Journal articles on the topic 'Flathead Valley Community College'

This brief article reports on a collaborative book-borrowing policy between The Brendlinger Library of Montgomery County Community College and the Wissahickon Valley Public Library (WVPL), both located in Blue Bell, PA. Beginning in January 2013, WVPL will donate books periodically to the Brendlinger Library in support of the students enrolled in Reading classes. Circulation statistics will be reported to WVPL, and the books will be returned to WVPL for sale in the WVPL Friends of the Library book sale. Keywords: academic library; public library, community college library; collaboration; developmental readers; reading programs; reading instruction; literacy; Montgomery County Community College; Wissahickon Valley Public Library

Native fish persistence is threatened by the establishment and spread of nonnatives. Identifying environmental and biotic factors associated with the success of co-occurring native fishes and nonnative taxa is central to identifying mechanisms responsible for native declines and nonnative expansion. We related physicochemical variables, food resources, and community composition to the success (secondary production) of native and nonnative fishes, tadpoles, and crayfish across six sites in three reaches (tributary, canyon, and valley) during 2008–2011 in the Gila River, New Mexico. Native fish success was greater than nonnative success across a range of physicochemical conditions, basal resource supply rates, and nonnative communities, although nonnative fish, tadpole, and crayfish success could approach or exceed that of native fishes in canyon habitats, a warm-water tributary, or in downstream valley sites, respectively. Native fish success was lowest in canyon reaches, when flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) were highly productive. These results demonstrate the potential for native fish persistence in the presence of nonnatives in physically unmodified streams, highlighting the importance of habitat preservation for native conservation.

The costs spent by students or parents while attaining education are called the direct private costs which are usually placed outside and inside the domain of educational institutions. The present study is a quantitative survey that aims to conduct a comparative analysis of institutional and non-institutional direct private costs. Furthermore, it tries to find the size of institutional and non-institutional direct private costs at Bachelor’s level education in Nepal. For these purposes, I have selected a community based college from Kathmandu valley purposively and 90 students of Bachelor’s level (30 each from the faculty of humanities, education and management) were selected using simple random sampling technique. The findings of the study reveal that the average college related institutional unit cost per student was Rs. 24730.57, university related institutional cost was Rs. 5982.23; and total annual institutional unit cost was Rs. 30712.80. Likewise, it was found that a student has expensed Rs. 46411.63 as non-institutional direct private cost in a year. Total annual average direct private cost of education (institutional plus non-institutional) was Rs. 77124.43 at Bachelor’s level of community based college in the capital city of Nepal.

This study is followed the descriptive and analytical research design under quantitative inquiry approach as its aims to analyze and compare institutional and non-institutional direct private cost. Furthermore, it tries to find out the size of institutional and non-institutional direct private cost at bachelor level of Nepal. For these purposes, researcher has selected a community based college from Kathmandu valley purposively using simple random sampling. The findings of the study reveal that per student average college related institutional unit cost was Rs 24730. 57, university related institutional cost was Rs 5982.23 and total annual institutional unit cost was Rs 30712.80. Likewise, it was found that a student has expensed Rs 46411.63 as non-institutional direct private cost in a year. Total annual average direct private cost of education (institutional plus non-institutional) was Rs 77124.43 at bachelor level of community based college in the capital city of Nepal.

This article reviews the importance of multiple stakeholders in program development, including the essential role of university and community partnerships.Yakima Valley College—a two-year, Hispanic-serving institution—partnered with four-year universities, agricultural centers, businesses, and federal and state agencies to develop a streamlined undergraduate research experience in which students work closely with a faculty mentor in a STEM field on summer projects of 120 hours each.

Hypertension is a common disease of the present world. Patient characteristics and use of anti-hypertensive agents directly affect the development and control of hypertension respectively. So, the objective of this study was to determine the patient demographics and drug prescription pattern among hypertensive patients of Pokhara valley. A community based descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in different places of Pokhara valley. Performa was used for the collection of data and analysis was done using MS-excel and SPSS (version 17.0). The study showed that majority of the hypertensive patients were males of Brahmin and Newar community with susceptible age group of 60-69 years. Majority of the patients were non-vegeterian, non-alcoholic and non-smoker. The anti-hypertensive prescription pattern revealed that 80% of the patients were on monotherapy and calcium channel blockers were the mostly prescribed medication. Prescription of anti-hyperten­sive agents along with other medications for concomitant diseases was also observed. The prescription pattern was found to be rational and should be regularly monitored. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jcmc.v3i2.8440 Journal of Chitwan Medical College Vol.3(2) 2013 32-35

This past semester I conducted my dissertation research at Penn Valley Community College (PVCC) in Kansas City, Missouri. PVCC is located in the urban core of Kansas City, Missouri, and its academic English program serves primarily refugees and immigrants, as opposed to the international students that we work with at the Applied English Center. I chose to work with the students at PVCC because my roots as an ESL teacher are within the refugee and immigrant communities, and I enjoy maintaining my connection with these very interesting students.

Religiously affiliated colleges and universities typically take spiritual formation and soul care very seriously and are usually intentional about the spiritual and religious development of not only their students but of their faculty and staff as well. The religious tradition, size of the campus community, financial and other resources, along with the will of senior administrators, donors, trustees, and the general university community all determine how these interests and agendas are nurtured and developed as well as the kinds of programing offered. The purpose of this article is to highlight the strategies to support and nurture spiritual formation and soul care at Santa Clara University, a Catholic and Jesuit university in the heart of Silicon Valley, with elements of this care found at most, if not all, Jesuit higher education institutions throughout the nation and world. At Santa Clara, the Ignatian Center is the primary, although not the only, home for these spiritual formation and soul care offerings and will be highlighted here.

<span>Guided by the lens of Bourdieu, this study examined the relationship of the students' economic capital (parents' monthly income and students' weekly allowance) and cultural capital (parents' highest educational attainment and students' community involvement) to their college readiness. The study utilized a descriptive-correlational design, and data were collected from 6,626 K-12 graduates enrolled in one state-university in Cagayan Valley Region, Philippines. The results reveal that the respondents have parents who have income below the Philippine poverty threshold level and have obtained a secondary level of education. They, too, are college-unready, implying that the competencies they obtained from their basic education need further enhancement. Moreover, economic and cultural capital becomes significant resources that are valuable in explaining the college readiness of Filipino Senior High School (SHS) graduates. Those who come from families with higher economic and cultural capital tend to have higher college readiness. Remarkably, the low economic and cultural capital of the students possibly explains their lack of college readiness. As they have less economic and cultural capital, they tend to have fewer competencies to capacitate them in hurdling tertiary education. Hence, these disadvantaged students generally struggle to achieve more and to be successful in life</span><span lang="IN">.</span>

Problems 1-4 were submitted by Mike Arcidiacono, Frazer Boergadine, Gene Maier, Ted Nelson. Kathy Pfaendler, and Mike Shaughnessy of the Math Learning Center at Portland State University, Portland, OR 97207. Problem 5 was submitted by Betty J. Thomson, Community College of Rhode Island, Warwick, RI 02886. The problem was provided by Ruth Sperry, a student in Math 1470, History of Math. Problems 6, 7, 19-22 were sent by Corbin P. Smith. 8750 Hunter's Way, Apple Valley, MN 55124. Credit for 20 was given to Duane Hinders, Woodrow Wilson Summer Institute for Statistics. Problems 8, 9, 16-18 were supplied by Susan L. Besancon, 5100 South Ninety-second Street, Fort Smith, AR 72903. Problems 10 and 23 were adapted from The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers by David Wells (London: Penguin, 1987). Problems 11-15 were adapted from Let's Solve Some Math Problems by Derek Holton (Waterloo, Ont.: Canadian Mathematics Competition, 1993). Problems 25-27 were adapted from After Math: Puzzles and Brainteasers by Ed Barbeau (Toronto: Wall & Emerson, 1995). Problem 29 was contributed by Gene Zirkel, Nassau Community College, Garden City, NY 11530-6793.

People with disabilities (PWD) empowerment has become a topic of international discussion. Individuals from this population are more likely to be in low-paying jobs and have the lowest prospects for promotion of any group across most industries. It is important to train PWD students to be more confident and to become semi-skilled workers before they enter the workforce. In 2020, there is no course conducted at Selayang Community College (KKSY) for the PWDs in the Food and Beverage (F&B) industry training because of the pandemic covid-19. This study, therefore, aimed to examine the relationships between the three independent variables (attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control) and the dependent variable (PWD students’ revisit intention to attend pastry courses), using the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) with gender as the moderating variable. The quantitative method was employed to investigate the relationships between the three independent variables in TPB and PWD’s revisit intention. Questionnaires were used to obtain data from 146 PWD students in the Klang Valley area. This study found that all three independent variables significantly influenced PWD students' intention to attend pastry courses at KKSY. Perceived Behavioural Control or Individual belief and control is important to PWD students and also helps teachers to predict what types of short course they most likely will attend to expand their skill acquisition. This study contributes to the body of knowledge regarding the PWD students’ attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control to the area of hospitality education research, Furthermore, educators should give more attention and encouragement to female PWD students to increase their entrepreneurial spirit.

In 2008, a collaborative project was initiated between the La Farge School District (La Farge, WI), University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Organic Valley Cooperative Regions Organic Producers Pools (La Farge, WI), and Kickapoo Valley Reserve (La Farge, WI). The overarching mission of the program is to build a sustainable, hands-on educational farm and corresponding curriculum to teach organic agriculture principles to high school students and increase the number of students entering agriculture-related professional fields. Secondary goals of the project include delivering locally grown organic produce and related organic agriculture educational opportunities to the broader community. To achieve these goals, a multifaceted student internship program was created that includes a range of experiential learning opportunities for students. With the participation of each of the project partners, about ten students per year engage in the field production of certified organic vegetables, participate in field trips to sites related to organic agriculture, and distribute the produce to the school and the broader community. Through the integration of these activities, students are taught key principles of successful organic management, including ecologically based disease, weed, and insect management, development of a soil fertility plan, market analysis and its implications of crop selection, and determination of costs of production. In the face of both successes and challenges, through informal evaluation of students and the project team, the program continues to develop each year.

Purpose This paper places a college at the centreof a multi-hazard assessment (earthquake, flood and landslide). The college is within a less studied, rural area of Ladakh, North India. Research focusses on a case study (Students Educational and Cultural Movement of Ladakh (SECMOL) College), close to Leh, Ladakh, and extends to incorporate/apply thinking from/to the wider Ladakh region. The approach adopted, centring on the hazard assessment of a single entity/local area, allows a rapid uptake of hazard recommendations within a college environment planning to continue its existence for decades ahead. A sister paper (Petterson et al., 2019) documents the active involvement of college staff and students in the principles of geohazard assessment and the development of student-centric hazard assessments of the college and their home village. SECMOL is a self-sufficient, alternative, college, organised along strong environmentally sustainable principles. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach This work has adopted different strategies for different hazards. Fieldwork involved the collection of quantitative and qualitative data (e.g. shape and size of valleys/river channels/valley sides, estimation of vegetation density, measurement of sediment clasts, angle of slopes, assessment of sediment character, stratigraphy of floodplains and identification of vulnerable elements). These data were combined with satellite image analysis to: define river catchment character and flood vulnerability (e.g. using the methodology of Collier and Fox, 2003), examine catchment connectivity, and examine landslip scars and generic terrain analysis. Literature studies and seismic database interrogation allowed the calculation of potential catchment floodwater volumes, and the collation of epicentre, magnitude, depth and date of seismic events, together with recent thinking on the return period of large Himalayan earthquakes. These data were used to develop geological-seismic and river catchment maps, the identification of vulnerable elements, and disaster scenario analyses. Findings This research concludes that SECMOL, and much of the Ladakh region, is exposed to significant seismic, flood and landslide hazard risk. High magnitude earthquakes have return periods of 100s to c. 1,000 years in the Himalayas and can produce intense levels of damage. It is prudent to maximise earthquake engineering wherever possible. The 2010 Leh floods demonstrated high levels of devastation: these floods could severely damage the SECMOL campus if storms were centred close by. This study reveals the connectivity of catchments at varying altitudes and the potential interactions of adjacent catchments. Evacuation plans need to be developed for the college. Northern ridges at SECMOL could bury parts of the campus if mobilised by earthquakes/rainfall. Slope angles can be lowered and large boulders moved to reduce risk. This work reinforces recommendations that relate to building quality and urban/rural planning, e.g. using spatial planning to keep people away from high-risk zones. Practical implications The frequency of hazards is low, but potential impacts high to very high. Hazard mitigation actions include engineering options for hazardous slopes, buildings to be earthquake-proofed, and evacuation management for large floods. Originality/value Methodologies undertaken in this research are well-tested. Linkages between disciplines are ambitious and somewhat original. The application of this work to a specific college centre site with the capacity to rapidly take up recommendations is novel. The identification of catchment inter-connectivity in this part of Ladakh is novel. This work complements a sister paper (Petterson et al., 2019) for community aspects of this study, adding to the novelty value.

Introduction: Staphylococcus aureus is found to be a major source of community as well as hospital acquired infection. Staphylococcal isolates from tertiary care hospital are found to be resistant to commonly used antimicrobial agents. Methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) with intrinsically developed antimicrobial resistance has been associated with an increase in morbidity and mortality of the patients in the hospital. This study was undertaken to know the antibiotic sensitivity pattern of staphylococcal isolates with special reference to Methicillin resistant S. aureus. Methods: Clinical specimens received from July 2009 to July 2010 in Kathmandu Medical college-Teaching Hospital were processed and all S. aureus isolates were included in the study. The isolates were identified by standard laboratory procedure. The antibiotic susceptibility pattern of all staphylococcal strain was determined by modified Kirby Bauer antibiotic sensitivity method. Results: Of 111 S .aureus isolates 29(26.12%) were identified to be MRSA. The rate of multi drug resistance was 75.86% for MRSA and 6.09% for MSSA. All the staphylococcal isolates were resistant to penicillin. However, all strains were sensitive to vancomycin. Conclusions: This study showed a high prevalence of MRSA in tertiary care hospital of Kathmandu valley. Regular surveillance of hospital-associated infection and monitoring of antibiotic sensitivity pattern is mandatory to reduce MRSA prevalence in hospital and its spread to community as well. Present study conclusively shows that vancomycin remains the first choice of treatment for MRSA infection. To preserve its value, use of vancomycin should be limited to those cases where there are clearly needed. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/joim.v34i1.9117 Journal of Institute of Medicine, April, 2012; 34:1 13-17

Lifestyle risk factors, including tobacco and alcohol use, poor nutrition, and inactivity, comprise the leading actual causes of death and disproportionately affect diverse, lower-income and vulnerable populations. Fundamentally influenced by social determinants of health (including poverty, social linkages, food access, and built environment), these “unhealthy lifestyle” exposures perpetuate and sustain disparities in health outcomes, stealing years of healthy and productive life for minority, vulnerable groups. The authors call for implementation of a health equity framework within lifestyle medicine (LM). Community-engaged lifestyle medicine (CELM) is an evidence-based, participatory framework capable of addressing health disparities through LM, targeting health equity in addition to better health. CELM was developed in 2015 by the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley (UTRGV) Preventive Medicine Residency program to address lifestyle-related health disparities within marginalized border communities. The framework includes the following evidence-based principles: community engagement, cultural competency, and application of multilevel and intersectoral approaches. The rationale for each of these components and the growth of CELM within the American College of Lifestyle Medicine is described. Finally, illustrative examples are provided for how CELM can be instituted at micro and macro levels by LM practitioners.

This article represents a case study of Jesuit activities in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, specifically regarding sustainable practices, through a reflection of the author’s own itinerary. It highlights some of the opportunities that construction and infrastructure development offers for harnessing solar energy and utilizing eco-friendly methods, such as hydraform technology, bio-latrines as a means of methane gas production, solar energy, and especially geothermal energy as an abundant resource in Kenya’s Great Rift Valley. Additionally, the article outlines the crucial role of trees in ecosystems as a constructive means of responding to climate change based on the process of carbon capture, while illustrating tree planting as a service in an educational context. Particular focus is given to the sibling schools of St Peter Claver High School and Ocer Campion Jesuit College in Dodoma, the capital of Tanzania, which constitute a model of sorts exhibiting these best practices for the community.

