by participants, with the official Veganuary pages currently followed/liked by 159,000 Instagram followers, receiving 242,038 Facebook likes, and 45,600 Twitter followers (Veganuary). Both the Twitter and Instagram sites make effective use of hashtags to spread their reach, not only using #Veganuary but also other relevant hashtags such as #TryVegan, #VeganRecipes, and the more common #Vegan, #Farm, and #SaveAnimals.Februdairy Follows Veganuary, But Only on the CalendarCalling on farmers and dairy producers to create counter content and their own hashtag may have seemed like an idea that would achieve an overall positive response.Agricultural news sites and bloggers spread the word and even the BBC reported on the industry’s “fight back” against Veganuary (BBC). However the hashtag was quickly overwhelmed with anti-dairy activists mobilising online. Vegans issued a call to arms across social media. The Vegans in Australia Facebook group featured a number of posts urging its 58,949 members to “thunderclap” the Februdairy hashtag while the Project Calf anti-dairy campaign declared that Februdairy offered an “easy” way to spread their information (Sandhu).Februdairy farmers and dairy supporters were encouraged to tell their stories, sharing positive photographs and videos, and they did. However this content was limited. In this tweet (fig. 1) the issue of a lack of diverse content was succinctly addressed by an anti-Februdairy activist.Fig. 1: Content challenges. (#Februdairy, 2 Feb. 2019)MethodUtilising Twitter’s advanced search capability, I was able to search for #Veganuary tweets from 1 to 7 January 2019 and #Februdairy tweets from 1 to 7 February 2019. I analysed the top tweets provided by Twitter in terms of content, assessed whether the tweet was pro or anti Veganuary and Februdairy, and also categorised its content in terms of subject matter.Tweets were analysed to assess whether they were on message and aligned with the values of their associated hashtag. Veganuary tweets were considered to be on message if they promoted veganism or possessed an anti-dairy, anti-meat, or pro-animal sentiment. Februdairy tweets were assessed as on message if they promoted the consumption of dairy products, expressed sympathy or empathy towards the dairy industry, or possessed an anti-vegan sentiment. Tweets were also evaluated according to their clarity, emotional impact and coherence. The overall effectiveness of the hashtag was then evaluated based on the above criteria as well as whether they had been hijacked.Results and FindingsOverwhelmingly, the 213 #Veganuary tweets were on message. That is they were pro-Veganuary, supportive of veganism, and positive. The topics were varied and included humorous memes, environmental facts, information about the health benefits of veganism, as well as a strong focus on animals. The number of non-graphic tweets (12) concerning animals was double that of tweets featuring graphic or shocking imagery (6). Predominantly the tweets were focused on food and the sharing of recipes, with 44% of all pro #Veganuary tweets featuring recipes or images of food. Interestingly, a number of well-known corporations tweeted to promote their vegan food products, including Tesco, Aldi, Iceland, and M&S. The diversity of veganism is reflected in the tweets. Organisations used the hashtag to promote their products, including beauty and shoe products, social media influencers promoted their vegan podcasts and blogs, and, interestingly, the Ethiopian Embassy of the United Kingdom tweeted their support.There were 23 (11%) anti-Veganuary tweets. Of these, one was from Dr. Jude Capper, the founder of Februdairy. The others expressed support for farming and farmers, and a number were photographs of meat products, including sausages and fry-ups. One Australian journalist tweeted in favour of meat, stating it was yummy murder. These tweets could be described as entertaining and may perhaps serve as a means of preaching to the converted, but their ability to influence and persuade is negligible.Twitter’s search tool provided access to 141 top #Februdairy tweets. Of these 82 (52%) were a hijack of the hashtag and overtly anti-Februdairy. Vegan activists used the #Februdairy hashtag to their advantage with most of their tweets (33%) featuring non-graphic images of animals. They also tweeted about other subject matters, including environmental concerns, vegan food and products, and health issues related to dairy consumption.As noted by the activists (see fig. 1 above), most of the pro-Februdairy tweets were images of milk or dairy products (41%). Images of farms and farmers were the next most used (26%), followed by images of cows (17%) (see fig. 2). Fig. 2: An activist makes their anti-Februdairy point with a clear, engaging image and effective use of hashtags. (#Februdairy, 6 Feb. 2019)The juxtaposition between many of the tweets was also often glaring, with one contrasting message following another (see fig. 3). Fig. 3: An example of contrasting #Februdairy tweets with an image used by the activists to good effect, making their point known. (#Februdairy, 2 Feb. 2019)Storytelling is a powerful tool in public relations and marketing efforts. Yet, to be effective, high-quality content is required. That many of the Februdairy proponents had limited social media training was evident; images were blurred, film quality was poor, or they failed to make their meaning clear (see fig. 4). Fig. 4: A blurred photograph, reflective of some of the