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Journal articles on the topic 'Flammability Limit'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 14 February 2022

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1

Hamidi, Nurkholis, and Nasrul Ilminnafik. "Inert Effects on Flammability Limits and Flame Propagation of LPG by CO₂." Applied Mechanics and Materials 664 (October 2014): 226–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.664.226.

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In this study, the inert effects of CO2 on the flammability limit and flame propagation of LPG has been investigated experimentally. The observation was done using cubic combustion bomb with the dimension of 500 mm x 200 mm x 10 mm. The results showed that the lower flammability limit (LFL) of LPG-Air mixtures is found to be 2.7% (by volume) and upper flammability limit (UFL) is 8.6% (by volume) with upward propagation of flame. The CO2 dilution effects on the flammability limits have been explored, the limits of flammability was narrowed by adding CO2 and propagation flame was reduced accordingly. The results indicated that to formulate an inflammable refrigerant mixture, using CO2, with substantial hydrocarbon content is not possible.

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2

JU, YIGUANG, HONGSHENG GUO, KAORU MARUTA, and FENGSHAN LIU. "On the extinction limit and flammability limit of non-adiabatic stretched methane–air premixed flames." Journal of Fluid Mechanics 342 (July 10, 1997): 315–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022112097005636.

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Extinction limits and the lean flammability limit of non-adiabatic stretched premixed methane–air flames are investigated numerically with detailed chemistry and two different Planck mean absorption coefficient models. Attention is paid to the combined effect of radiative heat loss and stretch at low stretch rate. It is found that for a mixture at an equivalence ratio lower than the standard lean flammability limit, a moderate stretch can strengthen the combustion and allow burning. The flame is extinguished at a high stretch rate due to stretch and is quenched at a low stretch rate due to radiation loss. A O-shaped curve of flame temperature versus stretch rate with two distinct extinction limits, a radiation extinction limit and a stretch extinction limit respectively on the left- and right-hand sides, is obtained. A C-shaped curve showing the flammability limit of the stretched methane–air flame is obtained by plotting these two extinction limits in the mixture strength coordinate. A good agreement is shown on comparing the predicted results with the experimental data. For equivalence ratio larger than a critical value, it is found that the O-shaped temperature curve opens up in the middle of the stable branch, so that the stable branch divides into two stable flame branches; a weak flame branch and a normal flame branch. The weak flame can survive between the radiation extinction limit and the opening point (jump limit) while the normal flame branch can survive from its stretch extinction limit to zero stretch rate. Finally, a G-shaped curve showing both extinction limits and jump limits of stretched methane–air flames is presented. It is found that the critical equivalence ratio for opening up corresponds to the standard flammability limit measured in microgravity. Furthermore, the results show that the flammability limit (inferior limit) of the stretched methane–air flame is lower than the standard flammability limit because flames are strengthened by a moderate stretch at Lewis number less than unity.

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3

Zamashchikov, V. V. "On the Flammability Limit." Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves 54, no. 4 (July 2018): 393–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0010508218040020.

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4

Grosshandler, W. L., M. K. Donnelly, and C. Womeldorf. "Flammability Measurements of Difluoromethane." Journal of Heat Transfer 122, no. 1 (August 11, 1999): 92–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.521440.

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Difluoromethane (CH2F2, or R-32) is a candidate to replace ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants. Because CH2F2 is flammable, it is necessary to assess the hazard posed by a leak in a refrigeration machine. The currently accepted method for determining flammability, ASTM E 681 has difficulty discerning the flammability boundary for weak fuels such as CH2F2. This article describes an alternative approach to identify the limits of flammability, using a twin, premixed counterflow flame. By using the extinction of an already established flame, the point dividing flammable from nonflammable becomes unambiguous. The limiting extinction mixture changes with stretch rate, so it is convenient to report the flammability limit as the value extrapolated to a zero stretch condition. In the burner, contoured nozzles with outlet diameters of 12 mm are aligned counter to each other and spaced 12 mm apart. The lean flammability limit of CH2F2 in dry air at room temperature was previously reported by the authors to be a mole fraction of 0.14, using the twin counterflow flame method. In the current study, relative humidity was not found to affect the lean limit. Increasing the temperature of the premixed fuel and air to 100°C is shown to extend the flammability limit in the lean direction to 0.13. The rich limit of CH2F2 found using the counterflow method is around 0.27. The uncertainties of the measurements are presented and the results compared to data in the literature. [S0022-1481(00)02501-9]