The purpose of this study is to analyze the influence of the structure of a community space for local youth, called the Zero Gravity Zone, on the social interaction and satisfaction of its users. The factors of social interaction were influenced by the level of relationship, fellowship and participation. The research sites were the Youth Space G-valley (YS_G) and the Youth Space Daebang-dong (YS_D) in Seoul. As its research method, this study utilized partial least squares (PLS) structural equation modeling to analyze the influence structure. Results showed that YS_G, which is mainly used by office workers, has a significant effect on the overall satisfaction and social interaction of its users by providing physical space. On the other hand, YS_D, which is mainly used by college students and job-seekers, has a significant effect on the overall satisfaction and social interaction of its users by providing programs. Based on the above results, rather than standardizing operational spaces, it is necessary to plan and operate spaces such as these around the characteristics of the youth in each region to ensure frequent social interaction, which is the policy goal of the youth community.

International Journal of Contemporary Education (IJCE) would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether IJCE publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 4, Number 1 Aurora Q. Pestano, University of San Jose Recoletos, PhilippinesAziz Moummou, Ministry of Education, MoroccoBlessing Dwumah Manu, Jiangsu University, GhanaBožić-Lenard Dragana, University of Osijek Croatia, CroatiaBruna Gabriela Augusto Marçal Vieira, CEFET-MG, BrazilDina Radeljas, Mohawk Valley Community College, USAEdward Bolden, Case Western Reserve University, USAFederica Cornali, University of Turin, ItalyGiuseppe Maugeri, Ca' Foscari University, ItalyGraziano Serragiotto, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, ItalyInaad M Sayer, University of Human Development, IraqLi Li, Bath Spa University, UKMakrina Nina Zafiri, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GreeceMatthew Schatt, University of Florida, USANilgün Tosun, Trakya University, TurkeyRaymond Aaron Younis, ACU Australia, AustraliaTeresa Pozo-Rico, University of Alicante, SpainVassiliki Pliogou, Metropolitan College of Thessaloniki, GreeceVassilios Papadimitriou, University of Thessaly, Greece William OscarEditorial AssistantInternational Journal of Contemporary Education------------------------------------------------------------Redfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USATel: 1-503-828-0536 ext. 509Fax: 1-503-828-0537E-mail 1: ijce@redfame.comE-mail 2: ijce@redfame.orgURL: http://ijce.redfame.com

Yewchuck and Chatterton (1990) found stereotypical attitudes of others the strongest deterrent to career success for women. Wilgosh (1993) also examined how societal expectations of girls influence their failure to realize their full potential, particularly in mathematics and sciences. This paper focuses on undoing underachievement of women and girls. It is about a unique program that brings together training in high school and college-level mathematics and sciences and better linkages between schools, post-secondary institutions and the business community. The program contributes significantly in the preparation of students for skilled, technological occupations in a knowledge-intensive economy. The Shad Valley Program is a co-educational, residential summer program offered to gifted high school students at eight Canadian universities, dedicated to building bridges between industry and education, especially in the areas of science, technology, and entrepreneurship. A fifteen year retrospective study of its applicants and participants will provide direction for schools and businesses in the identification of key personal and educational experiences that contribute to increased levels of science literacy for both male and female students.

AbstractThe promotion of additive manufacturing (AM) as a set of enabling technologies has been a prominent feature of new policies seeking to revitalize manufacturing in developed economies. Because of its differences from traditional manufacturing technologies, small businesses, in particular, face high costs in adopting AM methods. How can governments assist small firms and their innovation ecosystems to make significant leaps in enabling technologies? This paper conceptualizes the challenges faced by groups of small enterprises adopting new technologies and a decentralized policy effort to systematically increase the use of advanced manufacturing technologies. In Canada, funding used by community colleges to create applied research centers has been intended to establish anchors for local “industrial commons” around advanced manufacturing methods. By providing both information and working capital to private sector partners, these community college programs should ideally mitigate challenges to the adoption of AM technologies—the so-called “valley of death”—in local ecosystems. There are many successful individual cases of partnership (i.e., private goods); however, this bottom-up approach seems to fail both as a means of promoting vibrant industrial commons (i.e., public goods) and as a coherent national strategy. We trace the challenges of this approach to principal-agent problems associated with layering new programs upon existing organizations, the density of program participants, and the presence of appropriate technologies.

International Journal of Contemporary Education (IJCE) would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether IJCE publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 2, Number 1Alexandra Ingram, University of Tennessee, USAAurora Q. Pestano, University of San Jose Recoletos, PhilippinesBruna Gabriela Augusto Marçal Vieira, Universidade Estadual Paulista, BrazilCarme Pinya, University of Balearic Islands, SpainChan Chang Tik, Monash University Malaysia, MalaysiaDina Radeljas, Mohawk Valley Community College, USADorota Celinska, Roosevelt University, USAFederica Cornali, University of Turin, ItalyFroilan Delute Mobo, Philippine Merchant Marine Academy, PhilippinesGiuseppe Maugeri, Ca' Foscari University, ItalyIonel Bondoc, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi, RomaniaIosif Fragkoulis, Hellenic Open University, GreeceJavier Fombona, Univ. Oviedo, SpainMakrina Nina Zafiri, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GreeceMatthew Schatt, University of Florida, USAMurat Tezer, Near East University, CyprusNesrin Ozturk, Ege University, TurkeyNilgün Tosun, Trakya University, TurkeyNoelia Navarro Gómez, Universidad de Almería, SpainRaymond Aaron Younis, ACU Australia, AustraliaRochelle Ge, University of Saint Joseph, MacaoSandro Sehic, Oneida BOCES, USAVassiliki Pliogou, Metropolitan College of Thessaloniki, GreeceXiaojing Sun, Utrecht University, The NetherlandsWilliam OscarEditorial AssistantInternational Journal of Contemporary Education---------------------------------------------------------Redfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USATel: 1-503-828-0536 ext. 509Fax: 1-503-828-0537E-mail: ijce@redfame.comURL: http://ijce.redfame.com

As one of seven projects funded by the Victorian Government Department of Human Services to investigate exemplary practice in adolescent health, a study was undertaken in the Department's office in the Northern Metropolitan Region that examined two existing primary health projects: the Keeping in Touch with Schools (KITS) Project, auspiced by the Eltham Community Health Centre and Diamond Valley Secondary College in the City of Nillumbik, and the Youth Counselling Awareness and Support (YCAS) Project, auspiced by Kildonan Family Services in the City of Whittlesea. Proiect features that were explored included elements and type of service, referral pathways and linkages, consumer satisfaction and other service outcomes, elements critical to success, obstacles, supervision and staff training, standards and guidelines, planning and evaluation, promotion of the service, and organisational structure. The study found that a combination of characteristics contributed to the success of the two projects that were examined. These pertain to skills and expertise of staff, flexibility of the service, cost, the type of service model, co-location with other services, linkages and partnerships, outputs and outcomes, feedback, management structure, standards and guidelines, planning processes, and evaluation.

International Journal of Contemporary Education (IJCE) would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether IJCE publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 3, Number 2 Aurora Q. Pestano, University of San Jose Recoletos, PhilippinesAziz Moummou, Ministry of Education, MoroccoBlessing Dwumah Manu, Jiangsu University, GhanaBožić-Lenard Dragana, University of Osijek Croatia, CroatiaBruna Gabriela Augusto Marçal Vieira, CEFET-MG, BrazilDina Radeljas, Mohawk Valley Community College, USAEdward Bolden, Case Western Reserve University, USAFederica Cornali, University of Turin, ItalyFroilan Delute Mobo, Philippine Merchant Marine Academy, PhilippinesGiuseppe Maugeri, Ca' Foscari University, ItalyGraziano Serragiotto, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, ItalyInaad M Sayer, University of Human Development, IraqIosif Fragkoulis, Hellenic Open University, GreeceJavier Fombona, Univ. Oviedo, SpainLi Li, Bath Spa University, UKMatthew Schatt, University of Florida, USAMurat Tezer, Near East University, CyprusNesrin Ozturk, Ege University, TurkeyRaymond Aaron Younis, ACU Australia, AustraliaSaid K. Juma, State University of Zanzibar, TanzaniaSandro Sehic, Oneida BOCES, USASuriadi Samsuri, Institute of Islamic Religion Sultan Muhammad Syafiuddin Sambas, IndonesiaTeresa Pozo-Rico, University of Alicante, SpainVassiliki Pliogou, Metropolitan College of Thessaloniki, Greece William OscarEditorial AssistantInternational Journal of Contemporary Education------------------------------------------------------------Redfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USATel: 1-503-828-0536 ext. 509Fax: 1-503-828-0537E-mail 1: ijce@redfame.comE-mail 2: ijce@redfame.orgURL: http://ijce.redfame.com

Introduction: Thyroid swellings/goiter are still prevalent in north east part of India. Apart from its sub-Himalayan location the areas along the river Brahmaputra suffer from flooding every year and there is also frequent changing of river course, thought to be another reason for iodine depletion in soil of this region(3). Aim: To determine the incidence of thyroid swellings and distribution among different sections of society and geographical areas, and to evaluate the role of FNAC in the diagnosis and management and find out its accuracy by comparing with histopathology. Materials and methods: In the present study, total 212 patients with thyroid swellings attending department of ENT of a state medical college during the period from January 2013 to December 2015 and undergone FNAC at department of Pathology were taken into consideration. Results: Out of 212 cases major fraction (52.83%) were hailed from areas along the Brahmaputra river followed by patients (33.96%) from tea gardens and adjacent areas. Patients belonging to tribal communities constituted 45.28%, whereas patients from tea workers section of society formed the second majority (34.9%). Female male ratio of cases was 5:1. Majority of patients were from 21-40 years age group with mean age of 37.2 years. Cytology results of 212 cases showed colloid goiter 73.58%, adenomatous goiter 8.49%, thyroiditis 9.9%, hurthle cell neoplasm 1.41%, follicular neoplasm 4.24%, papillary carcinoma 1.41%, papillary carcinoma of follicular variant 0.47% and medullary carcinoma in 0.47% cases. Histopathology was possible in 65 cases and compared with FNAC results with accuracy rate of 89.23%. Conclusion: Frequent flooding and changes of river course may be one of the reasons for high prevalence of thyroid swellings and goiter along the Brahmaputra valley apart from its sub-Himalayan location. Consumption polluted drinking water and goitergenous food stuffs may be another reason of high incidence. FNAC is an easy, rapid, reliable, less invasive, low cost technique for diagnosis of thyroid swellings.

International Journal of Contemporary Education (IJCE) would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether IJCE publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 2, Number 2Alexandra Ingram, University of Tennessee, USAÁlvaro Manzano Redondo, UCJC University, SpainAurora Q. Pestano, University of San Jose Recoletos, PhilippinesBlessing Dwumah Manu, Jiangsu University, GhanaDina Radeljas, Mohawk Valley Community College, USAFederica Cornali, University of Turin, ItalyFroilan Delute Mobo, Philippine Merchant Marine Academy, PhilippinesGiuseppe Maugeri, Ca' Foscari University, ItalyInaad M Sayer, University of Human Development, IraqIonel Bondoc, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi, RomaniaIosif Fragkoulis, Hellenic Open University, GreeceJavier Fombona, Univ. Oviedo, SpainLi Li, Bath Spa University, UKMakrina Nina Zafiri, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GreeceMatthew Schatt, University of Florida, USAMs. Bruna Gabriela Augusto Marçal Vieira, Universidade Estadual Paulista, BrazilMurat Tezer, Near East University, CyprusNesrin Ozturk, Ege University, TurkeyNoelia Navarro Gómez, Universidad de Almería, SpainRaymond Aaron Younis, ACU Australia, AustraliaSaid K. Juma, State University of Zanzibar, TanzaniaSandro Sehic, Oneida BOCES, USASuriadi Samsuri, Institute of Islamic Religion Sultan Muhammad Syafiuddin Sambas, IndonesiaTeresa Pozo-Rico, University of Alicante, SpainVassiliki Pliogou, Metropolitan College of Thessaloniki, GreeceVassilios Papadimitriou, University of Thessaly, GreeceXiaojing Sun, Utrecht University, The Netherlands William OscarEditorial AssistantInternational Journal of Contemporary Education---------------------------------------------------------Redfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USATel: 1-503-828-0536 ext. 509Fax: 1-503-828-0537E-mail: ijce@redfame.comURL: http://ijce.redfame.com

Discrimination in delivery of care to patients with inflammatory bowel disease has been reported in the UK with regards to the South Asian population. This paper explores whether it is also true for Afro-Caribbean and Eastern European migrant workers. Treatment was investigated in NHS trusts, which served substantial migrant and minority communities, through Freedom of Information requests for data on use of biologics or hospital admissions over a five year period. In Bristol, Nottingham, Derby and Burton, Princess Alexandra Hospital Trust in Harlow, Essex and Kings College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust in South London Afro-Caribbean patients were treated significantly less often than White British patients. Eastern European migrant workers, were admitted significantly less often in Croydon, and the Princess Alexandra Hospital NHS Trust in Essex. However, there was no evidence of barriers to access for these communities in Wye Valley Trust, University Hospitals of Bristol NHS Foundation Trust or Queen Elizabeth Hospital Kings Lynn. In North West Anglia both South Asian and Eastern European patients were significantly less likely to be admitted to hospital than members of the White British community. It is incumbent on all gastroenterologists to consider their own clinical practice and encourage their hospital units to adopt effective policies which remove discriminatory barriers to good quality care.

International Journal of Contemporary Education (IJCE) would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether IJCE publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 3, Number 1Alexandra Ingram, University of Tennessee, USAÁlvaro Manzano Redondo, UCJC University, SpainAurora Q. Pestano, University of San Jose Recoletos, PhilippinesBlessing Dwumah Manu, Jiangsu University, GhanaBožić-Lenard Dragana, University of Osijek Croatia, CroatiaBruna Gabriela Augusto Marçal Vieira, CEFET-MG, BrazilDina Radeljas, Mohawk Valley Community College, USAEdward Bolden, Case Western Reserve University, USAFroilan Delute Mobo, Philippine Merchant Marine Academy, PhilippinesGraziano Serragiotto, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, ItalyIosif Fragkoulis, Hellenic Open University, GreeceLi Li, Bath Spa University, UKMatthew Schatt, University of Florida, USAMurat Tezer, Near East University, CyprusNesrin Ozturk, Ege University, TurkeyRaymond Aaron Younis, ACU Australia, AustraliaSuriadi Samsuri, Institute of Islamic Religion Sultan Muhammad Syafiuddin Sambas, IndonesiaTeresa Pozo-Rico, University of Alicante, SpainVassilios Papadimitriou, University of Thessaly, Greece William OscarEditorial AssistantInternational Journal of Contemporary Education---------------------------------------------------------Redfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USATel: 1-503-828-0536 ext. 509Fax: 1-503-828-0537E-mail 1: ijce@redfame.comE-mail 2: ijce@redfame.orgURL: http://ijce.redfame.com

Applied Finance and Accounting [AFA] would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether AFA publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 5, Number 2Adina Criste, “Victor Slavescu” Centre for Financial and Monetary Research, Romanian Academy, RomaniaAndrey Kudryavtsev, The Max Stern Yezreel Valley Academic College, IsraelAnna Viktorovna Kravchuk, Academy of the State Penitentiary Service, UkraineFabio Rizzato, University of Turin, ItalyFeng Jui Hsu, National Taichung University of Science and Technology, TaiwanFlorin Peci, University of Peja, KosovoGheorghe Morosan, Stefan Cel Mare University Suceava Romania, RomaniaHajar Jahangard, Central Bank of Iran (CBI), IranIoan Bogdan Robu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, RomaniaJayendra S. Gokhale, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, USALingesiya Kengatharan, University of Jaffna, Sri LankaLuca Sensini, University of Salerno, ItalyLuo Yongli, Houston Baptist University, United StatesMarco Muscettola, Independent researcher, ItalyMawih Kareem Alani, Dhofar University, OmanMohamed Jalloh, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), NigeriaNicoleta Radneantu, Romanian – American University, RomanianNikolay Patonov, European Polytechnical University, BulgariaNoriaki Okamoto, Rikkyo University, JapanPeibiao Zhao, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, ChinaShahram Fattahi, Razi University,, IranVineet Chouhan, Sir Padampat Singhania University, IndiaVolodymyr Vysochansky, Uzhhorod National University, UkraineYu Peng Lin, University of Detroit Mercy, USAZi-Yi Guo, Wells Fargo Bank, N.A., USA