low-quality content provided by Februdairy supporters. (#Februdairy, 3 Feb. 2019)This image was tweeted in support of Februdairy. However the image and phrasing could also be used to argue against Februdairy. We can surmise that the tweeter was suggesting the cow was well looked after and seemingly content, but overall the message is as unclear as the image.While some pro-Februdairy supporters recognised the need for relevant hashtags, often their images were of a low-quality and not particularly engaging, a requirement for social media success. This requirement seems to be better understood by anti-Februdairy activists who used high-quality images and memes to create interest and gain the audience’s attention (see figs. 5 and 6). Fig. 5: An uninspiring image used to promote Februdairy. (#Februdairy, 6 Feb. 2019) Fig. 6: Anti-Februdairy activists made good use of memes, recognising the need for diverse content. (#Februdairy, 3 Feb. 2019)DiscussionWhat the #Februdairy case makes clear, then, is that in continuing its focus on traditional media, the dairy industry has left the battle online to largely untrained, non-social media savvy supporters.From a purely public relations perspective, one of the first things we ask our students to do in issues and crisis communication is to assess the risk. “What can hurt your organisation?” we ask. “What potential issues are on the horizon and what can you do to prevent them?” This is PR101 and it is difficult to understand why environmental scanning and resulting action has not been on the radar of the dairy industry long before now. It seems they have not fully anticipated or have significantly underestimated the emerging issue that public perception, animal cruelty, health concerns, and, ultimately, veganism has had on their industry and this is to their detriment. In Australia in 2015–16 the dairy industry was responsible for 8 per cent (A$4.3 billion) of the gross value of agricultural production and 7 per cent (A$3 billion) of agricultural export income (Department of Agriculture and Water Resources). When such large figures are involved and with so much at stake, it is hard to rationalise the decision not to engage in a more proactive online strategy, seeking to engage their publics, including, whether they like it or not, activists.Instead there are current attempts to address these issues with a legislative approach, lobbying for the introduction of ag-gag laws (Potter), and the limitation of terms such as milk and cheese (Worthington). However, these measures are undertaken while there is little attempt to engage with activists or to effectively counter their claims with a widespread authentic public relations campaign, and reflects a failure to understand the nature of the current online environment, momentum, and mood.That is not to say that the dairy industry is not operating in the online environment, but it does not appear to be a priority, and this is reflected in their low engagement and numbers of followers. For instance, Dairy Australia, the industry’s national service body, has a following of only 8,281 on Facebook, 6,981 on Twitter, and, crucially, they are not on Instagram. Their Twitter posts do not include hashtags and unsurprisingly they have little engagement on this platform with most tweets attracting no more than two likes. Surprisingly they have 21,013 subscribers on YouTube which featured professional and well-presented videos. This demonstrates some understanding of the importance of effective storytelling but not, as yet, trans-media storytelling.ConclusionSocial media activism is becoming more important and recognised as a legitimate voice in the public sphere. Many organisations, perhaps in recognition of this as well as a growing focus on responsible corporate behaviour, particularly in the treatment of animals, have adjusted their behaviour. From Unilever abandoning animal testing practices to ensure Dove products are certified cruelty free (Nussbaum), to Domino’s introducing vegan options, companies who are aware of emerging trends and values are changing the way they do business and are reaping the benefits of engaging with, and catering to, vegans. Domino’s sold out of vegan cheese within the first week and vegans were asked to phone ahead to their local store, so great was the demand. 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Introduction The academic area known as food studies—incorporating elements from disciplines including anthropology, folklore, history, sociology, gastronomy, and cultural studies as well as a range of multi-disciplinary approaches—asserts that cooking and eating practices are less a matter of nutrition (maintaining life by absorbing nutrients from food) and more a personal or group expression of various social and/or cultural actions, values or positions. The French philosopher, Michel de Certeau agrees, arguing, moreover, that there is an urgency to name and unpick (what he identifies as) the “minor” practices, the “multifarious and silent reserve of procedures” of everyday life. Such practices are of crucial importance to all of us, as although seemingly ordinary, and even banal, they have the ability to “organise” our lives (48). Within such a context, the following aims to consider the influence and significance of an important (although largely unstudied) professional figure in rural and regional economic life: the country food preparer variously known as the local chef or cook. Such an approach is obviously framed by the