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1
Hart, B. L. "Behavioural defense against parasites: interaction with parasite invasiveness." Parasitology 109, S1 (1994): S139—S151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182000085140.
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SUMMARYBehavioural patterns involved in avoiding, repelling, or removing parasites allow mammalian hosts to defend themselves from an array of parasites that threaten the host's fitness in the natural world. Some examples of behavioural defenses and the presumed target parasites are: grooming to remove ticks, grouping to reduce attack rate of biting flies, fly repelling movements to reduce parasitic flies, and selective grazing to reduce intake of faecal-borne parasites. These behavioural defenses are discussed with regard to effectiveness in controlling the target parasites. Parasites have sometimes evolved behavioural strategies of evading, penetrating or disabling these behavioural defenses. These parasite behavioural strategies, though less studied, are discussed. Also discussed is the possibility that host behavioural patterns that may defend against one parasite may be exploited by a different type of parasite to facilitate its own transmission. The interplay between host defensive strategies, the cost versus the effectiveness of such strategies, and a parasite's evasion or exploitation of such strategies, may be useful in understanding some aspects of host-parasite dynamics in nature.
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Diaz-Albiter, Hector M., Clément Regnault, Edubiel A. Alpizar-Sosa, Dagmara McGuinness, Michael Barrett, and Rod J. Dillon. "Non-invasive visualisation and identification of fluorescent Leishmania tarentolae in infected sand flies." Wellcome Open Research 3 (December 13, 2018): 160. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.14910.1.
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Background: The leishmaniases are neglected diseases that affect some of the most vulnerable populations in the tropical and sub-tropical world. The parasites are transmitted by sand flies and novel strategies to control this neglected vector-borne disease are needed. Blocking transmission by targeting the parasite inside the phlebotomine vector offers potential in this regard. Some experimental approaches can be best performed by longitudinal study of parasites within flies, for which non-destructive methods to identify infected flies and to follow parasite population changes are required. Methods: Lutzomyia longipalpis were reared under standard insectary conditions at the Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology. Flies were artificially infected with L. tarentolae expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP. Parasite counts were carried out 5 days post-infection and the percentage of infected flies and survival of infected females was established up to days 5 post-infection. Whole living females were visualised using an epifluorescence inverted microscope to detect the presence parasites inferred by a localised green fluorescent region in the upper thorax. Confirmation of infection was performed by localised-fluorescence of dissected flies and estimates of the parasite population. Results: Leishmania tarentolae was successfully transfected and expressed GFP in vitro. L. tarentolae-GFP Infected flies showed similar parasite populations when compared to non-transfected parasites (L. tarentolae-WT). Survival of non-infected females was higher than L. tarentolae-infected groups, (Log-rank (Mantel-Cox) test, p<0.05). L. tarentolae-GFP infected females displayed an intense localised fluorescence in the thorax while other specimens from the same infected group did not. Localised fluorescent flies were dissected and showed higher parasite populations compared to those that did not demonstrate high concentrations in this region (t-test, p<0.005). Conclusion: These results demonstrate the feasibility of establishing a safe non-human infectious fluorescent Leishmania-sand fly infection model by allowing non-destructive imaging to signal the establishment of Leishmania infections in living sand flies.
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Gowland, F. "PARASITES PREFER HUNGRY FLIES." Journal of Experimental Biology 206, no. 7 (April 1, 2003): 1104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.00188.
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de Groot, Michiel D., Iris Dumolein, Thomas Hiller, Attila D. Sándor, Tamara Szentiványi, Menno Schilthuizen, M. Catherine Aime, Annemieke Verbeken, and Danny Haelewaters. "On the Fly: Tritrophic Associations of Bats, Bat Flies, and Fungi." Journal of Fungi 6, no. 4 (December 12, 2020): 361. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof6040361.