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5

Bade Shrestha, S. O., I. Wierzba, and G. A. Karim. "A Thermodynamic Analysis of the Rich Flammability Limits of Fuel-Diluent Mixtures in Air." Journal of Energy Resources Technology 117, no. 3 (September 1, 1995): 239–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2835347.

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A simple approach is described for the calculation of the rich flammability limits of fuel-diluent mixtures in air for a wide range of initial temperatures based only on the knowledge of the flammability limit of the pure fuel in air at atmospheric temperature and pressure conditions. Various fuel-diluent mixtures that include the fuels methane, ethylene, ethane, propane, butane, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen, and the diluents nitrogen, carbon dioxide, helium, and argon have been considered. Good agreement is shown to exist between predicted values of the rich flammability limits and the corresponding available experimental values for the fuel-diluent mixtures.

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6

Bui-Pham, Mary N., and James A. Miller. "Rich methane/air flames: Burning velocities, extinction limits, and flammability limit." Symposium (International) on Combustion 25, no. 1 (January 1994): 1309–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0082-0784(06)80772-1.

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7

Luangdilok, W., and R. B. Bennett. "Fog Inerting Effects on Hydrogen Combustion in a PWR Ice Condenser Containment." Journal of Heat Transfer 117, no. 2 (May 1, 1995): 502–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2822550.

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A mechanistic fog inerting model has been developed to account for the effects of fog on the upward lean flammability limits of a combustible mixture based on the thermal theory of flame propagation. Benchmarking of this model with test data shows reasonably good agreement between the theory and the experiment. Applications of the model and available fog data to determine the upward lean flammability limits of the H2–air–steam mixture in the ice condenser upper plenum region of a pressurized water reactor (PWR) ice condenser containment during postulated large loss of coolant accident (LOCA) conditions indicate that combustion may be suppressed beyond the downward flammability limit (8 percent H2 by volume).

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8

Adiwidodo, Satworo, I. N. G. Wardana, Lilis Yuliati, and Mega Nur Sasongko. "Flame Stability Measurement on Rectangular Slot Meso-Scale Combustor." Applied Mechanics and Materials 836 (June 2016): 271–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.836.271.

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The biggest problem of combustion in the micro-scale or meso-scale combustor is heat loss. Heat loss led to a difficult of stable flame. This research aims to elucidate the flame stabilization and flammability limit of LPG-oxygen premixed flame, temperature distribution and flame visualization. Flame stabilization and flammability limit map are shows in φ - U plane. The result shows that there are six regions in the map that is stable without noise, stable with noise, transition zone, dead zone, pseudo stable, and blow off. Measurement parameters are LPG-oxygen flow velocity at various equivalent ratio and temperature. The flame stabilization and flammability limit map within measurement parameters are discussed.

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9

Chen, Z. H., and S. H. Sohrab. "Flammability limit and limit-temperature of counterflow lean methane-air flames." Combustion and Flame 102, no. 1-2 (July 1995): 193–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-2180(95)00028-5.

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10

Sung, C. J., and C. K. Law. "Extinction mechanisms of near-limit premixed flames and extended limits of flammability." Symposium (International) on Combustion 26, no. 1 (January 1996): 865–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0082-0784(96)80296-7.

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11

Kul, I., D. L. Gnann, A. L. Beyerlein, and D. D. DesMarteau. "Lower Flammability Limit of Difluoromethane and Percolation Theory." International Journal of Thermophysics 25, no. 4 (July 2004): 1085–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/b:ijot.0000038502.85062.eb.

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12

De Zilwa, S. R. N., J. H. Uhm, and J. H. Whitelaw. "Combustion Oscillations Close to the Lean Flammability Limit." Combustion Science and Technology 160, no. 1 (November 2000): 231–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00102200008935804.