concept of “cultural economy”. This term recognises the convergence, and interdependence, of the spheres of the cultural and the economic (see Scott 335, for an influential discussion on how “the cultural geography of space and the economic geography of production are intertwined”). Utilising this concept in relation to chefs and cooks seeks to highlight how the ways these figures organise (to use de Certeau’s term) the social and cultural lives of those in their communities are embedded in economic practices and also how, in turn, their economic contributions are dependent upon social and cultural practices. This initial mapping of the influence and significance of the rural and regional chef in one rural and regional area, therefore, although necessarily different in approach and content, continues the application of such converged conceptualisations of the cultural and economic as Teema Tairu’s discussion of the social, recreational and spiritual importance of food preparation and consumption by the unemployed in Finland, Guy Redden’s exploration of how supermarket products reflect shared values, and a series of analyses of the cultural significance of individual food products, such as Richard White’s study of vegemite. While Australians, both urban and rural, currently enjoy access to an internationally renowned food culture, it is remarkable to consider that it has only been during the years following the Second World War that these sophisticated and now much emulated ways of eating and cooking have developed. It is, indeed, only during the last half century that Australian eating habits have shifted from largely Anglo-Saxon influenced foods and meals that were prepared and eaten in the home, to the consumption of a wider range of more international and sophisticated foods and meals that are, increasingly, prepared by others and eaten outside the consumer’s residence. While a range of commonly cited influences has prompted this relatively recent revolution in culinary practice—including post-war migration, increasing levels of prosperity, widespread international travel, and the forces of globalisation—some of this change owes a debt to a series of influential individual figures. These tastemakers have included food writers and celebrity chefs; with early exponents including Margaret Fulton, Graham Kerr and Charmaine Solomon (see Brien). The findings of this study suggests that many restaurant chefs, and other cooks, have similarly played, and continue to take, a key role in the lives of not only the, necessarily, limited numbers of individuals who dine in a particular eatery or the other chefs and/or cooks trained in that establishment (Ruhlman, Reach), but also the communities in which they work on a much broader scale. Considering Chefs In his groundbreaking study, A History of Cooks and Cooking, Australian food historian Michael Symons proposes that those who prepare food are worthy of serious consideration because “if ‘we are what we eat’, cooks have not just made our meals, but have also made us. They have shaped our social networks, our technologies, arts and religions” (xi). Writing that cooks “deserve to have their stories told often and well,” and that, moreover, there is a “need to invent ways to think about them, and to revise our views about ourselves in their light” (xi), Symons’s is a clarion call to investigate the role and influence of cooks. Charles-Allen Baker-Clark has explicitly begun to address this lacunae in his Profiles from the Kitchen: What Great Cooks Have Taught Us About Ourselves and Our Food (2006), positing not only how these figures have shaped our relationships with food and eating, but also how these relationships impact on identities, culture and a range of social issues including those of social justice, spirituality and environmental sustainability. With the growing public interest in celebrities, it is perhaps not surprising that, while such research on chefs and/or cooks is still in its infancy, most of the existing detailed studies on individuals focus on famed international figures such as Marie-Antoine Carême (Bernier; Kelly), Escoffier (James; Rachleff; Sanger), and Alexis Soyer (Brandon; Morris; Ray). Despite an increasing number of tabloid “tell-all” surveys of contemporary celebrity chefs, which are largely based on mass media sources and which display little concern for historical or biographical accuracy (Bowyer; Hildred and Ewbank; Simpson; Smith), there have been to date only a handful of “serious” researched biographies of contemporary international chefs such as Julia Child, Alice Waters (Reardon; Riley), and Bernard Loiseux (Chelminski)—the last perhaps precipitated by an increased interest in this chef following his suicide after his restaurant lost one of its Michelin stars. Despite a handful of collective biographical studies of Australian chefs from the later-1980s on (Jenkins; O’Donnell and Knox; Brien), there are even fewer sustained biographical studies of Australian chefs or cooks (Clifford-Smith’s 2004 study of “the supermarket chef,” Bernard King, is a notable exception). Throughout such investigations, as well as in other popular food writing in magazines and cookbooks, there is some recognition that influential chefs and cooks have worked, and continue to work, outside such renowned urban culinary centres as Paris, London, New York, and Sydney. The Michelin starred restaurants of rural France, the so-called “gastropubs” of rural Britain and the advent of the “star-chef”-led