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Parasitism is one of the most diverse and abundant modes of life, and of great ecological and evolutionary importance. Notwithstanding, large groups of parasites remain relatively understudied. One particularly unique form of parasitism is hyperparasitism, where a parasite is parasitized itself. Bats (Chiroptera) may be parasitized by bat flies (Diptera: Hippoboscoidea), obligate blood-sucking parasites, which in turn may be parasitized by hyperparasitic fungi, Laboulbeniales (Ascomycota: Laboulbeniomycetes). In this study, we present the global tritrophic associations among species within these groups and analyze their host specificity patterns. Bats, bat flies, and Laboulbeniales fungi are shown to form complex networks, and sixteen new associations are revealed. Bat flies are highly host-specific compared to Laboulbeniales. We discuss possible future avenues of study with regard to the dispersal of the fungi, abiotic factors influencing the parasite prevalence, and ecomorphology of the bat fly parasites.
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Hall, Martin J. R., Debashis Ghosh, Daniel Martín-Vega, Brett Clark, Innes Clatworthy, Robert A. Cheke, and Matthew E. Rogers. "Micro-CT visualization of a promastigote secretory gel (PSG) and parasite plug in the digestive tract of the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis infected with Leishmania mexicana." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 15, no. 8 (August 27, 2021): e0009682. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009682.
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Leishmaniasis is a debilitating disease of the tropics, subtropics and southern Europe caused by Leishmania parasites that are transmitted during blood feeding by phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae). Using non-invasive micro-computed tomography, we were able to visualize the impact of the laboratory model infection of Lutzomyia longipalpis with Leishmania mexicana and its response to a second blood meal. For the first time we were able to show in 3D the plug of promastigote secretory gel (PSG) and parasites in the distended midgut of whole infected sand flies and measure its volume in relation to that of the midgut. We were also able to measure the degree of opening of the stomodeal valve and demonstrate the extension of the PSG and parasites into the pharynx. Although our pilot study could only examine a few flies, it supports the hypothesis that a second, non-infected, blood meal enhances parasite transmission as we showed that the thoracic PSG-parasite plug in infected flies after a second blood meal was, on average, more than twice the volume of the plug in infected flies that did not have a second blood meal.
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PIMENTA, P. F. P., G. B. MODI, S. T. PEREIRA, M. SHAHABUDDIN, and D. L. SACKS. "A novel role for the peritrophic matrix in protecting Leishmania from the hydrolytic activities of the sand fly midgut." Parasitology 115, no. 4 (October 1997): 359–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182097001510.
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The role of the peritrophic matrix (PM) in the development of Leishmania major infections in a natural vector, Phlebotomus papatasi, was investigated by addition of exogenous chitinase to the bloodmeal, which completely blocked PM formation. Surprisingly, the absence of the PM was associated with the loss of midgut infections. The chitinase was not directly toxic to the parasite, nor were midgut infections lost due to premature expulsion of the bloodmeal. Most parasites were killed in chitinase-treated flies within the first 4 h after feeding. Substantial early killing was also observed in control flies, suggesting that the lack of PM exacerbates lethal conditions which normally exist in the blood-fed midgut. Early parasite mortality was reversed by soybean trypsin inhibitor. Allosamadin, a specific inhibitor of chitinase, led to a thickening of the PM, and also prevented the early parasite mortality seen in infected flies. Susceptibility to gut proteases was extremely high in transitional-stage parasites, while amastigotes and fully transformed promastigotes were relatively resistant. A novel role for the PM in promoting parasite survival is suggested, in which the PM creates a barrier to the rapid diffusion of digestive enzymes, and limits the exposure of parasites to these enzymes during the time when they are especially vulnerable to proteolytic damage.
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Wijerathna, Tharaka, Nayana Gunathilaka, Kithsiri Gunawardena, Yoshito Fujii, and Deepa Gunasekara. "Detection of Leishmania donovani DNA within Field-Caught Phlebotomine Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Three Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Endemic Foci of Kurunegala District, Sri Lanka." Journal of Tropical Medicine 2021 (April 9, 2021): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/6650388.