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13

Tam, Richard Y., and G. S. S. Ludford. "The lean flammability limit: A four-step model." Combustion and Flame 72, no. 1 (April 1988): 35–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-2180(88)90095-8.

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14

Hamidi, Nurkholis. "Carbon Dioxide Effects on the Flammability Characteristics of Biogas." Applied Mechanics and Materials 493 (January 2014): 129–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.493.129.

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Flammability limits and flame speed of methane-carbon dioxide-air mixtures have been studied to understand the effect of carbondioxide on the flammability characteristic of biogas. The fuel of biogas discussed in this study was made by mixing gases of methane and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide was varied from 0% (by volume) untill reach the flammability limit of the stoikhiometri biogas-air mixtures. The observation was done using a cubic combustion bomb with the dimension of 500 mm x 200 mm x 10 mm with the initial condition being at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The ignitor was set at the top of combustion bomb, so the flame propagated downward. Base on the observation results, the presence of carbon dioxide in the fuel ofbiogas caused the flammability limits of biogasair mixture narrower. The biogas-air mixture was still flammable with the highest content of carbon dioxide of 62.5 %vol when the mixture was sthoichiometri. Compared to methane-air mixture, the presence of carbon dioxide in biogas caused a reduction in the flame speed. The stoichiometri mixture has the highest flame speed when the carbon dioxide was not present in the fuel. However, when the carbon dioxide was added in the fuel, the rich mixture has the highest flame speed. This is a consequence of the rich biogas-air mixture having a higher fraction of the carbon dioxide components from the fuel compared to the stoichiometri and lean biogas-air mixture. The result also indicated that at the upper limit the flame still propagated downward to closed to the endwall. However, at the lower limit (lean mixtures), the flame did not intend to propagate downward, it was just at the top and propagate sideward.

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15

Jeon, Joongoo, and Sung Joong Kim. "Recent Progress in Hydrogen Flammability Prediction for the Safe Energy Systems." Energies 13, no. 23 (November 27, 2020): 6263. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13236263.

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Many countries consider hydrogen as a promising energy source to resolve the energy challenges over the global climate change. However, the potential of hydrogen explosions remains a technical issue to embrace hydrogen as an alternate solution since the Hindenburg disaster occurred in 1937. To ascertain safe hydrogen energy systems including production, storage, and transportation, securing the knowledge concerning hydrogen flammability is essential. In this paper, we addressed a comprehensive review of the studies related to predicting hydrogen flammability by dividing them into three types: experimental, numerical, and analytical. While the earlier experimental studies had focused only on measuring limit concentration, recent studies clarified the extinction mechanism of a hydrogen flame. In numerical studies, the continued advances in computer performance enabled even multi-dimensional stretched flame analysis following one-dimensional planar flame analysis. The different extinction mechanisms depending on the Lewis number of each fuel type could be observed by these advanced simulations. Finally, historical attempts to predict the limit concentration by analytical modeling of flammability characteristics were discussed. Developing an accurate model to predict the flammability limit of various hydrogen mixtures is our remaining issue.

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16

Matei, Adrian, Răzvan Drăgoescu, Nicolae Ianc, Emeric Chiuzan, and Florin Rădoi. "Use of explosibility diagrams in potentially explosive atmospheres." MATEC Web of Conferences 305 (2020): 00087. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202030500087.

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Although the first research in the field was carried out by Davy in 1816, the first discovery emerged in 1891 when Le Chatellier defined the law for determining the explosive limits. Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) represents the lowest concentration of gas or vapours in air which is able to generate the explosion in the presence of an efficient ignition source. It is considered to be the same as the Lower Flammability Limit (LFL). Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) represents the highest concentration of gas or vapours in air which is able to generate the explosion in the presence of an efficient ignition source. It is considered to be similar with the Upper Flammability Limit (UFL) [1]. For the optimal management of underground or surface industrial environments, confined, obstructed or open environments, is required to know the point which defines the monitored atmosphere in relation with the explosion triangle. For confined underground environments, monitoring the atmosphere and using the explosibility diagrams are required during the closure process and also for re-opening the area. For underground environments specific to active mine workings and for industrial environments located on the surface, monitoring the atmosphere and using explosibility diagrams are required permanently.