country bed and breakfast establishment in Australia and New Zealand, together with the proliferation of farmer’s markets and a public desire to consume locally sourced, and ecologically sustainable, produce (Nabhan), has focused fresh attention on what could be called “the rural/regional chef”. However, despite the above, little attention has focused on the Australian non-urban chef/cook outside of the pages of a small number of key food writing magazines such as Australian Gourmet Traveller and Vogue Entertaining + Travel. Setting the Scene with an Australian Country Example: Armidale and Guyra In 2004, the Armidale-Dumaresq Council (of the New England region, New South Wales, Australia) adopted the slogan “Foodies thrive in Armidale” to market its main city for the next three years. With a population of some 20,000, Armidale’s main industry (in economic terms) is actually education and related services, but the latest Tourist Information Centre’s Dining Out in Armidale (c. 2006) brochure lists some 25 restaurants, 9 bistros and brasseries, 19 cafés and 5 fast food outlets featuring Australian, French, Italian, Mediterranean, Chinese, Thai, Indian and “international” cuisines. The local Yellow Pages telephone listings swell the estimation of the total number of food-providing businesses in the city to 60. Alongside the range of cuisines cited above, a large number of these eateries foreground the use of fresh, local foods with such phrases as “local and regional produce,” “fresh locally grown produce,” “the finest New England ingredients” and locally sourced “New England steaks, lamb and fresh seafood” repeatedly utilised in advertising and other promotional material. Some thirty kilometres to the north along the New England highway, the country town of Guyra, proclaimed a town in 1885, is the administrative and retail centre for a shire of some 2,200 people. Situated at 1,325 metres above sea level, the town is one of the highest in Australia with its main industries those of fine wool and lamb, beef cattle, potatoes and tomatoes. Until 1996, Guyra had been home to a large regional abattoir that employed some 400 staff at the height of its productivity, but rationalisation of the meat processing industry closed the facility, together with its associated pet food processor, causing a downturn in employment, local retail business, and real estate values. Since 2004, Guyra’s economy has, however, begun to recover after the town was identified by the Costa Group as the perfect site for glasshouse grown tomatoes. Perfect, due to its rare combination of cool summers (with an average of less than two days per year with temperatures over 30 degrees celsius), high winter light levels and proximity to transport routes. The result: 3.3 million kilograms of truss, vine harvested, hydroponic “Top of the Range” tomatoes currently produced per annum, all year round, in Guyra’s 5-hectare glasshouse: Australia’s largest, opened in December 2005. What residents (of whom I am one) call the “tomato-led recovery” has generated some 60 new local jobs directly related to the business, and significant flow on effects in terms of the demand for local services and retail business. This has led to substantial rates of renovation and building of new residential and retail properties, and a noticeably higher level of trade flowing into the town. Guyra’s main street retail sector is currently burgeoning and stories of its renewal have appeared in the national press. Unlike many similar sized inland towns, there are only a handful of empty shops (and most of these are in the process of being renovated), and new commercial premises have recently been constructed and opened for business. Although a small town, even in Australian country town terms, Guyra now has 10 restaurants, hotel bistros and cafés. A number of these feature local foods, with one pub’s bistro regularly featuring the trout that is farmed just kilometres away. Assessing the Contribution of Local Chefs and Cooks In mid-2007, a pilot survey to begin to explore the contribution of the regional chef in these two close, but quite distinct, rural and regional areas was sent to the chefs/cooks of the 70 food-serving businesses in Armidale and Guyra that I could identify. Taking into account the 6 returns that revealed a business had closed, moved or changed its name, the 42 replies received represented a response rate of 65.5per cent (or two thirds), representatively spread across the two towns. Answers indicated that the businesses comprised 18 restaurants, 13 cafés, 6 bistro/brasseries, 1 roadhouse, 1 takeaway/fast food and 3 bed and breakfast establishments. These businesses employed 394 staff, of whom 102 were chefs and/cooks, or 25.9 per cent of the total number of staff then employed by these establishments. In answer to a series of questions designed to ascertain the roles played by these chefs/cooks in their local communities, as well as more widely, I found a wide range of inputs. These chefs had, for instance, made a considerable contribution to their local economies in the area of fostering local jobs and a work culture: 40 (95 per cent) had worked with/for another local business including but not exclusively food businesses; 30 (71.4 per cent) had provided work experience opportunities for those aspiring to work in the culinary field; and 22 (more than half) had provided at least one apprenticeship position. A large number had brought outside expertise and knowledge with them to these local areas, with 29 (69 per cent) having worked in another food business outside Armidale or Guyra. In terms of community building and sustainability, 10 (or almost a quarter) had assisted or advised the local Council; 20 (or almost half) had worked with local school children in a food-related way; 28 (two thirds) had helped at least one charity or other local fundraising group. An extra 7 (bringing the cumulative total to 83.3 per cent) specifically mentioned that they had worked with/for the local gallery, museum and/or local history group. 