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Leishmaniasis is a parasitic infection transmitted through the bite of female phlebotomine sand flies. Microscopy is the gold standard to detect parasites within the sand flies and for vector incrimination. However, molecular-based detection has become more popular nowadays in the identification of Leishmania parasites since it provides detection and species identification simultaneously with no need of laborious procedures. The entomological surveys were conducted monthly from May to October 2017 using standard entomological techniques. Field-caught sand flies were identified to the species level followed by DNA extraction. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed using species-specific primers to detect Leishmania donovani parasites. A total of 1,662 sand flies were encountered from the entomological surveys, and the majority of them were Phlebotomus argentipes (n = 1517; 91.27%), while others were Sergentomyia punjabiensis (n = 140; 8.72%). Leishmania donovani parasite DNA was detected only from P. argentipes (2.3%; n = 2). The detection of Leishmania DNA in P. argentipes suggests the possible role of this species as a vector for leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka.
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Elkanah, S. O., D. S. Elkanah, L. D. Fumlack, Jasini Wahedi, and S. L. Kela. "HOUSEFLIES (MUSCA DOMESTICA) AS POTENTIAL CARRIERS OF HUMAN INTESTINAL PARASITES IN JALINGO METROPOLIS." FUDMA JOURNAL OF SCIENCES 4, no. 3 (September 24, 2020): 402–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2020-0403-302.
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House flies (Musca domestica) are nuisance pest because of their ubiquitous nature in the mechanical transmission of parasites to man. This study identifies the pathogenic parasites associated with house fly in Jalingo, Nigeria. A total of 200 flies were collected from 4 locations (Abattoir, Jalingo Main Market, Kasuwan Bera and Mile-Six Market) within Jalingo metropolis between August, 2019 and November, 2019. Three species of flies were identified during the study namely; Musca spp, Sacophage spp and Stomoxys spp. The house flies were analyzed for the presence pathogenic parasites using standard laboratory techniques. The results showed that the parasites E. histolytica 25(28.74 %), Taenia spp 25(28.74 %), A. lumbricoides 20(22.99 %), Giardia lamblia 8(9.20 %) and Trichuris trichiura 9(10.34 %) are associated with the house flies. The results showed no significant variation (X2= 0.61, p>0.05) between the parasites species. It can be concluded that house flies in Jalingo harbor pathogenic parasites on their bodies. The fact that houseflies have been incriminated to be mechanical transmitters of pathogenic diseases to man because of their anthropogenic lifestyles, measures must be taken to control fly population in order to avert both the present and future outbreak of disease conditions emanating from the flies activities.
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Horn, Collin J., and Lien T. Luong. "Proximity to parasites reduces host fitness independent of infection in a Drosophila–Macrocheles system." Parasitology 145, no. 12 (March 13, 2018): 1564–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182018000379.
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AbstractParasites are known to have direct negative effects on host fitness; however, the indirect effects of parasitism on host fitness sans infection are less well understood. Hosts undergo behavioural and physiological changes when in proximity to parasites. Yet, there is little experimental evidence showing that these changes lead to long-term decreases in host fitness. We aimed to determine if parasite exposure affects host fitness independent of contact, because current approaches to parasite ecology may underestimate the effect of parasites on host populations. We assayed the longevity and reproductive output of Drosophila nigrospiracula exposed or not exposed to ectoparasitic Macrocheles subbadius. In order to preclude contact and infection, mites and flies were permanently separated with a mesh screen. Exposed flies had shorter lives and lower fecundity relative to unexposed flies. Recent work in parasite ecology has argued that parasite–host systems show similar processes as predator–prey systems. Our findings mirror the non-consumptive effects observed in predator–prey systems, in which prey species suffer reduced fitness even if they never come into direct contact with predators. Our results support the perspective that there are analogous effects in parasite–host systems, and suggest new directions for research in both parasite ecology and the ecology of fear.