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17

Peters, N., and M. D. Smooke. "Fluid dynamic-chemical interactions at the lean flammability limit." Combustion and Flame 60, no. 2 (May 1985): 171–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-2180(85)90005-7.

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18

Pranoto, Hadi, Wiwit Suprihatiningsih, Muhammad Idil Fadil, and Supaat Zakaria. "Opacity Results Diesel Fuel: Bio Solar, Dexlite, Dex and Analysis Theoretical Flammability Limit." International Journal of Advanced Technology in Mechanical, Mechatronics and Materials 1, no. 1 (March 30, 2020): 18–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.37869/ijatec.v1i1.10.

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Each mixture of fuel and gas has a different flame speed. Gas will only burn at a suitable percentage of air and produce different exhaust gas opacity, opacity is a ratio of the rate of light absorption by smoke expressed in units of percent. This study aims to theoretically analyze the relationship between the flammability limit and the variation of fuel which has a different setana number associated with the exhaust gas opacity value of the engine performance test equipment. The machine performance test equipment used is the L300 engine. The methodology used is the testing of exhaust gas opacity using the Koeng OP-201 opacity meter and theoretically analyzed its relationship with the bio solar, dexlite and pertamina dex flame limits. The results of this study found that bio solar has an upper flame limit of 6.65%, a lowerflame limit of 0.53%, and an average opacity value of 12.1%. Dexlite has an upper limit of 6.70%, a lower limit of 0.53%, and an average opacity value of 10.5%. Pertamina dex has an upper limit of 6.68%, a lower limit of 0.53%, and an average opacity value of 9.21%.

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19

Khan, Nur Aqidah Muhammad Harinder, Siti Zubaidah Sulaiman, Izirwan Izhab, Siti Kholijah Abdul Mudalip, Rohaida Che Man, Shalyda Md Shaarani, Zatul Iffah Mohd Arshad, Rafiziana Md Kasmani, and Sarina Sulaiman. "The Explosion Severity of Biogas(CH₄-CO₂)/Air Mixtures in a Closed Vessel." Materials Science Forum 964 (July 2019): 33–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.964.33.

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Biogas which consists of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) could explode when diluted to a certain degree with air in the presence of ignition source. The maximum explosion overpressure (Pmax), the maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)max, flammability limits, and deflagration index are the most important explosion severities parameters to characterize the risk of explosion. In this research paper, the effect of equivalence ratio (ER) of biogas/air mixtures and the effect of CO2 concentrations presence in biogas were studied in a 20 L spherical vessel. The values of Pmax and (dP/dt)max of biogas/air mixtures were more severe at ER 1.2. At various CO2 content, Pmax and (dP/dt)max of biogas/air mixtures were the least affected at 45% vol/vol of CO2. On the other hand, deflagration index (KG) of biogas/air mixtures trend was the most severe at 35% vol/vol of CO2 content despite the lowest Pmax and (dP/dt)max at 45% vol/vol of CO2 content. The lowest values in Pmax and (dP/dt)max were due to the diffusivity properties of CH4 that had surpassed the CO2 suppression effect. Furthermore, the presence of CO2 in biogas/air mixtures had increased the upper flammability limit and lower flammability limit of biogas.

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20

Wierzba, I., and G. A. Karim. "A Predictive Approach for the Flammability Limits of Methane-Nitrogen Mixtures." Journal of Energy Resources Technology 112, no. 4 (December 1, 1990): 251–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2905768.

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The present contribution describes a relatively simple procedure for predicting the lean and rich flammability limits of methane-nitrogen mixtures in air from a knowledge of the composition of the fuel mixture and the corresponding limit for methane. It is shown that this approach can be extended similarly to consider the limits of natural gas-nitrogen mixtures yielding relatively good agreement with experimental values over a relatively wide range of composition and pressure.