Robert William Fogel and G. R. Elton. Which Road to the Past? Two Views of History. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1983. Pp. vii, 136. Cloth, $14.95. Review by Stephen Kneeshaw of The School of the Ozarks. Emmanuel LeRoy Ladurie. The Mind and Method of the Historian. Translated by Sian Reynolds and Ben Reynolds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Pp. v, 310. Paper, $9.95. Review by Richard Harvey of Ohio University. John E. O'Connor, ed. American History/ American Television: Interpreting the Video Past. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Company, 1983. Pp. 463. Cloth, $17.50; Paper, $8.95. Review by D' Ann Campbell of Indiana University. Foster Rhea Dulles & Melvyn Dubofsky. Labor in America: A History. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 1984. 4th edition. Pp. ix, 425. Cloth, $25.95. Paper, $15.95. Review by Robert W. Dubay of Bainbridge Junior College. Karen Ordahl Kupperman. Roanoke: The Abandoned Colony. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Allanheld, 1984. Pp. viii, 182. Cloth, $24.95; Paper, $12.50. Review by John T. Reilly of Mount Saint Mary College. Kevin O'Reilly. Critical Thinking in American History: Exploration to Constitution. South Hamilton, Massachusetts: Hamilton-Wenham Regional High School, 1983. Pp. 86. Paper, $2.95. Teacher's Guides: Pp. 180. Paper, $12.95; Kevin O'Reilly. Critical Thinking in American History: New Republic to Civil War. South Hamilton, Massachusetts: Hamilton-Wenham Regional High School, 1984. Pp. 106. Paper, $2.95. Teacher's Guide: Pp. 190. Paper, $12.95. Review by James F. Marran of New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Illinois. Michael J. Cassity, ed. Chains of Fear: American Race Relations Since Reconstruction. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1984. Pp. xxxv, 253. Cloth, $35.00. Review by Ann W. Ellis of Kennesaw College. L. P. Morris. Eastern Europe Since 1945. London and Exeter, New Hampshire: Heinemann Educational Books, 1984. Pp. 211. Paper, $10.00. Review by Thomas T. Lewis, Mount Senario College. John Marks. Science and the Making of the Modern World. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann Educational Books, Inc., 1983. Pp. xii, 507. Paper, $25.00. Review by Howard A. Barnes of Winston-Salem State University. Kenneth G. Alfers, Cecil Larry Pool, William F. Mugleston, eds. American's Second Century: Topical Readings, 1865-Present. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/ Hunt Publishing Co., 1984. Pp. viii, 381. Paper, $8.95. Review by Richard D. Schubart of Phillips Exeter Academy. Sam C. Sarkesian. America's Forgotten Wars: The Counterrevoltuionary Past and Lessons for the Future. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1984. Pp. xiv, 265. Cloth, $29.95. Review by Richard Selcer of Mountain View College. Edward Wagenknecht. Daughters of the Covenant: Portraits of Six Jewish Women. Amherst: University of Massachusetts, 1983. Pp. viii, 192. Cloth, $17.50. Review by Abraham D. Kriegel of Memphis State University. Morton Borden. Jews, Turks, and Infidels. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1984. Pp. x, 163. Cloth, $17.95. Review by Raymond J. Jirran of Thomas Nelson Community College. Richard Schlatter, ed. Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing Since 1966. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1984. Pp. xiii, 524. Cloth, $50.00. Review by Fred R. van Hartesveldt of Fort Valley State College. Simon Hornblower. The Greek World, 479-323 B.C. London and New York: Methuen, 1983. Pp. xi, 354. Cloth, $24.00; Paper, $11.95. Review by Dan Levinson of Thayer Academy, Braintree, Massachusetts. H. R. Kedward. Resistance in Vichy France. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. Paper edition 1983. Pp. ix, 311. Paper, $13.95. Review by Sanford J. Gutman of the State University of New York at Cortland.

Reviewer AcknowledgementsApplied Finance and Accounting [AFA] would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether AFA publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 5, Number 1 Anastasia Kopaneli, University of Patras, GreeceNoriaki Okamoto, Rikkyo University, JapanVineet Chouhan, Sir Padampat Singhania University, IndiaYu Peng Lin, University of Detroit Mercy, USAMarco Muscettola, Independent researcher, ItalyZi-Yi Guo, Wells Fargo Bank, N.A., USALektore Oltiana Muharremi, University of Vlora, AlbaniaJayendra S. Gokhale, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, USAMohamed Jalloh, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), NigeriaRui Fernandes, Porto Accounting and Business School, PortugalNikolay Patonov, European Polytechnical University, BulgariaMojeed Idowu John Odumeso-Jimoh, Noble Integrated Resources & Management, NigeriaFlorin Peci, University of Peja, KosovoGheorghe Morosan, Stefan Cel Mare University Suceava Romania, RomaniaNicoleta Radneantu, Romanian – American University, RomanianAugustine Akhidime, Benson Idahosa University, NigeriaHajar Jahangard , Central Bank of Iran(CBI), IranHassan Rkein , Al Maaref University , LebanonAndrey Kudryavtsev, The Max Stern Yezreel Valley Academic College, IsraelIoan Bogdan Robu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, RomaniaLingesiya Kengatharan, University of Jaffna, Sri LankaMohammad Sami Ali Al-Dahrawi, Zarqa University, Jordan Angelia EvelynEditorial AssistantOn behalf of,The Editorial Board of Applied Finance and AccountingRedfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USAE-mail: afa@redfame.comURL: http://afa.redfame.com

Applied Finance and Accounting [AFA] would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether AFA publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 3, Number 1 Abdelaziz Hakimi, University of Jendouba, TunisiaAdam Zaremba, Poznań University of Economics, PolandAnastasia Kopaneli, University of Patras, GreeceAndrey Kudryavtsev, The Max Stern Yezreel Valley Academic College, IsraelArash Riasi, University of Delaware, USAAugustine Akhidime, Benson Idahosa University, NigeriaDesti Kannaiah, James Cook University, SingaporeFeng Jui Hsu, National Taichung Univ. of Sci. & Tech., TaiwanGheorghe Morosan, Stefan Cel Mare Univ. Suceava Romania, RomaniaIoan Bogdan Robu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, RomaniaJames Estes, California State University San Bernardino, USAKesseven Padachi, University of Technology, MauritiusLasse Oulasvirta, University of Tampere, FinlandLuca Sensini, University of Salerno, ItalyMarco Muscettola, Independent researcher, ItalyMazurina Mohd Ali, Universiti Teknologi Mara, MalaysiaMohamed Jalloh, Eco. Community of West African States, NigeriaMojeed Idowu John Odumeso-Jimoh, Noble Integrated Resources & Management, NigeriaNicoleta Radneantu, Romanian – American University, RomanianNikolay Patonov, European Polytechnical University, BulgariaNoriaki Okamoto, Rikkyo University, JapanPeibiao Zhao, Nanjing University of Science & Technology, ChinaSawsan Saadi Halbouni, Canadian University Dubai, UAEVineet Chouhan, Sir Padampat Singhania University, IndiaWilson E. Herbert, Bingham University, NigeriaYu Peng Lin, University of Detroit Mercy, USA Angelia EvelynEditorial AssistantOn behalf of,The Editorial Board of Applied Finance and AccountingRedfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USAE-mail: afa@redfame.comURL: http://afa.redfame.com

Applied Finance and Accounting [AFA] would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether AFA publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 3, Number 2 Adina Criste, “Victor Slavescu” Centre for Financial and Monetary Research, Romanian Academy, RomaniaAmira Houaneb, University Ibn Khaldoun, TunisiaAnastasia Kopaneli, University of Patras, GreeceAndrey Kudryavtsev, The Max Stern Yezreel Valley Academic College, IsraelDesti Kannaiah, James Cook University, SingaporeFabio Rizzato, University of Turin, ItalyFeng Jui Hsu, National Taichung University of Science and Technology, TaiwanFlorin Peci, University of Peja, KosovoGheorghe Morosan, Stefan Cel Mare University Suceava Romania, RomaniaIoan Bogdan ROBU, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, RomaniaIulia Lupu, “Victor Slavescu” Centre for Financial and Monetary Research, Romanian Academy, RomaniaIzidin El Kalak, Kent University, UKJózsef Móczár, Corvinus University of Budapest, HungaryLuca Sensini, University of Salerno, ItalyLuo Yongli, United StatesMarco Muscettola, Independent researcher, ItalyMawih Kareem AL ANI, Dhofar University, OmanMazurina Mohd Ali, Universiti Teknologi Mara, MalaysiaMohamed Jalloh, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), NigeriaMojeed Idowu John Odumeso-Jimoh, Noble Integrated Resources & Management, NigeriaNicoleta Radneantu, Romanian – American University, RomanianVineet Chouhan, Sir Padampat Singhania University, IndiaVolodymyr Vysochansky, Uzhhorod National University, UkraineWei-Bin Zhang, Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, JapanWilson E. Herbert, Bingham University, NigeriaYu Peng Lin, University of Detroit Mercy, USA Angelia EvelynEditorial AssistantOn behalf of,The Editorial Board of Applied Finance and AccountingRedfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USAE-mail: afa@redfame.comURL: http://afa.redfame.com

Applied Finance and Accounting [AFA] would like to acknowledge the following reviewers for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Many authors, regardless of whether AFA publishes their work, appreciate the helpful feedback provided by the reviewers. Their comments and suggestions were of great help to the authors in improving the quality of their papers. Each of the reviewers listed below returned at least one review for this issue.Reviewers for Volume 4, Number 1 Anastasia Kopaneli, University of Patras, GreeceVineet Chouhan, Sir Padampat Singhania University, IndiaYu Peng Lin, University of Detroit Mercy, USAMarco Muscettola, Independent researcher, ItalyWilson E. Herbert, Federal University, Otuoke, Bayelsa State, NigeriaMohamed Jalloh, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), NigeriaHaitham Nobanee, , UAENikolay Patonov, European Polytechnical University, BulgariaPeibiao Zhao, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, ChinaMojeed Idowu John Odumeso-Jimoh, Noble Integrated Resources & Management, NigeriaFeng Jui Hsu, National Taichung University of Science and Technology, TaiwanFlorin Peci, University of Peja, KosovoGheorghe Morosan, Stefan Cel Mare University Suceava Romania, RomaniaLuca Sensini, University of Salerno, ItalyMeri Boshkoska, Faculty of Economics - Prilep, Republic of MacedoniaNicoleta Radneantu, Romanian – American University, RomanianMazurina Mohd Ali, Universiti Teknologi Mara, MalaysiaAndrey Kudryavtsev, The Max Stern Yezreel Valley Academic College, IsraelIoan Bogdan Robu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, RomaniaSawsan Saadi Halbouni, Canadian University Dubai, UAEIzidin El Kalak, Kent University, UKFabio Rizzato, University of Turin, ItalyAmira Houaneb, University Ibn Khaldoun, TunisiaLingesiya Kengatharan, University of Jaffna, Sri LankaMohammad Sami Ali Al-Dahrawi, Zarqa University, Jordan Angelia EvelynEditorial AssistantOn behalf of,The Editorial Board of Applied Finance and AccountingRedfame Publishing9450 SW Gemini Dr. #99416Beaverton, OR 97008, USAE-mail: afa@redfame.comURL: http://afa.redfame.com

Michael B. Katz. Reconstructing American Education. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1987. Pp. viii, 212. Cloth, $22.50; E. D. Hirsch, Jr. Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1987. Pp. xvii, 251. Cloth, $16.45; Diana Ravitch and Chester E. Finn, Jr. What Do Our 17-Year-Olds Know? A Report on the First National Assessment of History and Literature. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. Pp. ix, 293. Cloth, $15.95. Review by Richard A. Diem of The University of Texas at San Antonio. Henry J. Steffens and Mary Jane Dickerson. Writer's Guide: History. Lexington, Massachusetts, and Toronto: D. C. Heath and Company, 1987. Pp. x, 211. Paper, $6.95. Review by William G. Wraga of Bernards Township Public Schools, Basking Ridge, New Jersey. J. Kelley Sowards, ed. Makers of the Western Tradition: Portraits from History. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987. Fourth edition. Vol: 1: Pp. ix, 306. Paper, $12.70. Vol. 2: Pp. ix, 325. Paper, $12.70. Review by Robert B. Luehrs of Fort Hays State University. John L. Beatty and Oliver A. Johnson, eds. Heritage of Western Civilization. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1987. Sixth Edition. Volume I: Pp. xi, 465. Paper, $16.00; Volume II: pp. xi, 404. Paper, $16.00. Review by Dav Levinson of Thayer Academy, Braintree, Massachusetts. Lynn H. Nelson, ed. The Human Perspective: Readings in World Civilization. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987. Vol. I: The Ancient World to the Early Modern Era. Pp. viii, 328. Paper, $10.50. Vol. II: The Modern World Through the Twentieth Century. Pp, x, 386. Paper, 10.50. Review by Gerald H. Davis of Georgia State University. Gerald N. Grob and George Attan Billias, eds. Interpretations of American History: Patterns and Perspectives. New York: The Free Press, 1987. Fifth Edition. Volume I: Pp. xi, 499. Paper, $20.00: Volume II: Pp. ix, 502. Paper, $20.00. Review by Larry Madaras of Howard Community College. Eugene Kuzirian and Larry Madaras, eds. Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in American History. -- Volume II: Reconstruction to the Present. Guilford, Connecticut: The Dushkin Publishing Groups, Inc., 1987. Pp. xii, 384. Paper, $9.50. Review by James F. Adomanis of Anne Arundel County Public Schools, Annapolis, Maryland. Joann P. Krieg, ed. To Know the Place: Teaching Local History. Hempstead, New York: Hofstra University Long Island Studies Institute, 1986. Pp. 30. Paper, $4.95. Review by Marilyn E. Weigold of Pace University. Roger Lane. Roots of Violence in Black Philadelphia, 1860-1900. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press, 1986. Pp. 213. Cloth, $25.00. Review by Ronald E. Butchart of SUNY College at Cortland. Pete Daniel. Breaking the Land: The Transformation of Cotton, Tobacco, and Rice Cultures since 1880. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1985. Pp. xvi, 352. Paper, $22.50. Review by Thomas S. Isern of Emporia State University. Norman L. Rosenberg and Emily S. Rosenberg. In Our Times: America Since World War II. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1987. Third edition. Pp. xi, 316. Paper, $20.00; William H. Chafe and Harvard Sitkoff, eds. A History of Our Time: Readings on Postwar America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. Second edition. Pp. xiii, 453. Paper, $12.95. Review by Monroe Billington of New Mexico State University. Frank W. Porter III, ed. Strategies for Survival: American Indians in the Eastern United States. New York, Westport, Connecticut, and London: Greenwood Press, 1986. Pp. xvi, 232. Cloth, $35.00. Review by Richard Robertson of St. Charles County Community College. Kevin Sharpe, ed. Faction & Parliament: Essays on Early Stuart History. London and New York: Methuen, 1985. Pp. xvii, 292. Paper, $13.95; Derek Hirst. Authority and Conflict: England, 1603-1658. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986. Pp. viii, 390. Cloth, $35.00. Review by K. Gird Romer of Kennesaw College. N. F. R. Crafts. British Economic Growth During the Industrial Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Pp. 193. Paper, $11.95; Maxine Berg. The Age of Manufactures, 1700-1820. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Pp. 378. Paper, $10.95. Review by C. Ashley Ellefson of SUNY College at Cortland. J. M. Thompson. The French Revolution. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985 reissue. Pp. xvi, 544. Cloth, $45.00; Paper, $12.95. Review by W. Benjamin Kennedy of West Georgia College. J. P. T. Bury. France, 1814-1940. London and New York: Methuen, 1985. Fifth edition. Pp. viii, 288. Paper, $13.95; Roger Magraw. France, 1815-1914: The Bourgeois Century. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. Pp. 375. Cloth, $24.95; Paper, $9.95; D. M.G. Sutherland. France, 1789-1815: Revolution and Counterrevolution. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986. Pp. 242. Cloth, $32.50; Paper, $12.95. Review by Fred R. van Hartesveldt of Fort Valley State College. Woodford McClellan. Russia: A History of the Soviet Period. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1986. Pp. xi, 387. Paper, $23.95. Review by Pasquale E. Micciche of Fitchburg State College. Ranbir Vohra. China's Path to Modernization: A Historical Review from 1800 to the Present. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1987. Pp. xiii, 302. Paper, $22.95. Reivew by Steven A. Leibo of Russell Sage College. John King Fairbank. China Watch. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1987. Pp. viii, Cloth, $20.00. Review by Darlene E. Fisher of New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Illinois. Ronald Takaki, ed. From Different Shores: Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity in America. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987. Pp. 253. Paper, $13.95. Review by Robert C. Sims of Boise State University.