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Zam, Riza Indira Fadillah Zam, Erma Sulistyaningsih, and Ancah Caesarina Novi Marchianti. "THE BACTERIA AND PARASITE PATTERNS IN FLIES DO NOT ASSOCIATE WITH THE PREVALENCE OF FLY VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES AT THE DAIRY FARM." International Conference on Agromedicine and Tropical Diseases 3, no. 1 (November 30, 2020): 36. http://dx.doi.org/10.19184/icatd.v3i1.24093.
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The fly is the vector of several intestinal diseases. It can transmit pathogenic agents, including bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, as well as parasites such as Entamoeba histolytica, Balantidium coli, and Giardia lamblia. The dairy farm is one of the sites where the flies are commonly found. This study analyzed the association of the bacteria and parasites pattern in flies and the prevalence of fly vector-borne diseases at the dairy farm. The fly samples were collected at the Rembangan Dairy Farm, and the bacteria and parasite were identified at the Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Jember. The prevalence data of fly vector-borne diseases were collected from the Public Health Centers around the study site as secondary data. Bacteria identification using selective media found only E. coli, but no parasite was observed in the samples. We found diarrhea, typhoid, and dysentery as fly vector-borne diseases. Statistical analysis using chi-square resulted in p=0.072, meaning no significant association of the bacteria and parasites pattern in flies and the prevalence of fly vector-borne diseases at the dairy farm. The use of secondary data for disease prevalence could be a limitation of the study. Further study by directly examines the samples from fly vector-borne diseases is needed to draw a definite conclusion.
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LUONG, LIEN T., TAYLOR BROPHY, EMILY STOLZ, and SOLOMON J. CHAN. "State-dependent parasitism by a facultative parasite of fruit flies." Parasitology 144, no. 11 (June 23, 2017): 1468–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182017000890.
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SUMMARYParasites can evolve phenotypically plastic strategies for transmission such that a single genotype can give rise to a range of phenotypes depending on the environmental condition. State-dependent plasticity in particular can arise from individual differences in the parasite's internal state or the condition of the host. Facultative parasites serve as ideal model systems for investigating state-dependent plasticity because individuals can exhibit two life history strategies (free-living or parasitic) depending on the environment. Here, we experimentally show that the ectoparasitic mite Macrocheles subbadius is more likely to parasitize a fruit fly host if the female mite is mated; furthermore, the propensity to infect increased with the level of starvation experienced by the mite. Host condition also played an important role; hosts infected with moderate mite loads were more likely to gain additional infections in pairwise choice tests than uninfected flies. We also found that mites preferentially infected flies subjected to mechanical injury over uninjured flies. These results suggest that a facultative parasite's propensity to infect a host (i.e. switch from a free-living strategy) depends on both the parasite's internal state and host condition. Parasites often live in highly variable and changing environments, an infection strategy that is plastic is likely to be adaptive.
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Graczyk, Thaddeus K., Ronald Knight, and Leena Tamang. "Mechanical Transmission of Human Protozoan Parasites by Insects." Clinical Microbiology Reviews 18, no. 1 (January 2005): 128–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/cmr.18.1.128-132.2005.
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SUMMARY The filthy breeding habits, feeding mechanisms, and indiscriminate travel between filth and food make some groups of synanthropic insects such as nonbiting flies and cockroaches efficient vectors of human enteric protozoan parasites. Twenty-one species of filth flies have been listed by regulatory agencies concerned with sanitation and public health as causative agents of gastrointestinal diseases based on synanthropy, endophily, communicative behavior, and strong attraction to filth and human food. Outbreaks and cases of food-borne diarrheal diseases in urban and rural areas are closely related to the seasonal increase in abundance of filth flies, and enforced fly control is closely related to reductions in the occurrence of such diseases. Mechanical transmission of human parasites by nonbiting flies and epidemiological involvement of other synanthropic insects in human food-borne diseases have not received adequate scientific attention.
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Moore, Janice. "Parasites and the Behavior of Biting Flies." Journal of Parasitology 79, no. 1 (February 1993): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3283270.