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21

Badr, O. A., N. Elsayed, and G. A. Karim. "An Investigation of the Lean Operational Limits of Gas-Fueled Spark Ignition Engines." Journal of Energy Resources Technology 118, no. 2 (June 1, 1996): 159–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2792708.

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Examination is made of the operational limits in two variable compression-ratio single-cylinder engines when operating on the gaseous fuels methane, propane, LPG, and hydrogen under a wide range of conditions. Two definitions for the limits were employed. The first was associated with the first detectable misfire on leaning the mixture, while the second was the first detectable firing under motoring condition in the presence of a spark when the mixture was being enriched slowly. Attempts were also made to relate these limits to the corresponding values for quiescent conditions reckoned on the basis of the flammability limits evaluated at the mean temperature and pressure prevailing within the cylinder charge at the time of the spark. The measured limits in the engine were always higher than the corresponding flammability limit values for the three fuels. Both of these limits appear to correlate reasonably well with the calculated mean temperature of the mixture at the time of passing the spark.

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22

Widtyo, Puranggo Ganja, Digdo Listyadi Setyawan, Gaguk Jatisukamto, and Rachmad Dwi Fitriansyah. "FLAMMABILITY LIMIT GAS LPG DAN UDARA PADA CYLINDRICAL MESO-SCALE COMBUSTOR DENGAN SUDDEN EXPANSION." Jurnal Elemen 4, no. 2 (December 29, 2017): 79. http://dx.doi.org/10.34128/je.v4i2.52.

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Nyala api pada sebuah combustor skala meso mempunyai batas nyala yang berbeda sesuai dengan jenis bahan bakar, debit bahan bakar dan udara serta geometri combustor. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti batas nyala api (flammability limit) pada combustor skala meso dengan sudden expansion. Alat penelitian yang digunakan adalah combustor dengan diameter dalam inlet 4,5 mm, diameter dalam sudden expansion 6 mm dan panjang saluran sudden expansion 20 mm, mixer dan pisco tube serta dengan jenis bahan bakar LPG mix. Parameter penelitian meliputi debit bahan bakar dan debit udara dimana debit bahan bakar dan udara pada combustor dicari titik terendah dan tertinggi untuk mampu nyala. Data debit bahan bakar dan udara tersebut digunakan untuk membuat grafik flammability limit yang merupakan hubungan dari rasio ekuivalen dan kecepatan reaktan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan rasio ekuivalen terendah pada angka ф = 0,80 dengan kecepatan reaktan V = 12 cm/s dan rasio ekuivalen tertinggi ф = 1,09 dengan kecepatatn reaktan V = 17,98 cm/s. Batas kecepatan reaktan tertinggi V = 19,84 cm/s dan batas kecepatan terendah V = 11,57 cm/s. Grafik flammability limit yang terbentuk pada combustor dengan diameter dalam saluran sudden expansion 6 mm yang menggunakan bahan bakar gas LPG berada pada zona cenderung miskin, karena mempunyai rentang rasio ekuivalen dari ф = 0,80 sampai ф = 1,09.

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23

Hanai, H. "A lean flammability limit of polymethylmethacrylate particle-cloud in microgravity." Combustion and Flame 118, no. 3 (August 1999): 359–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0010-2180(99)00003-6.

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24

Takahashi, Shuhei, Muhammad Arif Fahmi bin Borhan, Kaoru Terashima, Aki Hosogai, and Yoshinari Kobayashi. "Flammability limit of thin flame retardant materials in microgravity environments." Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 37, no. 3 (2019): 4257–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2018.06.102.

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25

Fernández-Galisteo, D., A. L. Sánchez, A. Liñán, and F. A. Williams. "The hydrogen–air burning rate near the lean flammability limit." Combustion Theory and Modelling 13, no. 4 (September 14, 2009): 741–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13647830903154559.

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26

High, Martin S., and Ronald P. Danner. "Prediction of upper flammability limit by a group contribution method." Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 26, no. 7 (July 1987): 1395–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ie00067a021.