Throughout my 25 years in higher education leadership, overseeing two campuses and two university systems, I have maintained a strong connection to the Coalition of Urban and Metropolitan Universities (CUMU), both philosophically and in practical terms. Early on in my tenure as president of San Jose State University, I established the overarching goal of making San Jose State the Metropolitan University of Silicon Valley. Complementing the institution’s geographic location, size, and mission, all of which positioned it ideally for this role, I also saw a student population, a community role, and an ethos of service that spoke to the institution’s responsibility as an urban citizen. This same perspective was part and parcel of my approach at Towson University (TU). As president, I actively created a vision and an identity for the institution, focusing on its role as the Metropolitan University of Maryland. I established external partnerships with focuses on education, economic and workforce development, arts and culture, and social change. As president of the 5-campus University of Massachusetts System (UMass) I oversaw two CUMU member institutions, UMass Lowell and UMass Boston. The University System of Maryland (USM), where I currently serve as chancellor, is itself a CUMU member, as are several of its component institutions, with Towson and the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC) “founding members” of CUMU as a formal organization. Throughout these years, I also had a very direct connection to CUMU, serving on several committees, on the Board of Directors, as a vice president, and, from 2006-2011, as CUMU president. With this background, I know first-hand the distinctive perspective and unique tools that our comprehensive institutions can use to address social challenges and bring about meaningful change. In addition, I also recognize the special obligation our comprehensive metropolitan and urban universities have to be active and engaged in the communities they serve. These are the primary, 4-year, “access” institutions, not just in terms of the sheer numbers of students they educate, but also in terms of the composition of those students, serving as a vital higher education pathway for women, underrepresented minorities, and first-generation college students. Beyond that, our comprehensive universities stand as bridges, with numerous graduates going on to advanced degree programs at research universities.

IntroductionThe poisoning among children had been a major cause of hospital admission and also a significant global health problem throughout the world including Nepal. There are various studies suggestive of incidence rate of poisoning in children ranging from 0.74% to 3%. In older children, poisoning is usually intentional where as in infants and younger children it is accidental in nature There are few studies done in Nepal and they are mainly from Kathmandu valley, this study will add more information from eastern region of Nepal.ObjectiveThis study aimed to find out the type of poisoning among children and adolescents, manner of poisoning and its outcomes.MethodologyThis was a retrospective study carried out at Nobel Medical College Teaching Hospital over a period of one year starting from 1st August 2014 to 31 July 2015. This study included all the children and adolescents of 1 to 18 years of age admitted to pediatric ward and ICU for the management of poisoning. The information including name of poisons, manner of poisoning, socio-economic and demographic factors related to poisoning, geographical distribution of sample population, durations of hospital stay and outcome of treatment were retrieved from the records. The data was analyzed using SPSS. Susceptibility, urinary tract infection, uropathogens.ResultsA total of 64 cases were studied. It included almost the same number of males (n=31) and females (n=33). The age group of 13-18 years had the largest prevalence of poisoning (n=22). Organo-phosphorus (n=25) was the commonest poison. As the study was conducted in a tertiary care center of eastern Nepal located at Biratnagar, Morang district, a majority of the cases (39) were from Morang. A total of 41% children required hospital stay for more than 7 days where as 37% of them required 5-7 days of hospital stay and only 22% children stayed for 1-4 days in the hospital. No mortality was noted.ConclusionThe pediatric poisoning in eastern Nepal is a significant public health issue and nature of poisoning was accidental followed by suicidal. The commonest age group involved is adolescence, which highlights the need for education and implementation of suicidal prevention programming this region. The higher prevalence of accidental poisoning in first two year of life necessitates the need of child safety and injury prevention program in the community. Birat Journal of Health Sciences Vol.2/No.1/Issue 2/ Jan - April 2017, Page: 138-141

Background: Cervical cancer is one of the most prevalent cancers in Honduran women. Lacking national or population-based registries, we rely on hospital registries to establish incidence: San Felipe General Hospital in 2012 diagnosed 38% of 998 women and The League against Cancer Hospital (LCC) in 2016 diagnosed 54.4% of 695 women with cervical cancer CC. According to PAHO's Honduras Profile 2013, screening coverage with Pap was 48.1%. Bruni in 2010 reported a prevalence of high risk HPV (hrHPV) infection for Central America of 13%, identifying genotypes 16, 18, 52, 31 and 58 as most frequent. Information about pathogenesis of hrHPV to induce cervical lesions is based on models of genotypes 16 and 18 only. Aim: Inform evidence of hrHPV genotypes collected in Honduras from an urban and a rural population, generate discussion and subsequent improvement of cervical cancer control strategies in our country. Methods: In 2016, 2 clinical studies funded by Norris Cotton Cancer Center at Dartmouth College and the LCC accrued 913 women: 401 in Locomapa Valley (rural), 111 in La Mosquitia (remote rural), and 401 in a textile factory in San Pedro Sula (urban). Women were consented, to obtain 3 cervical samples, during a cervical cancer screening brigade. One sample for conventional cytology, and 2 for hrHPV by PCR genotyping. One local with our customized PCR device and the second at Dartmouth. An educational component and survey were included. Positive patients identified with hrHPV, pre or invasive cancer were referred to LCC for treatment and follow-up. Results: In Locomapa and the factory (rural and urban sites) 13% of participants were positive for hrHPV. Only 15% had HPV 16. The following common genotypes varied by location: urban factory HPV 59, 12% in rural location HPV 58, 10%; HPV 31, 9%; HPV 39 8%; HPV 35 and 66, 7%; HPV 45 and 51, 6%; HPV 18 and 56, 3%; HPV 33 and 52, 1%. 17% of women had multiple hrHPV coinfection. 7.7% had abnormal Pap tests. In La Mosquitia (remote rural), 24% of women were positive for hrHPV: HPV 52, 29%; HPV 16, 23%; HPV 39, 10%; HPV 68, 6%; HPV 58, 6%; HPV 45, 6%; HPV 51 and HPV 31, 18, 66, 59 and 35, 3% each. 1.8% had abnormal Pap tests; all participants identified with hrHPV were referred for follow-up. The average age was 40.3 years, parity, 3 children, education 6.0 years; and 15% were first-time users of a cervical screening program. Conclusion: Associate the burden of disease, with risk factors, will help us to generate models of prevention and care that are reproducible and effective to reduce morbi-mortality. Brigade-type screening models, with trained providers working at a community location over a single day, can offer improved access for women at risk and facilitate educational activities for health promotion. Introducing tests as hrHPV DNA detection, effectively reduces the volume of women to follow. Strengthening the capacity of primary care with novel screening techniques and ensure diligent follow-up is essential.

I welcome you with most significant pleasure and honour to the Volume 1 Issue 4 of Indian-Pacific Journal of Accounting and Finance. In this Issue 4, the emphasis is placed on accounting, taxation, business administration, corporate governance and risk management, accounting regulation and financial reporting, and accounting. In the first paper entitled “Board Characteristics, Corporate Performance and CEO Turnover Decisions: An empirical study of listed Non-financial Companies”, Mr Yahya Uthman Abdullahi (Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz School of Accountancy, Universiti Utara Malaysia), Dr. Rokiah Ishak (Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz School of Accountancy, Universiti Utara Malaysia) and Dr. Norfaiezah Sawandi (Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz School of Accountancy, Universiti Utara Malaysia) examine the influence of board characteristics and corporate performance on CEO turnover decisions using a sample of 144 firms from non-financial companies listed on the Nigerian Stock exchange between the periods of 2011 to 2015. The study adopts agency and resource dependency theories to support its objectives and applies a logistic regression statistical technique to analyse the results. The results show that board nominating committee has a significant positive relationship with CEO turnover and board gender diversity has a negative influence on CEO turnover. Also, the study also finds that poor corporate performance leads to CEO turnover. In concurring with the findings, the study suggests to the government to enact legislation on gender quota for more women appointment on the board of the corporation to better the performance of the firm, and as well to enhance the monitoring role of the board. In the second paper with the caption “Factors affecting the productivity of IRBM Field Tax Auditor: A Case Study in Malaysia”, Mr Sabin Samitah (Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz School of Accountancy, Universiti Utara Malaysia), Prof Dr Kamil Md Idris (Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz School of Accountancy, Universiti Utara Malaysia) and Dr Saliza Abdul Aziz (Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz School of Accountancy, Universiti Utara Malaysia) explore the idea of factors affecting the productivity of field tax auditors in the Inland Revenue Board of Malaysia (IRBM). This study is significant because IRBM has not yet implemented a systematic method of deploying officers to the field tax audit unit throughout Malaysia. The factors identified could be used as a reference in designing future human development programme in IRBM with particular emphasis on field tax auditors. Several variables have been defined, which broadly classified into individual characteristics and external factors. Data for the analysis are sourced from IRBM’s internal database, unpublished records and direct questionnaire of all respondents engaged in the field audit in Klang Valley. The proposed idea would analyse the relationship between auditors’ productivity and various variables based on the initial assumption that all variables are influencing the productivity through direct impact. This is, however, merely an initial expectation and subject to further data analysis once the data collection is implemented and completed. In the third paper with the title “Knowledge sharing and barriers in Organisations: A conceptual paper on Knowledge-Management Strategy”, Mr Saravanan Nadason (School of Business Management, Universiti Utara Malaysia), Associate Prof Dr Ram Al-Jaffri Saad (Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz School of Accountancy, Universiti Utara Malaysia) and Dr Aidi Ahmi (Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz School of Accountancy, Universiti Utara Malaysia) investigates the barriers that give impact towards the knowledge sharing among individuals in organisations. Knowledge sharing becomes the significant part of many organisations’ knowledge-management strategy. Even though the knowledge sharing is signifying practice for organisations’ competitiveness directly and market performance indirectly, several barriers make it difficult for knowledge management to achieve the goals and deliver a positive return on investment (ROI). The barriers were identified through literature reviews. The findings of previous studies revealed that several factors affect the knowledge sharing in organisations. This paper provides the analysis of significant factors that influence knowledge sharing in organisations, which comprise the individuals, culture, technology and organisation. In the fourth paper entitled “Ownership Structure and Earnings Management of listed Conglomerates in Nigeria”, Dr Musa Adeiza Farouk (Department of Accounting, Ahmadu Bello University) and Dr Nafiu Muhammad Bashir (Department of Business Administration, Ahmadu Bello University) examine the effect of ownership structure on earnings management of listed conglomerates in Nigeria. Ownership structure is represented with managerial ownership, institutional ownership, block ownership and foreign ownership, while earnings management is measured using modified Jones model by Dechow, Sloan and Sweeney (1995). Data were obtained from the six listed conglomerates on the Nigerian Stock Exchange covering the period 2008-2014 through their annual reports and accounts. The findings show that managerial ownership and ownership concentration have a significant and adverse effect on earnings management of listed conglomerates in Nigeria, while foreign ownership recorded positive and significant impact on earnings management of firms, institutional ownership was however reported to have an insignificant but negative influence on earnings management. The study, therefore, recommends that management should be encouraged to have more interest through shares in the organisation as it enables them to have more sense of belonging, which in turn will help mitigate their opportunistic tendencies. Also, the institutional ownership should be improved upon through allotment of more shares as these categories of investors are well informed and could be more vigilant over their stake in the organisation thereby performing monitoring role to mitigate earnings management. In the fifth paper with the title “Corporate Governance Structure and Firm Performance: A Case Study of Malaysian University Holdings Companies”, Prof Dr Wan Nordin Wan Hussina (Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate, College of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia), Dr. Norfaiezah Sawandi (Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz School of Accountancy, College of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia), and Dr Hasnah Shaari (Tunku Puteri Intan Safinaz School of Accountancy, College of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia) analyse the corporate governance structure and performance of Malaysian public university holding companies from 2010 to 2014. The sample comprises eight public university holding companies. Data were obtained by using three methods, namely: survey, semi-structured interview, and documentation review. The board structure and board sub-committees practices of these case organisations were evaluated against the best practice recommendation of (i) the Malaysian Code on Corporate Governance (MCCG) 2012, (ii) the Green Book 2006, and (iii) other relevant acts. The firm performance is measured using four indicators which are sales, profit before tax, net profit margin and return on equity. Overall, their study finds that the practice and structure of corporate governance of the holding companies are excellent. However, their study reveals non-compliance by companies about certain aspects of the recommendations of Malaysian Code on Corporate Governance 2012 (MCCG) and the Green Book. The study also observed that the practice of governance between the university companies is not uniform. The findings provide an insight into the competence of the ministry of higher education as the shareholder to improve the monitoring of the public university holding companies. As you read through this Vol. 1 Issue 4 of IPJAF, I would like to reiterate that the success of the journal depends on your active participation and those of your colleagues and friends through submission of high-quality articles within the journal scope for review and publication. I acknowledge your support as we endeavour to make IPJAF the most authoritative journal on accounting and finance for the community of academic, professional, industry, society and government.

This study aimed to explore the perceived barriers to physical activity among college students Study Design: Qualitative research design Eight focus group discussions on 67 college students aged 18-24 years (48 females, 19 males) was conducted on College premises. Data were analysed using inductive approach. Participants identified a number of obstacles to physical activity. Perceived barriers emerged from the analysis of the data addressed the different dimensions of the socio-ecological framework. The result indicated that the young adults perceived substantial amount of personal, social and environmental factors as barriers such as time constraint, tiredness, stress, family control, safety issues and much more. Understanding the barriers and overcoming the barriers at this stage will be valuable. Health professionals and researchers can use this information to design and implement interventions, strategies and policies to promote the participation in physical activity. This further can help the students to deal with those barriers and can help to instil the habit of regular physical activity in the later adult years.

In academia, faculty have the challenge of developing programs that will instill in the students the core competencies and skills defined by the accounting profession as the benchmark for successful entry into the accounting profession by college graduates. By integrating participation in the Volunteer Income Tax Assistance program with the teaching of concepts in the classroom at Utah Valley State College, faculty have been able to increase the retention of knowledge and the development of practical skills that benefit students, potential employers, and the community.

Introduction: San Joaquin Valley (SJV) is the most underserved valley for health care with the lowest ratios of physicians for any region in California. For the last 40 years, SJV continues to face health inequity and disparities with not enough physicians to tend to the community. With a diverse community of low income and minority groups, the lack of physicians do not represent the workforce of SJV. Many of the talented youth who aspire to be physicians from SJV leave to bigger cities rather than coming back to enrich their vulnerable communities. Objectives: I created no cost pipeline medical programs (summer program, year long internships and online class) for SJV high school students to increase diversity in the medical profession, encourage underrepresented in medicine (URM) students to pursue medicine and come back to SJV to practice medicine in an effort to lower the patient provider gap. Methods: I trained and provided mentorship to medically ambitious low-income high school students in the programs to better understand SJV health inequity to instill a passion in them to come back after their medical education to practice medicine in SJV. Through the program, students learned about SJV health disparities and applied precision medicine to their own health inequity projects in SJV. Findings: -About 46% (33 of 72) of program participants were first generation -About 47% (34 of 72) of program participants identified as URM -About 65% (47 of 72) of program participants aspire to practice medicine in SJV -About 83% (60 of 72) of program participants feel that the pipeline program has helped them solidify their passion in medicine -About 100% (72 of 72) of program participants feel the program gave them guidance in health disparities, precision medicine, and applying design thinking concepts as a future leader in medicine Direct Outcomes: -Students were able to understanding community concerns beyond science and apply community activism through a precision medicine lens -Served as agents of change by directly communicating with physicians and understanding the need for more URM physicians -Students received mentorship and confidence to rise as first generation college students -Youth learned the value of service to disadvantaged communities

ABSTRACTMaterials Science and Engineering straddles the fence between engineering and science. In order to produce more work-ready undergraduates, we offer a new interdisciplinary program to educate materials engineers with a particular emphasis on microelectronics-related manufacturing. The bachelor's level curriculum in Microelectronics Process Engineering (μProE)is interdisciplinary, drawing from materials, chemical, electrical and industrial engineering programs and tied together with courses, internships and projects which integrate thin film processing with manufacturing control methods. Our graduates are prepared for entry level engineering jobs that require knowledge and experience in microelectronics-type fabrication and statistics applications in manufacturing engineering. They also go on to graduate programs in materials science and engineering. The program objectives were defined using extensive input from industry and alumni. We market our program as part of workforce development for Silicon Valley and have won significant support from local industry as well as federal sources. We plan to offer a vertical slice of workforce development, from lower division engineering and community college activities to industry short courses. We also encourage all engineering majors to take electives in our program. All our course and program development efforts rely on clearly defined learning objectives.