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Kacsoh, B. Z., Z. R. Lynch, N. T. Mortimer, and T. A. Schlenke. "Fruit Flies Medicate Offspring After Seeing Parasites." Science 339, no. 6122 (February 21, 2013): 947–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1229625.
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Lienhard, Andrea, Lea Mirwald, Thomas Hötzl, Ilse Kranner, and Gerald Kastberger. "Trade-Off between Foraging Activity and Infestation by Nest Parasites in the Primitively Eusocial BeeHalictus scabiosae." Psyche: A Journal of Entomology 2010 (2010): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2010/707501.
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Diurnal activities ofHalictus scabiosaebees and their nest parasites (major bee-flies, cuckoo wasps, ichneumon wasps,Sphecodesbees, and velvet ants) were investigated at a study site with 159 nests in Eastern Austria. Foraging activity correlated with ambient temperature only before midday and decreased in the afternoon. The activity of nest-infesting parasites increased during the day and correlated with ambient temperature. The match factorfmbetween the ratios of the foraging activities ofH. scabiosaeand the ratios of aspects of morning temperature was assessed on three consecutive days with different weather. The activity patterns of halictine bees and their nest parasites differed: the parasites exhibited only small time windows in which their activities were synchronised with those of their hosts. The bees exhibited an anticyclic behaviour and collected food in times of low parasite pressure and decreased foraging activity when parasite pressure increased.
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Liker, András, Márta Márkus, Ágnes Vozár, Eszter Zemankovics, and Lajos Rózsa. "Distribution of Carnus hemapterus in a starling colony." Canadian Journal of Zoology 79, no. 4 (April 1, 2001): 574–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z01-018.
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The distribution of the haematophagous fly Carnus hemapterus among starling (Sturnus vulgaris) broods was investigated in a nest-box colony. Prevalence of infection was 94% among broods and 69% among individual nestlings, while median abundance was 54 flies per brood (range 0284 flies; n = 33) and 8 flies per individual nestling (range 0117 flies; n = 140). Parasites exhibited an aggregated distribution among starling broods. Carnus hemapterus populations changed significantly during the development of nestlings: fly abundance increased rapidly after nestlings hatched, peaked 58 days after hatching, and decreased thereafter. The proportion of winged flies (assumed to be the transmissive form) and the proportion of male flies decreased with increasing nestling mass. Measures of within-colony spatial position of nests were not related to mean brood abundance, proportion of winged flies, or sex ratio of the flies. Parasite abundance did not correlate with mortality rate or growth rate of nestlings. In conclusion, nestling developmental stage was the only significant predictor of variation in C. hemapterus populations in this starling colony.
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TAIOE, MOETI O., MAKHOSAZANA Y. MOTLOANG, BONIFACE NAMANGALA, AMOS CHOTA, NTHATISI I. MOLEFE, SIMON P. MUSINGUZI, KEISUKE SUGANUMA, et al. "Characterization of tabanid flies (Diptera: Tabanidae) in South Africa and Zambia and detection of protozoan parasites they are harbouring." Parasitology 144, no. 9 (May 15, 2017): 1162–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182017000440.
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SUMMARYTabanids are haematophagous flies feeding on livestock and wildlife. In the absence of information on the relationship of tabanid flies and protozoan parasites in South Africa and Zambia, the current study was aimed at characterizing tabanid flies collected in these two countries as well as detecting protozoan parasites they are harbouring. A total of 527 tabanid flies were collected whereby 70·2% were from South Africa and 29·8% were from Zambia. Morphological analysis revealed a total of five different genera collected from the sampled areas namely:Ancala, Atylotus, Haematopota, PhilolicheandTabanus. DNA extracted from South AfricanTabanus parandTabanus taeniolatested positive for the presence ofTrypanosoma congolense(Savannah) andTrypanosoma theileriwhilst one member fromT. parwas positive forTrypanosoma bruceispecies. DNA extracted from Zambian tabanid flies tested positive for the presence ofBesnoitiaspecies at 1·27% (2/157),Babesia bigemina5·73% (9/157),Theileria parva30·11% (30/157) and 9·82% (14/157) forTrypanosoma evansi. This study is the first to report on relationship ofBabesiaandTheileriaparasites with tabanid flies. Further investigations are required to determine the role of tabanids in transmission of the detected protozoan parasites in livestock and wildlife in South Africa and Zambia.