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27

Ogawa, Y., N. Saito, and C. Liao. "Burner diameter and flammability limit measured by tubular flame burner." Symposium (International) on Combustion 27, no. 2 (January 1998): 3221–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0082-0784(98)80186-0.

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28

Bolshova, T. A., V. A. Bunev, D. A. Knyazkov, O. P. Korobeinichev, A. A. Chernov, A. G. Shmakov, and S. A. Yakimov. "Dependence of the lower flammability limit on the initial temperature." Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves 48, no. 2 (March 2012): 125–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0010508212020013.

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29

NADA, Yuzuru, Hirooki HIRAIWA, Shohei ANDO, Takahiro ITO, and Susumu NODA. "263 The flammability limit of the high temperature air combustion." Proceedings of Conference of Tokai Branch 2010.59 (2010): 125–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmetokai.2010.59.125.

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30

Gan, Ning, Dragomir Bukur, and M. Sam Mannan. "Application of flammability limit criteria on non-ASTM standard equipment." Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 134, no. 2 (June 7, 2018): 1169–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7413-6.

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31

Morehart, J. H., E. E. Zukoski, and T. Kubota. "Chemical species produced in fires near the limit of flammability." Fire Safety Journal 19, no. 2-3 (January 1992): 177–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0379-7112(92)90032-8.

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32

Bagheri, Mehdi, Mansoure Rajabi, Marziyeh Mirbagheri, and Mohammad Amin. "BPSO-MLR and ANFIS based modeling of lower flammability limit." Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 25, no. 2 (March 2012): 373–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2011.10.005.

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33

Jiang, Jiaojun, Yi Liu, and M. Sam Mannan. "A correlation of the lower flammability limit for hybrid mixtures." Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 32 (November 2014): 120–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2014.07.014.

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34

Mathieu, Didier. "Power Law Expressions for Predicting Lower and Upper Flammability Limit Temperatures." Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 52, no. 26 (June 20, 2013): 9317–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ie4002348.

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35

SATOI, Shinsaku, Toshiaki YANO, and Hirofumi KARIYA. "Experimental Study on Flammability Limit of C_3H_8/Air Premixture under Microgravity." Proceedings of Conference of Kyushu Branch 2003 (2003): 209–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmekyushu.2003.209.

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36

Taniguchi, Masayuki, Tsuyoshi Shibata, Kenji Yamamoto, Christian Kuhr, and Osamu Ito. "Lean flammability limit for oxy-fuel fired pulverized coal combustion systems." Energy Procedia 4 (2011): 892–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2011.01.134.

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37

Chen, Chan-Cheng, Shang-Hao Liu, and Xiaoyan Kang. "Evaluating lower flammability limit of flammable mixtures using threshold temperature approach." Chemical Engineering Science 185 (August 2018): 84–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2018.04.011.

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38

Tian, Hua, Xu Huo, Yuewei Liu, Jinwen Cai, Rui Sun, and Gequn Shu. "Group Contribution based Flammability Limit Estimation of Hydrocarbon-Inert Gas Mixture." Journal of Thermal Science 30, no. 2 (January 19, 2021): 624–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11630-021-1399-2.

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39

Gavrikov, A. I., V. V. Golub, V. V. Volodin, A. Yu Mikushkin, and A. V. Danilin. "Buoyant flames in near the lower flammability limit hydrogen–air mixtures." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1787, no. 1 (February 1, 2021): 012018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1787/1/012018.

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40

Pekalski, A. A., and H. J. Pasman. "Distinction between the upper explosion limit and the lower cool flame limit in determination of flammability limit at elevated conditions." Process Safety and Environmental Protection 87, no. 1 (January 2009): 47–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2008.08.002.

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41

Yuliati, Lilis, Mega Nur Sasongko, and Slamet Wahyudi. "Flammability Limit and Flame Visualization of Gaseous Fuel Combustion Inside Meso-scale Combustor with Different Thermal Conductivity." Applied Mechanics and Materials 493 (January 2014): 204–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.493.204.