A study was carried out in Chandauli district of UP to assess the prospects of ODL system for the empowerment of farming community and improvement of their life with sustainable development of agriculture in naxal affected areas. In fact, Chandauli district is one of the districts among the two hundred and fifty (250) backward rated districts in India. In Chandauli,rice based cropping system prevails. Natural hazards of drought and flood are very common in district which limit the developmentof agriculture. Area of Vindhyan valley including Navgarh belt lies in Chakiya talluka of Chandauli district recognized as naxalaffected area . More than ninety percent (90%) of population depends on agriculture and animal husbandry for their livelihood in this area. Agriculture is nature dependent and traditional, which can be categorized as subsistence farming. More than fifty percent (50%) farming families have a land holding of less than one hectare and have no other option of alternative employment. Approximately forty five percent (45%) families of area belong to SC categories. People of the area face continuous harassment from naxalite and police both. No educational opportunities of higher education except a degree college is available in Chakiya Talluca. Geographical situation of the area and beautiful waterfalls in Naugarh provide immense scope for organic farming of horticultural crop production in the Chandauli district. But due to nuxalite activities and resource poor population in Navgarh block, most of government initiatives become null and vide and development schemes couldn’t reach properly to its beneficiaries. Govt. agencies also found it difficult to transfer technology properly to farming community due to lack of awareness and education in the area like Navgarh. Situations are becoming worse and Chakiya has been left behind in the race of development than the two other Tallucas of Chandauli district. Study reveals that 90.22 percent people are living below poverty line, belongs to rural areas and literacy rate in target area is less than forty nine percent (49%) than the district average of 69.90 percent. Data obtained from the study on GAP analysis between existing and adoption of modern agricultural practices revealed that need base and location. Specific scientific agricultural practices can double the farmers income but due to lack of awareness and no education in farming community, transfer of technology in the area is very poor. In such condition, It was observed that skill development and education may be used as tool for breaking the vicious circle of Unemployment –Poor production-Less job opportunity. As farmers are not able to spare money and time for attending training/classes at any conventional educational/training institutions, Open and Distance learning seems most desirable educational system for remote areas like Naugarh. Areas identified for skill development in the study were 1. Organic production technology of crops 2. Dairy production technology 3. Improved techniques of Fruits and vegetables production 4. Marketing and management of farming inputs 5. Processing and value addition in fruits and vegetables. 6. Trainings on Sericulture, Bee keeping and poultry forming etc. Programmes of School of Agriculture (SOA) and School of Tourism and Hospitality Service anagement (SOTHSM), IGNOU may be suggested as most promising for poverty alleviation & livelihood security with sustainable production to change the quality of life in the area under study as ODL system is observed suited most for the area under study. These are 1.P.G. Diploma in Plantation Management, 2.P.G. Diploma in Food Safety & Quality Management and 3.P.G. Certificate in Agriculture Policy. In case of diploma programmes 4.Diploma in Dairy Technology, 5.Diploma in Value added products from Fruits and Vegetables and 6.Diploma in Production of Value added products from Cereals, Pulses and Oilseeds. 7.Diploma in Fish Production Technology and 8.Diploma in Watershed Management found suitable and job oriented programme for the area, For the development of basic skill for self employment and capacity building 9. Certificate in Organic Farming,10.Certificate in Sericulture, 11.Certificate in Bee keeping, 12.Certificate in Water Harvesting Management, and 13.Diploma and Certificate in tourism studies were assessed very useful far farming community. These programmes are job oriented in nature and important for skill development and generation of self employment in farming communities. Digital Learning Centre may also be recommended to establish in area of Naugarh for these programmes . It may be concluded that agriculture education and skill development through Open & Distance Learning will be most important tool in development of new breeds of entrepreneur, increase employment opportunity and higher earning with better conservation of natural resources in naxal affected area of Chandauli district and it will open a way to get back peoples of Chandauli in main stream of Social Development

Introduction Utopia has always been countercultural, and ever since technological progress has allowed, utopia has been using alternative media to promote and strengthen its underpinning ideals. In this article, I am seeking to clarify the connections between counterculture and alternative media in utopian contexts to demonstrate their reciprocity, then draw together these threads through reference to a well-known figure of the Rainbow Region–Rusty Miller. His trajectory from iconic surfer and Aquarian reporter to mediator for utopian politics and ideals in the Rainbow Region encompasses in a single identity the three elements underpinning this study. In concluding, I will turn to Rusty’s Byron Guide, questioning its classification as alternative or mainstream media, and whether Byron Bay is represented as countercultural and utopian in this long-running and ongoing publication. Counterculture and Alternative Media in Utopian Contexts Counterculture is an umbrella that enfolds utopia, among many other genres and practices. It has been most often situated in the 1960s and 1970s as a new form of social movement embodying youth resistance to the technocratic mainstream and its norms of gender, sexuality, politics, music, and language (Roszak). Many scholars of counterculture underscore its utopian impulses both in the projection of better societies where the social goals are achieved, and in the withdrawal from mainstream society into intentional communities (Yinger 194-6; McKay 5; Berger). Before exploring further the connections between counterculture and alternative media, I want to define the scope of countercultural utopian contexts in general, and the Rainbow Region in particular. Utopia is a neologism created by Sir Thomas More almost 500 years ago to designate the island community that demonstrates order, harmony, justice, hope and desire in the right balance so that it seems like an ideal land. This imaginary place described in Utopia (1516) as a counterpoint to the social, political and religious shortcomings of contemporary 16th century British society, has attracted accusations of heresy (Molner), and been used as a pejorative term, an insult to denigrate political projects that seem farfetched or subversive, especially during the 19th century. Almost every study of utopian theory, literature and practice points to a dissatisfaction with the status quo, which inspires writers, politicians, architects, artists, individuals and communities to rail against it (see for example Davis, Moylan, Suvin, Levitas, Jameson). Kingsley Widmer’s book Counterings: Utopian Dialectics in Contemporary Contexts reiterates what many scholars have stated when he writes that utopias should be understood in terms of what they are countering. Lyman Tower Sargent defines utopia as “a non-existent society described in considerable detail and normally located in time and space” and utopianism as “social dreaming” (9), to which I would add that both indicate an improvement on the alternatives, and may indeed be striving to represent the best place imaginable. Utopian contexts, by extension, are those situations where the “social dreaming” is enhanced through human agency, good governance, just laws, education, and work, rather than being a divinely ordained state of nature (Schaer et al). In this way, utopian contexts are explicitly countercultural through their very conception, as human agency is required and their emphasis is on social change. These modes of resistance against dominant paradigms are most evident in attempts to realise textual projections of a better society in countercultural communal experiments. Almost immediately after its publication, More’s Utopia became the model for Bishop Vasco de Quiroga’s communitarian hospital-town Santa Fe de la Laguna in Michoacan, Mexico, established in the 1530s as a counterculture to the oppressive enslavement and massacres of the Purhépecha people by Nuno Guzmán (Green). The countercultural thrust of the 1960s and 1970s provided many utopian contexts, perhaps most readily identifiable as the intentional communities that spawned and flourished, especially in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand (Metcalf, Shared Lives). They were often inspired by texts such as Charles A. Reich’s The Greening of America (1970) and Ernest Callenbach’s Ecotopia (1975), and this convergence of textual practices and alternative lifestyles can be seen in the development of Australia’s own Rainbow Region. Located in northern New South Wales, the geographical area of the Northern Rivers that has come to be known as the Rainbow Region encompasses Byron Bay, Nimbin, Mullumbimby, Bangalow, Clunes, Dunoon, Federal, with Lismore as the region’s largest town. But more evocative than these place names are the “rivers and creeks, vivid green hills, fruit and nut farms […] bounded by subtropical beaches and rainforest mountains” (Wilson 1). Utopian by nature, and recognised as such by the indigenous Bundjalung people who inhabited it before the white settlers, whalers and dairy farmers moved in, the Rainbow Region became utopian through culture–or indeed counterculture–during the 1973 Aquarius Festival in Nimbin when the hippies of Mullumbimby and the surfers of Byron Bay were joined by up to 10,000 people seeking alternative ways of being in the world. When the party was over, many Aquarians stayed on to form intentional communities in the beautiful region, like Tuntable Falls, Nimbin’s first and largest such cooperative (Metcalf, From Utopian Dreaming to Communal Reality 74-83). In utopian contexts, from the Renaissance to the 1970s and beyond, counterculture has underpinned and alternative media has circulated the aims and ideals of the communities of resistance. The early utopian context of the Anabaptist movement has been dubbed as countercultural by Sigrun Haude: “During the reign of the Münster (1534-5) Anabaptists erected not only a religious but also a social and political counterculture to the existing order” (240). And it was this Protestant Reformation that John Downing calls the first real media war, with conflicting movements using pamphlets produced on the new technology of the Gutenberg press to disseminate their ideas (144). What is striking here is the confluence of ideas and practices at this time–countercultural ideals are articulated, published, and disseminated, printing presses make this possible, and utopian activists realise how mass media can be used and abused, exploited and censored. Twentieth century countercultural movements drew on the lessons learnt from historical uprising and revolutions, understanding the importance of getting the word out through their own forms of media which, given the subversive nature of the messages, were essentially alternative, according to the criteria proposed by Chris Atton: alternative media may be understood as a radical challenge to the professionalized and institutionalized practices of the mainstream media. Alternative media privileges a journalism that is closely wedded to notions of social responsibility, replacing an ideology of “objectivity” with overt advocacy and oppositional practices. Its practices emphasize first person, eyewitness accounts by participants; a reworking of the populist approaches of tabloid newspapers to recover a “radical popular” style of reporting; collective and antihierarchical forms of organization which eschew demarcation and specialization–and which importantly suggest an inclusive, radical form of civic journalism. (267) Nick Couldry goes further to point out the utopian processes required to identify agencies of change, including alternative media, which he defines as “practices of symbolic production which contest (in some way) media power itself–that is, the concentration of symbolic power in media institutions” (25). Alternative media’s orientation towards oppositional and contestatory practices demonstrates clear parallels between its ambitions and those of counterculture in utopian contexts. From the 1960s onwards, the upsurge in alternative newspaper numbers is commensurate with the blossoming of the counterculture and increased utopian contexts; Susan Forde describes it thus: “a huge resurgence in the popularity of publications throughout the ‘counter-culture’ days of the 1960s and 1970s” (“Monitoring the Establishment”, 114). The nexus of counterculture and alternative media in such utopian contexts is documented in texts like Roger Streitmatter’s Voices of Revolution and Bob Osterlag’s People’s Movements, People’s Press. Like the utopian newspapers that came out of 18th and 19th century intentional communities, many of the new alternative press served to educate, socialise, promote and represent the special interests of the founders and followers of the countercultural movements, often focusing on the philosophy and ideals underpinning these communities rather than the everyday events (see also Frobert). The radical press in Australia was also gaining ground, with OZ in Australia from 1963-1969, and then from 1967-1973 in London. Magazines launched by Philip Frazer like The Digger, Go-Set, Revolution and High Times, and university student newspapers were the main avenues for youth and alternative expression on the Vietnam war and conscription, gay and lesbian rights, racism, feminism and ecological activism (Forde, Challenging the News; Cock & Perry). Nimbin 1973: Rusty Miller and The Byron Express The 1973 Aquarius Festival of counterculture in Nimbin (12-23 May) was a utopian context that had an alternative media life of its own before it arrived in the Rainbow Region–in student publications like Tharnuka and newsletters distributed via the Aquarius Foundation. There were other voices that announced the coming of the Aquarius Festival to Nimbin and reported on its impact, like The Digger from Melbourne and the local paper, The Northern Star. During the Festival, the Nimbin Good Times first appeared as the daily bulletin and continues today with the original masthead drawn by the Festival’s co-organiser, Graeme Dunstan. Some interesting work has been done on this area, ranging from general studies of the Rainbow Region (Wilson; Munro-Clark) to articles analysing its alternative press (Ward & van Vuuren; Martin & Ellis), but to date, there has been no focus on the Rainbow Region’s first alternative newspaper, The Byron Express. Co-edited by Rusty Miller and David Guthrie, this paper presented and mediated the aims and desires of the Aquarian movement. Though short-lived, as only 7 issues were published from 15 February 1973 to September 1973, The Byron Express left a permanent printed vestige of the Aquarian counterculture movement’s activism and ideals from an independent regional perspective. Miller’s credentials for starting up the newspaper are clear–he has always