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Vieira, Esther Gonçalves Morimatsu, Erich Fischer, Gustavo Graciolli, Carolina Ferreira Santos, George Camargo, Maurício Silveira, and Alan Eriksson. "Bat flies aggregation onArtibeus planirostrishosts in the Pantanal floodplain and surrounding plateaus." Parasitology 146, no. 11 (June 13, 2019): 1462–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182019000702.
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AbstractFor parasites in natural systems, the most common pattern of spatial distribution is aggregation among hosts. The main causes of such aggregation are variable exposure of hosts to parasites and heterogeneity in host susceptibility. The objective of this study was to determine if there are differences in the aggregation pattern of two species of ectoparasitic flies between the Pantanal and Cerrado regions of Brazil on the batArtibeus planirostris.We collected the ectoparasites from bats captured between 2002 and 2017 with mist nets in 21 sites in the Pantanal and 15 sites in the surrounding plateaus. The results showed that the aggregation of ectoparasitic flies in Pantanal was more pronounced than in Cerrado. The discrepancy aggregation index (D) of the bat flyMegistopoda araneawas 0.877 in Pantanal and 0.724 in Cerrado. The D values ofAspidoptera phyllostomatiswas even higher, with 0.916 and 0.848 in the Pantanal and Cerrado, respectively. Differences in the shelters used may be the main factor shaping variation in aggregation, since the Pantanal does not have rock formations, with only foliage, crowns and hollow tree trunks. These differences likely affect host exposure to the parasites, leading to an increase in parasite aggregation.
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Hernández-Arciga, Ulalume, L. Gerardo Herrera M., and Juan B. Morales-Malacara. "Tracking host use by bat ectoparasites with stable isotope analysis." Canadian Journal of Zoology 94, no. 5 (May 2016): 353–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2015-0246.
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We used C and N stable isotopes of nectarivorous bats and their ectoparasites to determine the extent to which parasites depend on the host individual for food. The difference in stable isotope values between parasites and host tissues (Δ13C and Δ15N) was used as a proxy of host use. First, we tested the hypothesis that movement among individual Mexican long-tongued bats (Choeronycteris mexicana Tschudi, 1844) is more likely to occur in winged flies than in mites as indicated by higher host–parasite isotopic Euclidian distance (ED). Second, we tested the hypothesis that ectoparasite species in two coexisting bat species representing the C3 (Geoffroy’s tailless bat, Anoura geoffroyi Gray, 1838) and the CAM (lesser long-nosed bat, Leptonycteris yerbabuenae Martínez and Villa-R., 1940) food chains were monoxenous as indicated by their isotopic values. We also examined Δ13C and Δ15N of individual parasites in relation to 13C and 15N reference enrichment factors as an indication of host switching. In general, flies in C. mexicana had higher ED and wider ranges of individual Δ13C and Δ15N than mites, suggesting that host switching occurred to a larger extent. Most ectoparasites species collected in both coexisting bats were monoxenous, but one fly species appears to be oligoxenous. Individual Δ13C and Δ15N values varied widely in these parasite species, suggesting movements within species hosts.
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Hart, Benjamin L., and Lynette A. Hart. "How mammals stay healthy in nature: the evolution of behaviours to avoid parasites and pathogens." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373, no. 1751 (June 4, 2018): 20170205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0205.