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This study experimentally investigated effect of thermal conductivity on the combustioncharacteristics of gaseous fuel inside a meso-scale combustor. Combustion characteristics that wereobserved in this research include flame visualization and flammability limit. Quartz glass, stainlesssteel and copper tubes with inner diameters of 3.5 mm were used as combustors. Stainless steel wiremesh was inserted inside meso-scale combustor as a flame holder. Liquid petroleum gas (LPG),which is common fuel use by Indonesian people, was used as a gaseous fuel. A stable blue flame wasestablished inside meso-scale combustor at the downstream of wire mesh for all combustor withdifferent thermal conductivity. Furthermore, flame color is blue for combustion of fuel lean orstoichiometric mixture, and blue-green for combustion of fuel rich mixture. Meso-scale combustorwith the highest thermal conductivity has the narrowest flame cross section area, especially at lowerreactant velocity. Vice versa, this combustor has the widest flammability limit, mainly at the higherreactant velocity.

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42

Ju, Yiguang, Kaoru Maruta, and Takashi Niioka. "Combustion Limits." Applied Mechanics Reviews 54, no. 3 (May 1, 2001): 257–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.3097297.

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Combustion limits and related flame behaviors are reviewed, especially with regard to fundamental problems. As for premixed flames, after a brief historical overview of research on the flammability limit, recent trends of research on planar propagating flames, curved propagating flames, flame balls, and stretched premixed flames are discussed, and then all types of flames are summarized. Finally, instability and dynamics near limits is discussed. With regard to combustion limits of counterflow diffusion flames and droplet flames, their instability is demonstrated, then an explanation of lifted flames and edge flames is presented. Suggestions for future work are also discussed in the concluding remarks. There are 166 references cited in this review article.

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Going, John E., Kris Chatrathi, and Kenneth L. Cashdollar. "Flammability limit measurements for dusts in 20-L and 1-m3 vessels." Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 13, no. 3-5 (May 2000): 209–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0950-4230(99)00043-1.

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Lakshmisha, K. N., P. J. Paul, and H. S. Mukunda. "On the flammability limit and heat loss in flames with detailed chemistry." Symposium (International) on Combustion 23, no. 1 (January 1991): 433–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0082-0784(06)80288-2.

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TSUBOI, Kandai, Keisuke MARUTA, Shuhei TAKAHASHI, Tadayoshi IHARA, and Subrata BHATTACHARJEE. "Effect of Ambient Gas on Flammability Limit of Flat Materials in Microgravity." TRANSACTIONS OF THE JAPAN SOCIETY FOR AERONAUTICAL AND SPACE SCIENCES, AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY JAPAN 14, ists30 (2016): Ph_1—Ph_6. http://dx.doi.org/10.2322/tastj.14.ph_1.

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Takahashi, Shuhei, Kandai Tsuboi, Taisei Kishimoto, and Tadayoshi Ihata. "C121 Scale modeling on flammability limit of a solid material in microgravity." Proceedings of the Thermal Engineering Conference 2014 (2014): _C121–1_—_C121–2_. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmeted.2014._c121-1_.

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MUROI, Masataka, Hideo YAHAGI, and Yuji YAHAGI. "D221 FLAME STABILIZATION CONTROL NEAR THE FLAMMABILITY LIMIT BY BOUNDARY LAYERS CONTROL." Proceedings of the Thermal Engineering Conference 2006 (2006): 327–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmeted.2006.327.

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KUMAR, A., and J. TIEN. "A computational study of low oxygen flammability limit for thick solid slabs." Combustion and Flame 146, no. 1-2 (July 2006): 366–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2006.02.008.

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Lee, Sang Gon, Hideo Ohtani, Yoichi Uehara, and Minoru Aramaki. "Experimental study on flammability limit of a chlorine trifuloride/dichlorosilane/nitrogen mixture." Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 5, no. 3 (January 1992): 192–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0950-4230(92)80023-2.

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MAKINO, Atsushi, Nobuyuki ARAKI, and Takayuki KUWABARA. "Flammability Limits, Dilution Limit, and Effect of Particle Size on Burning Velocity in Combustion Synthesis of TiC." Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers Series B 58, no. 550 (1992): 1925–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/kikaib.58.1925.

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