been a trailblazer, mixing “smarts” with surfing and environmental politics. After graduating from a Bachelor of Arts in history from San Diego State College, he first set foot in Byron Bay during his two semesters with the inaugural Chapman College affiliated University of the Seven Seas in 1965-6. Returning to his hometown of Encinitas, he co-founded the Surf Research accessory company with legendary Californian surfer Mike Doyle, and launched Waxmate, the first specially formulated surf wax in 1967 (Davis, Witzig & James; Warshaw 217), selling his interest in the business soon after to spend a couple of years “living the counterculture life on the Hawaiian Island of Kauai” (Davis, Witzig & James), before heading back to Byron Bay via Bells Beach in 1970 (Miller & Shantz) and Sydney, where he worked as an advertising salesman and writer with Tracks surfing magazine (Martin & Ellis). In 1971, he was one of the first to ride the now famous waves of Uluwatu in Bali, and is captured with Steven Cooney in the iconic publicity image for Albe Falzon’s 1971 film, Morning Of The Earth. The champion surfer from the US knew a thing or two about counterculture, alternative media, advertising and business when he found his new utopian context in Byron Bay. Miller and Guthrie’s front-page editorial of the inaugural issue of The Byron Express, published on 15 February 1973, with the byline “for a higher shire”, expressed the countercultural (cl)aims of the publication. Land use, property development and the lack of concern that some people in Byron had for their impact on the environment and people of the region were a prime target: With this first issue of the Byron Express, we hope to explain that the area is badly in need of a focal point. The transitions of present are vast and moving fast. The land is being sold and resold. Lots of money is coming into the area in the way of developments […] caravan parts, hotels, businesses and real estate. Many of the trips incoming are not exactly “concerned” as to what long term effect such developments might have on the environment and its people. We hope to serve as a focus of concern and service, a centre for expression and reflection. We would ask your contributions in vocal and written form. We are ready for some sock it to ya criticism… and hope you would grab us upon the street to tell us how you feel…The mission of this alternative newspaper is thereby defined by the need for a “focal point” that inscribes the voices of the community in a freely accessible narrative, recorded in print for posterity. Although this first issue contains no mention of the Aquarius Festival, there were already rumours circulating about it, as organisers Graeme Dunstan and Johnny Allen had been up to Main Arm, Mullumbimby and Nimbin on reconnaissance missions beginning in September 1972. Instead, there was an article on “Mullumbimby Man–Close to the Land” by Nicholas Shand, who would go on to found the community-based weekly newspaper The Echo in 1986, then called The Brunswick Valley Echo and still going strong. Another by Bob McTavish asked whether there could be a better form of government; there was a surf story, and a soul food section with a recipe for honey meade entitled “Do you want to get out of it on 10 cents a bottle?” The second issue continues in much the same vein. It is not until the third issue comes out on 17 March 1973 that the Aquarius Festival is mentioned in a skinny half column on page four. And it’s not particularly promising: Arrived at Nimbin, sleepy hamlet… Office in disused R.S.L. rooms, met a couple of guys recently arrived, said nothing was being done. “Only women here, you know–no drive”. Met Joanne and Vi, both unable to say anything to be reported… Graham Dunstan (codenamed Superfest) and John Allen nowhere in sight. Allen off on trip overseas. Dunstan due back in a couple of weeks. 10 weeks to go till “they” all come… and to what… nobody is quite sure. This progress report provides a fascinating contemporary insight into the tensions–between the local surfies and hippies on one hand, and the incoming students on the other–around the organisation of the Aquarius Festival. There is an unbridled barb at the sexist comments made by the guys, implicit criticism of the absent organisers, obvious skepticism about whether anyone will actually come to the festival, and wonderment at what it will be like. Reading between the lines, we might find a feeling of resentment about not being privy to new developments in their own backyard. The final lines of the article are non-committal “Anyway, let’s see what eventuates when the Chiefs return.” It seems that all has been resolved by the fifth issue of 11 May, which is almost entirely dedicated to the Aquarius Festival with the front page headline “Welcome to the New Age”. But there is still an undertone of slight suspicion at what the newcomers to the area might mean in terms of property development: The goal is improving your fellow man’s mind and nourishment in concert with your own; competition to improve your day and the quality of the day for society. Meanwhile, what is the first thing one thinks about when he enters Byron and the area? The physical environment is so magnificent and all encompassing that it can actually hold a man’s breath back a few seconds. Then a man says, “Wow, this land is so beautiful that one could make a quid here.” And from that moment the natural aura and spells are broken and the mind lapses into speculative equations, sales projections and future interest payments. There is plenty of “love” though, in this article: “The gathering at Nimbin is the most spectacular demonstration of the faith people have in a belief that is possible (and possible just because they want it to be) to live in love, through love together.” The following article signed by Rusty Miller “A Town Together” is equally focused on love: “See what you could offer the spirit at Nimbin. It might introduce you to a style that could lead to LOVE.” The centre spread features photos: the obligatory nudes, tents, and back to nature activities, like planting and woodworking. With a text box of “random comments” including one from a Lismore executive: ‘I took my wife and kids out there last weekend and we had such a good time. Seems pretty organized and the town was loaded with love. Heard there is some hepatitis about and rumours of VD. Everyone happy.” And another from a land speculator (surely the prime target of Miller’s wrath): “Saw guys kissing girls on the street, so sweet, bought 200 acres right outside of town, it’s going to be valuable out there some day.” The interview with Johnny Allen as the centrepiece includes some pertinent commentary on the media and reveals a well-founded suspicion of the mediatisation of the Aquarius Festival: We have tried to avoid the media actually. But we haven’t succeeded in doing so. Part of the basic idea is that we don’t need to be sold. All the down town press can do is try and interpret you. And by doing that it automatically places it in the wrong sort of context. So we’ve tried to keep it to people writing about the festival to people who will be involved in it. It’s an involvement festival. Coopting The Byron Express as an “involved” party effects a fundamental shift from an external reporting newspaper to a kind of proponent or even propaganda for the Aquarius festival and its ideas, like so many utopian newspapers had done before. It is therefore perhaps inevitable that The Byron Express should disappear very soon after the Aquarius festival. Fiona Martin and Rhonda Ellis explain that Rusty Miller stopped producing the paper because he “found the production schedule exhausting and his readership too small to attract consistent advertising” (5). At any rate, there were only two more issues, one in June–with some follow up reporting of the festival–and another in September 1973, which was almost entirely devoted to environmentally focused features, including an interview with Kath Walker (Oodgeroo Noonuccal). Byron Bay 2013: Thirty Years of Rusty’s Byron Guide What Rusty did next is fairly well known locally–surfing and teaching people how to surf and a bit of writing. When major local employer Walkers slaughterhouse closed in 1983, he and his wife, social geographer Tricia Shantz, were asked by the local council to help promote Byron Bay as a tourist destination, writing the first Byron guide in 1983-4. Incorporating essays by local personalities and dedicated visitors, the Byron guide perpetuates the ideal of environmental awareness, spiritual experimentation, and respect for the land and sea. Recent contributors have included philosopher Peter Singer, political journalist Kerry O’Brien, and writer John Ralston Saul, and Miller and Shantz always have an essay in there themselves. “People, Politics and Culture” is the new byline for the 2013 edition. And Miller’s opening essay mediates the same utopian desires and environmental community messages that he espoused from the beginning of The Byron Express: The name Byron Bay represents something that we constantly try to articulate. If one was to dream up a menu of situations and conditions to compose a utopia, Australia would be the model of the nation-state and Byron would have many elements of the actual place one might wish to live for the rest of their lives. But of course there is always the danger of excesses in tropical paradises especially when they become famous destinations. Australia is being held to ransom for the ideology that we should be slaves to money and growth at the cost of a degraded and polluted physical and social environment. Byron at least was/is a refuge against this profusion of the so-called real-world perception that holds profit over environment as the way we must choose for our future. Even when writing for a much more commercial medium, Miller retains the countercultural utopian spirit that was crystallised in the Aquarius festival of 1973, and which remains relevant to many of those living in and visiting the Rainbow Region. Miller’s ethos moves beyond the alternative movements and communities to infiltrate travel writing and tourism initiatives in the area today, as evidenced in the Rusty’s Byron Guide essays. By presenting more radical discourses for a mainstream public, Miller together with Shantz have built on the participatory role that he played in launching the region’s first alternative newspaper in 1973 that became albeit briefly the equivalent of a countercultural utopian gazette. Now, he and Shantz effectively play the same role, producing a kind of countercultural form of utopian media for Byron Bay that corresponds to exactly the same criteria mentioned above. Through their free publication, they aim to educate, socialise, promote and represent the special interests of the founders and followers of the Rainbow Region, focusing on the philosophy and ideals underpinning these communities rather than the everyday events. The Byron Bay that Miller and Shantz promote is resolutely utopian, and certainly countercultural if compared to other free publications like The Book, a new shopping guide, or mainstream media elsewhere. Despite this new competition, they are planning the next edition for 2015 with essays to make people think, talk, and understand the region’s issues, so perhaps the counterculture is still holding its own against the mainstream. References Atton, Chris. “What Is ‘Alternative’ Journalism?” Journalism: Theory, Practice, Criticism 4.3 (2003): 267-72. Berger, Bennett M. The Survival of a Counterculture: Ideological Work and Everyday Life among Rural Communards. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2004. Cock, Peter H., & Paul F. Perry. “Australia's Alternative Media.” Media Information Australia 6 (1977): 4-13. Couldry, Nick. “Mediation and Alternative Media, or Relocating the Centre of Media and Communication Studies.” Media International Australia, Incorporating Culture & Policy 103, (2002): 24-31. Davis, Dale, John Witzig & Don James. “Rusty Miller.” Encyclopedia of Surfing. 10 Nov. 2014 ‹http://encyclopediaofsurfing.com/entries/miller-rusty›. Downing, John. Radical Media: Rebellious Communication and Social Movements. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Davis, J.C. Utopia and the Ideal Society: A Study of English Utopian Writing 1516-1700. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983. Forde, Susan. Challenging the News: The Journalism of Alternative and Independent Media. Palgrave Macmillan: London, 2011. ---. “Monitoring the Establishment: The Development of the Alternative Press in Australia” Media International Australia, Incorporating Culture & Policy 87 (May 1998): 114-133. Frobert, Lucien. “French Utopian Socialists as the First Pioneers in Development.” Cambridge Journal of Economics 35 (2011): 729-49. Green, Toby. Thomas More’s Magician: A Novel Account of Utopia in Mexico. London: Phoenix, 2004. Goffman, Ken, & Dan Joy. Counterculture through the Ages: From Abraham to Acid House. New York: Villard Books. 2004. Haude, Sigrun. “Anabaptism.” The Reformation World. Ed. Andrew Pettegree. London: Routledge, 2000. 237-256. Jameson, Fredric. Archeologies of the Future: The Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions. New York: Verso, 2005. Levitas, Ruth. Utopia as Method. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Martin, Fiona, & Rhonda Ellis. “Dropping In, Not Out: The Evolution of the Alternative Press in Byron Shire 1970-2001.” Transformations 2 (2002). 10 Nov. 2014 ‹http://www.transformationsjournal.org/journal/issue_02/pdf/MartinEllis.pdf›. McKay, George. Senseless Acts of Beauty: Cultures of Resistance since the Sixties. London: Verso, 1996. Metcalf, Bill. From Utopian Dreaming to Communal Reality: Cooperative Lifestyles in Australia. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 1995. ---. Shared Visions, Shared Lives: Communal Living around the Globe. Forres, UK: Findhorn Press, 1996. Miller, Rusty & Tricia Shantz. Turning Point: Surf Portraits and Stories from Bells to Byron 1970-1971. Surf Research. 2012. Molnar, Thomas. Utopia: The Perennial Heresy. London: Tom Stacey, 1972. Moylan, Tom. Demand the Impossible: Science Fiction and the Utopian Imagination. New York: Methuen, 1986. Munro-Clark, Margaret. Communes in Rural Australia: The Movement since 1970. Sydney: Hale & Iremonger, 1986. Osterlag, Bob. People’s Movements, People’s Press: The Journalism of Social Justice Movements. Boston: Beacon Press, 2006. Roszak, Theodore. The Making of a Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society and Its Youthful Opposition. New York: Anchor, 1969. Sargent, Lyman Tower. “Three Faces of Utopianism Revisited.” Utopian Studies 5.1 (1994): 1-37. Schaer, Roland, Gregory Claeys, and Lyman Tower Sargent, eds. Utopia: The Search for the Ideal Society in the Western World. New York: New York Public Library/Oxford UP, 2000. Streitmatter, Roger. Voices of Revolution: The Dissident Press in America. Columbia: Columbia UP, 2001. Suvin, Darko. Metamorphoses of Science Fiction: On the Poetics and History of a Literary Genre. New Haven: Yale UP, 1979. Ward, Susan, & Kitty van Vuuren. “Belonging to the Rainbow Region: Place, Local Media, and the Construction of Civil and Moral Identities Strategic to Climate Change Adaptability.” Environmental Communication 7.1 (2013): 63-79. Warshaw, Matt. The History of Surfing. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2011. Wilson, Helen. (Ed.). Belonging in the Rainbow Region: Cultural Perspectives on the NSW North Coast. Lismore, NSW: Southern Cross University Press, 2003. Widmer, Kingsley. Counterings: Utopian Dialectics in Contemporary Contexts. Ann Arbor, London: UMI Research Press, 1988. Yinger, J. Milton. Countercultures: The Promise and Peril of a World Turned Upside Down. New York: The Free Press, 1982.