23 (more than half) had been involved with and/or contributed to a local festival. The question of whether they had “contributed anything else important, helpful or interesting to the community” elicited the following responses: writing a food or wine column for the local paper (3 respondents), delivering TAFE teacher workshops (2 respondents), holding food demonstrations for Rotary and Lions Clubs and school fetes (5 respondents), informing the public about healthy food (3 respondents), educating the public about environmental issues (2 respondents) and working regularly with Meals on Wheels or a similar organisation (6 respondents, or 14.3 per cent). One respondent added his/her work as a volunteer driver for the local ambulance transport service, the only non-food related response to this question. Interestingly, in line with the activity of well-known celebrity chefs, in addition to the 3 chefs/cooks who had written a food or wine column for the local newspaper, 11 respondents (more than a quarter of the sample) had written or contributed to a cookbook or recipe collection. One of these chefs/cooks, moreover, reported that he/she produced a weblog that was “widely read”, and also contributed to international food-related weblogs and websites. In turn, the responses indicated that the (local) communities—including their governing bodies—also offer some support of these chefs and cooks. Many respondents reported they had been featured in, or interviewed and/or photographed for, a range of media. This media comprised the following: the local newspapers (22 respondents, 52.4 per cent), local radio stations (19 respondents, 45.2 per cent), regional television stations (11 respondents, 26.2 per cent) and local websites (8 respondents, 19 per cent). A number had also attracted other media exposure. This was in the local, regional area, especially through local Council publications (31 respondents, 75 per cent), as well as state-wide (2 respondents, 4.8 per cent) and nationally (6 respondents, 14.3 per cent). Two of these local chefs/cooks (or 4.8 per cent) had attracted international media coverage of their activities. It is clear from the above that, in the small area surveyed, rural and regional chefs/cooks make a considerable contribution to their local communities, with all the chefs/cooks who replied making some, and a number a major, contribution to those communities, well beyond the requirements of their paid positions in the field of food preparation and service. The responses tendered indicate that these chefs and cooks contributed regularly to local public events, institutions and charities (with a high rate of contribution to local festivals, school programs and local charitable activities), and were also making an input into public education programs, local cultural institutions, political and social debates of local importance, as well as the profitability of other local businesses. They were also actively supporting not only the future of the food industry as a whole, but also the viability of their local communities, by providing work experience opportunities and taking on local apprentices for training and mentorship. Much more than merely food providers, as a group, these chefs and cooks were, it appears, also operating as food historians, public intellectuals, teachers, activists and environmentalists. They were, moreover, operating as content producers for local media while, at the same time, acting as media producers and publishers. Conclusion The terms “chef” and “cook” can be diversely defined. All definitions, however, commonly involve a sense of professionalism in food preparation reflecting some specialist knowledge and skill in the culinary arts, as well as various levels of creativity, experience and responsibility. In terms of the specific duties that chefs and professional cooks undertake every day, almost all publications on the subject deal specifically with workplace related activities such as food and other supply ordering, staff management, menu planning and food preparation and serving. This is constant across culinary textbooks (see, for instance, Culinary Institute of America 2002) and more discursive narratives about the professional chef such as the bestselling autobiographical musings of Anthony Bourdain, and Michael Ruhlman’s journalistic/biographical investigations of US chefs (Soul; Reach). An alternative preliminary examination, and categorisation, of the roles these professionals play outside their kitchens reveals, however, a much wider range of community based activities and inputs than such texts suggest. It is without doubt that the chefs and cooks who responded to the survey discussed above have made, and are making, a considerable contribution to their local New England communities. It is also without doubt that these contributions are of considerable value, and valued by, those country communities. 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