IntroductionIn the year 2000, a group of likeminded individuals got together and convened the first annual World Barista Championship in Monte Carlo. With twelve competitors from around the globe, each competitor was judged by seven judges: one head judge who oversaw the process, two technical judges who assessed technical skills, and four sensory judges who evaluated the taste and appearance of the espresso drinks. Competitors had fifteen minutes to serve four espresso coffees, four cappuccino coffees, and four “signature” drinks that they had devised using one shot of espresso and other ingredients of their choice, but no alcohol. The competitors were also assessed on their overall barista skills, their creativity, and their ability to perform under pressure and impress the judges with their knowledge of coffee. This competition has grown to the extent that eleven years later, in 2011, 54 countries held national barista championships with the winner from each country competing for the highly coveted position of World Barista Champion. That year, Alejandro Mendez from El Salvador became the first world champion from a coffee producing nation. Champion baristas are more likely to come from coffee consuming countries than they are from coffee producing countries as countries that produce coffee seldom have a culture of espresso coffee consumption. While Ireland is not a coffee-producing nation, the Irish are the highest per capita consumers of tea in the world (Mac Con Iomaire, “Ireland”). Despite this, in 2008, Stephen Morrissey from Ireland overcame 50 other national champions to become the 2008 World Barista Champion (see, http://vimeo.com/2254130). Another Irish national champion, Colin Harmon, came fourth in this competition in both 2009 and 2010. This paper discusses the history and development of coffee and coffee houses in Dublin from the 17th century, charting how coffee culture in Dublin appeared, evolved, and stagnated before re-emerging at the beginning of the 21st century, with a remarkable win in the World Barista Championships. The historical links between coffeehouses and media—ranging from print media to electronic and social media—are discussed. In this, the coffee house acts as an informal public gathering space, what urban sociologist Ray Oldenburg calls a “third place,” neither work nor home. These “third places” provide anchors for community life and facilitate and foster broader, more creative interaction (Oldenburg). This paper will also show how competition from other “third places” such as clubs, hotels, restaurants, and bars have affected the vibrancy of coffee houses. Early Coffee Houses The first coffee house was established in Constantinople in 1554 (Tannahill 252; Huetz de Lemps 387). The first English coffee houses opened in Oxford in 1650 and in London in 1652. Coffee houses multiplied thereafter but, in 1676, when some London coffee houses became hotbeds for political protest, the city prosecutor decided to close them. The ban was soon lifted and between 1680 and 1730 Londoners discovered the pleasure of drinking coffee (Huetz de Lemps 388), although these coffee houses sold a number of hot drinks including tea and chocolate as well as coffee.The first French coffee houses opened in Marseille in 1671 and in Paris the following year. Coffee houses proliferated during the 18th century: by 1720 there were 380 public cafés in Paris and by the end of the century there were 600 (Huetz de Lemps 387). Café Procope opened in Paris in 1674 and, in the 18th century, became a literary salon with regular patrons: Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and Condorcet (Huetz de Lemps 387; Pitte 472). In England, coffee houses developed into exclusive clubs such as Crockford’s and the Reform, whilst elsewhere in Europe they evolved into what we identify as cafés, similar to the tea shops that would open in England in the late 19th century (Tannahill 252-53). Tea quickly displaced coffee in popularity in British coffee houses (Taylor 142). Pettigrew suggests two reasons why Great Britain became a tea-drinking nation while most of the rest of Europe took to coffee (48). The first was the power of the East India Company, chartered by Elizabeth I in 1600, which controlled the world’s biggest tea monopoly and promoted the beverage enthusiastically. The second was the difficulty England had in securing coffee from the Levant while at war with France at the end of the seventeenth century and again during the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-13). Tea also became the dominant beverage in Ireland and over a period of time became the staple beverage of the whole country. In 1835, Samuel Bewley and his son Charles dared to break the monopoly of The East India Company by importing over 2,000 chests of tea directly from Canton, China, to Ireland. His family would later become synonymous with the importation of coffee and with opening cafés in Ireland (see, Farmar for full history of the Bewley's and their activities). Ireland remains the highest per-capita consumer of tea in the world. Coffee houses have long been linked with social and political change (Kennedy, Politicks; Pincus). The notion that these new non-alcoholic drinks were responsible for the Enlightenment because people could now gather socially without getting drunk is rejected by Wheaton as frivolous, since there had always been alternatives to strong drink, and European civilisation had achieved much in the previous centuries (91). She comments additionally that cafés, as gathering places for dissenters, took over the role that taverns had long played. Pennell and Vickery support this argument adding that by offering a choice of drinks, and often sweets, at a fixed price and in a more civilized setting than most taverns provided, coffee houses and cafés were part of the rise of the modern restaurant. It is believed that, by 1700, the commercial provision of food and drink constituted the second largest occupational sector in London. Travellers’ accounts are full of descriptions of London taverns, pie shops, coffee, bun and chop houses, breakfast huts, and food hawkers (Pennell; Vickery). Dublin Coffee Houses and Later incarnations The earliest reference to coffee houses in Dublin is to the Cock Coffee House in Cook Street during the reign of Charles II (1660-85). Public dining or drinking establishments listed in the 1738 Dublin Directory include taverns, eating houses, chop houses, coffee houses, and one chocolate house in Fownes Court run by Peter Bardin (Hardiman and Kennedy 157). During the second half of the 17th century, Dublin’s merchant classes transferred allegiance from taverns to the newly fashionable coffee houses as places to conduct business. By 1698, the fashion had spread to country towns with coffee houses found in Cork, Limerick, Kilkenny, Clonmel, Wexford, and Galway, and slightly later in Belfast and Waterford in the 18th century. Maxwell lists some of Dublin’s leading coffee houses and taverns, noting their clientele: There were Lucas’s Coffee House, on Cork Hill (the scene of many duels), frequented by fashionable young men; the Phoenix, in Werburgh Street, where political dinners were held; Dick’s Coffee House, in Skinner’s Row, much patronized by literary men, for it was over a bookseller’s; the Eagle, in Eustace Street, where meetings of the Volunteers were held; the Old Sot’s Hole, near Essex Bridge, famous for its beefsteaks and ale; the Eagle Tavern, on Cork Hill, which was demolished at the same time as Lucas’s to make room for the Royal Exchange; and many others. (76) Many of the early taverns were situated around the Winetavern Street, Cook Street, and Fishamble Street area. (see Fig. 1) Taverns, and later coffee houses, became meeting places for gentlemen and centres for debate and the exchange of ideas. In 1706, Francis Dickson published the Flying Post newspaper at the Four Courts coffee house in Winetavern Street. The Bear Tavern (1725) and the Black Lyon (1735), where a Masonic Lodge assembled every Wednesday, were also located on this street (Gilbert v.1 160). Dick’s Coffee house was established in the late 17th century by bookseller and newspaper proprietor Richard Pue, and remained open until 1780 when the building was demolished. In 1740, Dick’s customers were described thus: Ye citizens, gentlemen, lawyers and squires,who summer and winter surround our great fires,ye quidnuncs! who frequently come into Pue’s,To live upon politicks, coffee, and news. (Gilbert v.1 174) There has long been an association between coffeehouses and publishing books, pamphlets and particularly newspapers. Other Dublin publishers and newspapermen who owned coffee houses included Richard Norris and Thomas Bacon. Until the 1850s, newspapers were burdened with a number of taxes: on the newsprint, a stamp duty, and on each advertisement. By 1865, these taxes had virtually disappeared, resulting in the appearance of 30 new newspapers in Ireland, 24 of them in Dublin. Most people read from copies which were available free of charge in taverns, clubs, and coffee houses (MacGiolla Phadraig). Coffee houses also kept copies of international newspapers. On 4 May 1706, Francis Dickson notes in the Dublin Intelligence that he held the Paris and London Gazettes, Leyden Gazette and Slip, the Paris and Hague Lettres à la Main, Daily Courant, Post-man, Flying Post, Post-script and Manuscripts in his coffeehouse in Winetavern Street (Kennedy, “Dublin”). Henry Berry’s analysis of shop signs in Dublin identifies 24 different coffee houses in Dublin, with the main clusters in Essex Street near the Custom’s House (Cocoa Tree, Bacon’s, Dempster’s, Dublin, Merchant’s, Norris’s, and Walsh’s) Cork Hill (Lucas’s, St Lawrence’s, and Solyman’s) Skinners’ Row (Bow’s’, Darby’s, and Dick’s) Christ Church Yard (Four Courts, and London) College Green (Jack’s, and Parliament) and Crampton Court (Exchange, and Little Dublin). (see Figure 1, below, for these clusters and the locations of other Dublin coffee houses.) The earliest to be referenced is the Cock Coffee House in Cook Street during the reign of Charles II (1660-85), with Solyman’s (1691), Bow’s (1692), and Patt’s on High Street (1699), all mentioned in print before the 18th century. The name of one, the Cocoa Tree, suggests that chocolate was also served in this coffee house. More evidence of the variety of beverages sold in coffee houses comes from Gilbert who notes that in 1730, one Dublin poet wrote of George Carterwright’s wife at The Custom House Coffee House on Essex Street: Her coffee’s fresh and fresh her tea,Sweet her cream, ptizan, and whea,her drams, of ev’ry sort, we findboth good and pleasant, in their kind. (v. 2 161) Figure 1: Map of Dublin indicating Coffee House clusters 1 = Sackville St.; 2 = Winetavern St.; 3 = Essex St.; 4 = Cork Hill; 5 = Skinner's Row; 6 = College Green.; 7 = Christ Church Yard; 8 = Crampton Court.; 9 = Cook St.; 10 = High St.; 11 = Eustace St.; 12 = Werburgh St.; 13 = Fishamble St.; 14 = Westmorland St.; 15 = South Great George's St.; 16 = Grafton St.; 17 = Kildare St.; 18 = Dame St.; 19 = Anglesea Row; 20 = Foster Place; 21 = Poolbeg St.; 22 = Fleet St.; 23 = Burgh Quay.A = Cafe de Paris, Lincoln Place; B = Red Bank Restaurant, D'Olier St.; C = Morrison's Hotel, Nassau St.; D = Shelbourne Hotel, St. Stephen's Green; E = Jury's Hotel, Dame St. Some coffee houses transformed into the gentlemen’s clubs that appeared in London, Paris and Dublin in the 17th century. These clubs originally met in coffee houses, then taverns, until later proprietary clubs became fashionable. Dublin anticipated London in club fashions with members of the Kildare Street Club (1782) and the Sackville Street Club (1794) owning the premises of their clubhouse, thus dispensing with the proprietor. The first London club to be owned by the members seems to be Arthur’s, founded in 1811 (McDowell 4) and this practice became widespread throughout the 19th century in both London and Dublin. The origin of one of Dublin’s most famous clubs, Daly’s Club, was a chocolate house opened by Patrick Daly in c.1762–65 in premises at 2–3 Dame Street (Brooke). It prospered sufficiently to commission its own granite-faced building on College Green between Anglesea Street and Foster Place which opened in 1789 (Liddy 51). Daly’s Club, “where half the land of Ireland has changed hands”, was renowned for the gambling that took place there (Montgomery 39). Daly’s sumptuous palace catered very well (and discreetly) for honourable Members of Parliament and rich “bucks” alike (Craig 222). The changing political and social landscape following the Act of Union led to Daly’s slow demise and its eventual closure in 1823 (Liddy 51). Coincidentally, the first Starbucks in Ireland opened in 2005 in the same location. Once gentlemen’s clubs had designated buildings where members could eat, drink, socialise, and stay overnight, taverns and coffee houses faced competition from the best Dublin hotels which also had coffee rooms “in which gentlemen could read papers, write letters, take coffee and wine in the evening—an exiguous substitute for a club” (McDowell 17). There were at least 15 establishments in Dublin city claiming to be hotels by 1789 (Corr 1) and their numbers grew in the 19th century, an expansion which was particularly influenced by the growth of railways. By 1790, Dublin’s public houses (“pubs”) outnumbered its coffee houses with Dublin boasting 1,300 (Rooney 132). Names like the Goose and Gridiron, Harp and Crown, Horseshoe and Magpie, and Hen and Chickens—fashionable during the 17th and 18th centuries in Ireland—hung on decorative signs for those who could not read. Throughout the 20th century, the public house provided the dominant “third place” in Irish society, and the drink of choice for itd predominantly male customers was a frothy pint of Guinness. Newspapers were available in public houses and many newspapermen had their own favourite hostelries such as Mulligan’s of Poolbeg Street; The Pearl, and The Palace on Fleet Street; and The White Horse Inn on Burgh Quay. Any coffee served in these establishments prior to the arrival of the new coffee culture in the 21st century was, however, of the powdered instant variety. Hotels / Restaurants with Coffee Rooms From the mid-19th century, the public dining landscape of Dublin changed in line with London and other large cities in the United Kingdom. Restaurants did appear gradually in the United Kingdom and research suggests that one possible reason for this growth from the 1860s onwards was the Refreshment Houses and Wine Licences Act (1860). The object of this act was to “reunite the business of eating and drinking”, thereby encouraging public sobriety (Mac Con Iomaire, “Emergence” v.2 95). Advertisements for Dublin restaurants appeared in The Irish Times from the 1860s. Thom’s Directory includes listings for Dining Rooms from the 1870s and Refreshment Rooms are listed from the 1880s. This pattern continued until 1909, when Thom’s Directory first includes a listing for “Restaurants and Tea Rooms”. Some of the establishments that advertised separate coffee rooms include Dublin’s first French restaurant, the Café de Paris, The Red Bank Restaurant, Morrison’s Hotel, Shelbourne Hotel, and Jury’s Hotel (see Fig. 1). The pattern of separate ladies’ coffee rooms emerged in Dublin and London during the latter half of the 19th century and mixed sex dining only became popular around the last decade of the 19th century, partly infuenced by Cesar Ritz and Auguste Escoffier (Mac Con Iomaire, “Public Dining”). Irish Cafés: From Bewley’s to Starbucks A number of cafés appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, most notably Robert Roberts and Bewley’s, both of which were owned by Quaker families. Ernest Bewley took over the running of the Bewley’s importation business in the 1890s and opened a number of Oriental Cafés; South Great Georges Street (1894), Westmoreland Street (1896), and what became the landmark Bewley’s Oriental Café in Grafton Street (1927). Drawing influence from the grand cafés of Paris and Vienna, oriental tearooms, and Egyptian architecture (inspired by the discovery in 1922 of Tutankhamen’s Tomb), the Grafton Street business brought a touch of the exotic into the newly formed Irish Free State. Bewley’s cafés became the haunt of many of Ireland’s leading literary figures, including Samuel Becket, Sean O’Casey, and James Joyce who mentioned the café in his book, Dubliners. A full history of Bewley’s is available (Farmar). It is important to note, however, that pots of tea were sold in equal measure to mugs of coffee in Bewley’s. The cafés changed over time from waitress- to self-service and a failure to adapt to changing fashions led to the business being sold, with only the flagship café in Grafton Street remaining open in a revised capacity. It was not until the beginning of the 21st century that a new wave of coffee house culture swept Ireland. This was based around speciality coffee beverages such as espressos, cappuccinos, lattés, macchiatos, and frappuccinnos. This new phenomenon coincided with the unprecedented growth in the Irish economy, during which Ireland became known as the “Celtic Tiger” (Murphy 3). One aspect of this period was a building boom and a subsequent growth in apartment living in the Dublin city centre. The American sitcom Friends and its fictional coffee house, “Central Perk,” may also have helped popularise the use of coffee houses as “third spaces” (Oldenberg) among young apartment dwellers in Dublin. This was also the era of the “dotcom boom” when many young entrepreneurs, software designers, webmasters, and stock market investors were using coffee houses as meeting places for business and also as ad hoc office spaces. This trend is very similar to the situation in the 17th and early 18th centuries where coffeehouses became known as sites for business dealings. Various theories explaining the growth of the new café culture have circulated, with reasons ranging from a growth in Eastern European migrants, anti-smoking legislation, returning sophisticated Irish emigrants, and increased affluence (Fenton). Dublin pubs, facing competition from the new coffee culture, began installing espresso coffee machines made by companies such as Gaggia to attract customers more interested in a good latté than a lager and it is within this context that Irish baristas gained such success in the World Barista competition. In 2001 the Georges Street branch of Bewley’s was taken over by a chain called Café, Bar, Deli specialising in serving good food at reasonable prices. Many ex-Bewley’s staff members subsequently opened their own businesses, roasting coffee and running cafés. Irish-owned coffee chains such as Java Republic, Insomnia, and O’Brien’s Sandwich Bars continued to thrive despite the competition from coffee chains Starbucks and Costa Café. Indeed, so successful was the handmade Irish sandwich and coffee business that, before the economic downturn affected its business, Irish franchise O’Brien’s operated in over 18 countries. The Café, Bar, Deli group had also begun to franchise its operations in 2008 when it too became a victim of the global economic downturn. With the growth of the Internet, many newspapers have experienced falling sales of their printed format and rising uptake of their electronic versions. Most Dublin coffee houses today provide wireless Internet connections so their customers can read not only the local newspapers online, but also others from all over the globe, similar to Francis Dickenson’s coffee house in Winetavern Street in the early 18th century. Dublin has become Europe’s Silicon Valley, housing the European headquarters for companies such as Google, Yahoo, Ebay, Paypal, and Facebook. There are currently plans to provide free wireless connectivity throughout Dublin’s city centre in order to promote e-commerce, however, some coffee houses shut off the wireless Internet in their establishments at certain times of the week in order to promote more social interaction to ensure that these “third places” remain “great good places” at the heart of the community (Oldenburg). Conclusion Ireland is not a country that is normally associated with a coffee culture but coffee houses have been part of the fabric of that country since they emerged in Dublin in the 17th century. These Dublin coffee houses prospered in the 18th century, and survived strong competition from clubs and hotels in the 19th century, and from restaurant and public houses into the 20th century. In 2008, when Stephen Morrissey won the coveted title of World Barista Champion, Ireland’s place as a coffee consuming country was re-established. The first decade of the 21st century witnessed a birth of a new espresso coffee culture, which shows no signs of weakening despite Ireland’s economic travails. References Berry, Henry F. “House and Shop Signs in Dublin in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 40.2 (1910): 81–98. Brooke, Raymond Frederick. Daly’s Club and the Kildare Street Club, Dublin. Dublin, 1930. Corr, Frank. Hotels in Ireland. Dublin: Jemma Publications, 1987. Craig, Maurice. Dublin 1660-1860. Dublin: Allen Figgis, 1980. Farmar, Tony. The Legendary, Lofty, Clattering Café. Dublin: A&A Farmar, 1988. Fenton, Ben. “Cafe Culture taking over in Dublin.” The Telegraph 2 Oct. 2006. 29 Apr. 2012 ‹http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1530308/cafe-culture-taking-over-in-Dublin.html›. Gilbert, John T. A History of the City of Dublin (3 vols.). Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1978. Girouard, Mark. Victorian Pubs. New Haven, Conn.: Yale UP, 1984. Hardiman, Nodlaig P., and Máire Kennedy. A Directory of Dublin for the Year 1738 Compiled from the Most Authentic of Sources. Dublin: Dublin Corporation Public Libraries, 2000. Huetz de Lemps, Alain. “Colonial Beverages and Consumption of Sugar.” Food: A Culinary History from Antiquity to the Present. Eds. Jean-Louis Flandrin and Massimo Montanari. New York: Columbia UP, 1999. 383–93. Kennedy, Máire. “Dublin Coffee Houses.” Ask About Ireland, 2011. 4 Apr. 2012 ‹http://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading-room/history-heritage/pages-in-history/dublin-coffee-houses›. ----- “‘Politicks, Coffee and News’: The Dublin Book Trade in the Eighteenth Century.” Dublin Historical Record LVIII.1 (2005): 76–85. Liddy, Pat. Temple Bar—Dublin: An Illustrated History. Dublin: Temple Bar Properties, 1992. Mac Con Iomaire, Máirtín. “The Emergence, Development, and Influence of French Haute Cuisine on Public Dining in Dublin Restaurants 1900-2000: An Oral History.” Ph.D. thesis, Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, 2009. 4 Apr. 2012 ‹http://arrow.dit.ie/tourdoc/12›. ----- “Ireland.” Food Cultures of the World Encylopedia. Ed. Ken Albala. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2010. ----- “Public Dining in Dublin: The History and Evolution of Gastronomy and Commercial Dining 1700-1900.” International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 24. Special Issue: The History of the Commercial Hospitality Industry from Classical Antiquity to the 19th Century (2012): forthcoming. MacGiolla Phadraig, Brian. “Dublin: One Hundred Years Ago.” Dublin Historical Record 23.2/3 (1969): 56–71. Maxwell, Constantia. Dublin under the Georges 1714–1830. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1979. McDowell, R. B. Land & Learning: Two Irish Clubs. Dublin: The Lilliput P, 1993. Montgomery, K. L. “Old Dublin Clubs and Coffee-Houses.” New Ireland Review VI (1896): 39–44. Murphy, Antoine E. “The ‘Celtic Tiger’—An Analysis of Ireland’s Economic Growth Performance.” EUI Working Papers, 2000 29 Apr. 2012 ‹http://www.eui.eu/RSCAS/WP-Texts/00_16.pdf›. Oldenburg, Ray, ed. Celebrating the Third Place: Inspiring Stories About The “Great Good Places” At the Heart of Our Communities. New York: Marlowe & Company 2001. Pennell, Sarah. “‘Great Quantities of Gooseberry Pye and Baked Clod of Beef’: Victualling and Eating out in Early Modern London.” Londinopolis: Essays in the Cultural and Social History of Early Modern London. Eds. Paul Griffiths and Mark S. R. Jenner. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2000. 228–59. Pettigrew, Jane. A Social History of Tea. London: National Trust Enterprises, 2001. Pincus, Steve. “‘Coffee Politicians Does Create’: Coffeehouses and Restoration Political Culture.” The Journal of Modern History 67.4 (1995): 807–34. Pitte, Jean-Robert. “The Rise of the Restaurant.” Food: A Culinary History from Antiquity to the Present. Eds. Jean-Louis Flandrin and Massimo Montanari. New York: Columbia UP, 1999. 471–80. Rooney, Brendan, ed. A Time and a Place: Two Centuries of Irish Social Life. Dublin: National Gallery of Ireland, 2006. Tannahill, Reay. Food in History. St Albans, Herts.: Paladin, 1975. Taylor, Laurence. “Coffee: The Bottomless Cup.” The American Dimension: Cultural Myths and Social Realities. Eds. W. Arens and Susan P. Montague. Port Washington, N.Y.: Alfred Publishing, 1976. 14–48. Vickery, Amanda. Behind Closed Doors: At Home in Georgian England. New Haven: Yale UP, 2009. Wheaton, Barbara Ketcham. Savouring the Past: The French Kitchen and Table from 1300-1789. London: Chatto & Windus, Hogarth P, 1983. Williams, Anne. “Historical Attitudes to Women Eating in Restaurants.” Public Eating: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1991. Ed. Harlan Walker. Totnes: Prospect Books, 1992. 311–14. World Barista, Championship. “History–World Barista Championship”. 2012. 02 Apr. 2012 ‹http://worldbaristachampionship.com2012›.AcknowledgementA warm thank you to Dr. Kevin Griffin for producing the map of Dublin for this article.

Introduction: Artist Villages in Beijing Many of the most renowned sites of Beijing are found in the inner-city districts of Dongcheng and Xicheng: for instance, the Forbidden City, Tiananmen Square, the Lama Temple, the National Theatre, the Central Opera Academy, the Bell Tower, the Drum Tower, the Imperial College, and the Confucius Temple. However, in the past decade a new attraction has been added to the visitor “must-see” list in Beijing. The 798 Art District originated as an artist village within abandoned factory buildings at Dashanzi, right between the city’s Central Business District and the open outer rural space on Beijing’s north-east. It is arguably the most striking symbol of China’s contemporary art scene. The history of the 798 Art District is by now well known (Keane), so this paper will provide a short summary of its evolution. Of more concern is the relationship between the urban fringe and what Howard Becker has called “art worlds.” By art worlds, Becker refers to the multitude of agents that contribute to a final work of art: for instance, people who provide canvasses, frames, and art supplies; critics and intermediaries; and the people who run exhibition services. To the art-world list in Beijing we need to add government officials and developers. To date there are more than 100 artist communities or villages in Beijing; almost all are located in the city’s outskirts. In particular, a high-powered art centre outside the city of Beijing has recently established a global reputation. Songzhuang is situated in outer Tongzhou District, some 30 kilometres east of Tiananmen Square. The Beijing Municipal Government officially classifies Songzhuang as the Capital Art District (CAD) or “the Songzhuang Original Art Cluster.” The important difference between 798 and Songzhuang is that, whereas the former has become a centre for retail and art galleries, Songzhuang operates as an arts production centre for experimental art, with less focus on commercial art. The destiny of the artistic communities is closely related to urban planning policies that either try to shut them down or protect them. In this paper I will take a close look at three artist villages: Yuanmingyuan, 798, and Songzhuang. In tracing the evolution of the three artist villages, I will shed some light on artists’ lives in city fringes. I argue that these outer districts provide creative industries with a new opportunity for development. This is counter to the conventional wisdom that central urban areas are the ideal locality for creative industries. Accordingly, this argument needs to be qualified: some types of creative work are more suitable to rural and undeveloped areas. The visual art “industry” is one of these. Inner and Outer Worlds Urban historians contend that innovation is more likely to happen in inner urban areas because of intensive interactions between people (Jacobs). City life has been associated with the development of creative industries and economic benefits brought about by the interaction of creative classes. In short, the argument is that cities, or, more specifically, urban areas are primary economic entities (Montgomery) whereas outer suburbs are uncreative and dull (Florida, "Cities"). The conventional wisdom is that talented creative people are attracted to the creative milieu in cities: universities, book shops, cafes, museums, theatres etc. These are both the hard and the soft infrastructure of modern cities. They illustrate diversified built forms, lifestyles and experiences (Lorenzen and Frederiksen; Florida, Rise; Landry; Montgomery; Leadbeater and Oakley). The assumption that inner-city density is the cradle of creative industries has encountered critique. Empirical studies in Australia have shown that creative occupations are found in relatively high densities in urban fringes. The point made in several studies is that suburbia has been neglected by scholars and policy makers and may have potential for future development (Gibson and Brennan-Horley; Commission; Collis, Felton, and Graham). Moreover, some have argued that the practice of constructing inner city enclaves may be leading to homogenized and prescriptive geographies (Collis, Felton, and Graham; Kotkin). As Jane Jacobs has indicated, it is not only density of interactions but diversity that attracts and accommodates economic growth in cities. However, the spatiality of creative industries varies across different sectors. For example, media companies and advertising agencies are more likely to be found in the inner city, whereas most visual artists prefer working in the comparatively quiet and loosely-structured outskirts. Nevertheless, the logic embodied in thinking around the distinctions between “urbanism” and “suburbanism” pays little attention to this issue, although both schools acknowledge the causal relationship between locality and creativity. According to Drake, empirical evidence shows that the function of locality is not only about encouraging interactions between SMEs (small to medium enterprises) within clusters which can generate creativity, but also a catalyst for individual creativity (Drake). Therefore for policy makers in China, the question here is how to plan or prepare a better space to accommodate creative professionals’ needs in different sectors while making the master plan. This question is particularly urgent to the Chinese government, which is undertaking a massive urbanization transition throughout the country. In placing a lens on Beijing, it is important to note the distinctive features of its politics, forms of social structure, and climate. As Zhu has described it, Beijing has spread in a symmetrical structure. The reasons have much to do with ancient history. According to Zhu, the city which was planned in the era of Genghis Khan was constituted by four layers or enclosures, with the emperor at the centre, surrounded by the gentry and other populations distributed outwards according to wealth, status, and occupation. The outer layer accommodated many lower social classes, including itinerant artists, musicians, and merchants. This ”outer city” combined with open rural space. The system of enclosures is carried on in today’s city planning of Beijing. Nowadays Beijing is most commonly described by its ring roads (Mars and Hornsby). However, despite the existing structure, new approaches to urban policy have resulted in a great deal of flux. The emergence of new landscapes such as semi-urbanized villages, rural urban syndicates (chengxiang jiehebu), and villages-within-cities (Mars and Hornsby 290) illustrate this flux. These new types of landscapes, which don’t correspond to the suburban concept that we find in the US or Australia, serve to represent and mediate the urban-rural relationship in China. The outer villages also reflect an old tradition of “recluse” (yin shi), which since the Wei and Jin Dynasties allowed intellectuals to withdraw themselves from the temporal world of the city and live freely in the mountains. The Lost Artistic Utopia: Yuanmingyuan Artist Village Yuanmingyuan, also known as the Ming Dynasty summer palace, is located in Haidian District in the north-west of Beijing. Haidian has transformed from an outer district of Beijing into one of its flourishing urban districts since the mid-1980s. Haidian’s success is largely due to the electronics industry which developed from spin-offs from Peking University, Tsinghua University and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in the 1980s. This led to the rapid emergence of Zhongguancun, sometimes referred to as China’s Silicon Valley. However there is another side of Haidian’s transformation. As the first graduates came out of Chinese Academies of the Arts following the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), creative lifestyles became available. Some people quit jobs at state-owned institutions and chose to go freelance, which was unimaginable in China under the former regime of Mao Zedong. By 1990, the earliest “artist village” emerged around the Yuanmingyuan accommodating artists from around China. The first site was Fuyuanmen village. Artists living and working there proudly called their village “West Village” in China, comparing it to the Greenwich Village in New York. At that time they were labelled as “vagabonds” (mangliu) since they had no family in Beijing, and no stable job or income. Despite financial difficulties, the Yuanmingyuan artist village was a haven for artists. They were able to enjoy a liberating and vigorous environment by being close to the top universities in Beijing[1]. Access to ideas was limited in China at that time so this proximity was a key ingredient. According to an interview by He Lu, the Yuanmingyuan artist village gave artists a sense of belonging which went far beyond geographic identification as a marginal group unwelcomed by conservative urban society. Many issues arose along with the growth of the artist village. The non-traditional lifestyle and look of these artists were deemed abnormal by many of the general public; the way of their expression and behaviour was too extreme to be accepted by the mainstream in what was ultimately a political district; they were a headache for local police who saw them as troublemakers; moreover, their contact with the western world was a sensitive issue for the government at that time. Suddenly, the village was closed by the government in 1993. Although the Yuanmingyuan artist village existed for only a few years, it is of significance in China’s contemporary art history. It is the birth place of the cynical realism movement as well as the genesis of Fang Lijun, Zhang Xiaogang and Yue Mingjun, now among the most successful Chinese contemporary artists in global art market. The Starting Point of Art Industry: 798 and Songzhuang After the Yuanmingyuan artist village was shut down in 1993, artists moved to two locations in the east of Beijing to escape from the government and embrace the free space they longed for. One was 798, an abandoned electronic switching factory in Beijing’s north-east urban fringe area; the other was Songzhuang in Tongzhou District, a further twenty kilometres east. Both of these sites would be included in the first ten official creative clusters by Beijing municipal government in 2006. But instead of simply being substitutes for the Yuanmingyuan artist village, both have developed their own cultures, functioning and influencing artists’ lives in different ways. Songzhuang is located in Tongzhou which is an outer district in Beijing’s east. Songzhuang was initially a rural location; its livelihood was agriculture and industry. Just before the closing down of the Yuanmingyuan village, several artists including Fang Lijun moved to this remote quiet village. Through word of mouth, more artists followed their steps. There are about four thousand registered artists currently living in Songzhuang now; it is already the biggest visual art community in Beijing. An artistic milieu and a local sense of place have grown with the increasing number of artists. The local district government invests in building impressive exhibition spaces and promoting art in order to bring in more tourists, investors and artists. Compared with Songzhuang, 798 enjoys a favourable location along the airport expressway, between the capital airport and the CBD of Beijing. The unused electronics plant was initially rented as classrooms by the China Central Academy of Fine Arts in the 1990s. Then several artists moved their studios and workshops to the area upon eviction from the Yuanmingyuan village. Until 2002 the site was just a space to rent cheap work space, a factor that has stimulated many art districts globally (Zukin). From that time the resident artists began to plan how to establish a contemporary art district in China. Led by Huang Rui, a leading visual artist, the “798 collective” launched arts events and festivals, notably a “rebuilding 798” project of 2003. More galleries, cafés, bars, and restaurants began to set up, culminating in a management takeover by the Chaoyang District government with the Seven Stars Group[2] prior to the Beijing Olympics. The area now provides massive tax revenue to the local and national government. Nonetheless, both 798 and Songzhuang face problems which reflect the conflict between artists’ attachment to fringe areas and the government’s urbanization approach. 798 can hardly be called an artist production village now due to the local government’s determination to exploit cultural tourism. Over 50 percent of enterprises and people working in 798 now identify 798 as a tourism area rather than an art or “creative” cluster (Liu). Heavy commercialization has greatly disappointed many leading artists. The price for renting space has gone beyond the affordability of artists, and many have chosen to leave. In Songzhuang, the story is similar. In addition to rising prices, a legal dispute between artists and local residents regarding land property rights in 2008 drove some artists out of Songzhuang because they didn’t feel it was stable anymore (Smith). The district’s future as a centre of original art runs up against the aspirations of local officials for more tax revenue and tourist dollars. In the Songzhuang Cultural Creative Industries Cluster Design Plan (cited in Yang), which was developed by J.A.O Design International Architects and Planners Limited and sponsored by the Songzhuang local government in 2007, Songzhuang is designed as an “arts capital incorporated with culture, commerce and tourism.” The down side of this aspiration is that more museums, galleries, shopping centres, hotels, and recreation infrastructure will inevitably be developed in order to capitalise on Songzhuang’s global reputation. Concluding Reflections In reflecting on the recent history of artist villages in Beijing, we might conclude that rural locations are not only a cheap place for artists to live but also a space to showcase their works. More importantly, the relation of artists and outlying district has evolved into a symbiotic relationship. They interact and grow together. The existence of artists transforms the locale and the locale in turn reinforces the identity of artists. In Yuanmingyuan the artists appreciated the old “recluse” tradition and therefore sought spiritual liberation after decades of suppression. The outlying location symbolized freedom to them and provided distance from the world of noisy interaction. But isolation of artists from the local community and the associated constant conflict with local villagers deepened estrangement; these events brought about the end of the dream. In contrast, at 798 and Songzhuang, artists not only regarded the place as their worksite but also engaged with the local community. They communicated with local people and co-developed projects to transform the local landscape. Local communities changed; they started to learn about the artistic world while gaining economic benefits in many ways, such as house renting, running small grocery stores, providing art supplies and even modelling. Their participation into the “art worlds” (Becker) contributed to a changing cultural environment, in turn strengthening the brand of these artist villages. In many regards there were positive externalities for both artists and the district, although as I mentioned in relation to Songzhuang, tensions about land use have never completely been resolved. Today, the fine arts in China have gone far beyond the traditional modes of classics, aesthetics, liberation or rebellion. Art is also a business which requires the access to the material world in order to produce incomes and make profits. It appears that many contemporary artists are not part of a movement of rebellion (except several artists, such as Ai Weiwei), adopting the pure spirit of art as their life-time mission, as in the Yuanmingyuan artist village. They still long for recognition, but they are also concerned with success and producing a livelihood. The boundary between inner urban and outer urban areas is not as significant to them as it once was for artists from a former period. While many artists enjoy the quiet and space of the fringe and rural areas to work; they also require urban space to exhibit their works and earn money. This factor explains the recent emergence of Caochangdi and other artist villages in the neighbouring area around the 798. These latest artist villages in the urban fringe still have open and peaceful spaces and can be accessed easily due to convenient transportation. Unfortunately, the coalition of business and government leads to rapid commercialization of place which is not aligned with the basic need of artists, which is not only a free or affordable place but also a space for creativity. As mentioned above, 798 is now so commercialized that it is too crowded and expensive for artists due to the government’s overdevelopment; whereas the government’s original intention was to facilitate the development of 798. Furthermore, although artists are a key stakeholder in the government’s agenda for visual art industry, it is always the government’s call when artists’ attachment to rural space comes into conflict with Beijing government’s urbanization plan. Hence the government decides which artist villages should be sacrificed to give way to urban development and which direction the reserved artist villages or art clusters should be developed. The logic of government policy causes an absolute distinction between cities and outlying districts. And the government’s enthusiasm for “urbanization” leads to urbanized artist villages, such as the 798. A vicious circle is formed: the government continuously attempts to have selected artist villages commercialized and transformed into urbanized or quasi-urbanized area and closes other artist villages. One of the outcomes of this policy is that in the government created creative clusters, many artists do not stay, and move away into rural and outlying areas because they prefer to work in non-urban spaces. To resolve this dilemma, greater attention is required to understand artists needs and ways to combine urban convenience and rural tranquillity into their development plans. This may be a bridge too far, however. Reference Becker, Howard Saul. Art Worlds. 25th anniversary, updated and expanded ed. Berkeley, CA: U of California P, 2008. Collis, Christy, Emma Felton, and Phil Graham. "Beyond the Inner City: Real and Imagined Places in Creative Place Policy and Practice." The Information Society: An International Journal 26.2 (2010): 104–12. Commission, Outer London. The Mayor's Outer London Commission: Report. London: Great London Authority, 2010. Drake, Graham. "'This Place Gives Me Space': Place and Creativity in the Creative Industries." Geoforum 34.4 (2003): 511–24. Florida, Richard. "Cities and the Creative Class." The Urban Sociology Reader. Eds. Jan Lin and Christopher Mele. London: Routledge, 2005. 290–301. ———. The Rise of the Creative Class. New York: Basic Books, 2002. Gibson, Chris, and Chris Brennan-Horley. "Goodbye Pram City: Beyond Inner/Outer Zone Binaries in Creative City Research." Urban Policy and Research 24.4 (2006): 455–71. Jacobs, Jane. The Economy of Cities. New York: Random House, 1969. Keane, Michael. "The Capital Complex: Beijing's New Creative Clusters." Creative Economies, Creative Cities: Asian-European Perspectives. Ed. Lily Kong and Justin O'Connor. London: Springer, 2009. 77–95. Kotkin, Joel. "The Protean Future of American Cities." New Geographer 7 Mar. 2011. 27 Mar. 2011 ‹http://blogs.forbes.com/joelkotkin/2011/03/07/the-protean-future-of-american-cities/›. Landry, Charles. The Creative City: A Toolkit for Urban Innovators. London: Earthscan Publications, 2000. Leadbeater, Charles, and Kate Oakley. The Independents: Britain's New Cultural Entrepreneurs. London: Demos, 1999. Liu, Mingliang. "Beijing 798 Art Zone: Field Study and Follow-Up Study in the Context of Market." Chinese National Academy of Arts, 2010. Lorenzen, Mark, and Lars Frederiksen. "Why Do Cultural Industries Cluster? Localization, Urbanization, Products and Projects." Creative Cities, Cultural Clusters and Local Economic Development. Ed. Philip Cooke and Luciana Lazzeretti. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2008. 155-79. Mars, Neville, and Adrian Hornsby. The Chinese Dream: A Society under Construction. Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2008. Montgomery, John. The New Wealth of Cities: City Dynamics and the Fifth Wave. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007. Smith, Karen. "Heart of the Art." Beijing: Portrait of a City. Ed. Alexandra Pearson and Lucy Cavender. Hong Kong: The Middle Kingdom Bookworm, 2008. 106–19. Yang, Wei, ed. Songzhuang Arts 2006. Beijing: Hunan Fine Arts Press, 2007. Zhu, Jianfei. Chinese Spatial Strategies Imperial Beijing, 1420-1911. Routledge Curzon, 2004. Zukin, Sharon. The Cultures of Cities. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1995. [1] Most prestigious Chinese universities are located in the Haidian District of Beijing, such as Peking University, Tsinghua University, etc. [2] Seven Star Group is the landholder of the area where 798 is based.