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Mammals live and thrive in environments presenting ongoing threats from parasites in the form of biting flies, ticks and intestinal worms and from pathogens as wound contaminants and agents of infectious disease. Several strategies have evolved that enable animals to deal with parasites and pathogens, including eliminating away from the sleeping–resting areas, use of an array of grooming techniques, use of saliva in licking, and consuming medicinal plant-based compounds. These strategies all are species-specific and reflect the particular environment that the animal inhabits. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue ‘Evolution of pathogen and parasite avoidance behaviours’.
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Kato, Hirotomo, Chisato Seki, Makoto Kubo, Lizandro Gonzales-Cornejo, and Abraham G. Caceres. "Natural infections of Pintomyia verrucarum and Pintomyia maranonensis by Leishmania (Viannia) peruviana in the Eastern Andes of northern Peru." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 15, no. 4 (April 15, 2021): e0009352. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009352.
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The natural infection of sand flies by Leishmania was investigated in Andean areas located between the Central and Eastern Cordilleras of northern Peru where cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (Viannia) peruviana is endemic. Sand flies were captured at five locations along the Utcubamba River in the Department of Amazonas, and morphologically identified under a microscope. Among 422 female sand flies dissected, the most dominant species was Pintomyia verrucarum (320 flies), followed by Pi. maranonensis (83 flies), Pi. robusta (13 flies), and Lutzomyia castanea (6 flies). Genetic analysis of sand flies from these areas together with those from other areas revealed that individuals of Pi. verrucarum were closely related regardless of morphological variation of their spermathecae. On the other hand, individuals of Pi. maranonensis collected in the study area were distant from those of other areas with genetic distances over the intraspecific level but mostly below the interspecific level, suggesting the unique characteristics of sand flies in this area. The natural infection of sand flies by flagellate parasites was detected mainly in the hindgut of each one of Pi. verrucarum and Pi. maranonensis. Both parasite species were identified as L. (V.) peruviana based on cytochrome b and mannose phosphate isomerase gene analyses. In addition, parasite species obtained from the lesion of a patient with cutaneous leishmaniasis in the study area in this period was identified as L. (V.) peruviana. These results strongly suggest that Pi. verrucarum and Pi. maranonensis are responsible for the transmission of L. (V.) peruviana in these areas. This is the first report of the natural infection of Pi. maranonensis by L. (V.) peruviana.
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Puchala, Peter. "Detrimental effects of larval blow flies (Protocalliphora azurea) on nestlings and breeding success of Tree Sparrows (Passer montanus)." Canadian Journal of Zoology 82, no. 8 (August 1, 2004): 1285–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z04-111.
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The effect of bloodsucking parasitic larvae of the blow fly Protocalliphora azurea (Fallén, 1817) (Diptera) on Tree Sparrow, Passer montanus (L., 1758), breeding success was studied in populations breeding in nest boxes in southwestern Slovakia. Out of 52 examined nests only seven broods (13%) were unparasitized. The mean number of larvae per parasitized nest was 22.6 and the total number of parasites per nest ranged from 1 to 80. Large numbers of blow fly larvae and pupae significantly influenced nestling survival and fledging success. In broods with parasite load per chick higher than nine, at least one nestling died. To record the effects of parasites on the body size of nestlings of different ages, nestlings were measured on days 5, 10, and 13 post hatch. First and second broods were analysed separately. A significant negative effect of parasite load per nestling on the body mass, wing length, tarsal length, and tail length of nestlings was found in the second broods only in the 10- and 13-day-old chicks. Tree Sparrow parents did not prolong nestling provisioning time per nestling, as there was no negative relationship between parasite load per nestling and feeding period. Contradictory to most previous studies of the genus Protocalliphora, the present study suggests that these parasites have an important negative impact on the breeding success of the studied Tree Sparrow populations.
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Becvar, Tomas, Barbora Vojtkova, Padet Siriyasatien, Jan Votypka, David Modry, Petr Jahn, Paul Bates, Simon Carpenter, Petr Volf, and Jovana Sadlova. "Experimental transmission of Leishmania (Mundinia) parasites by biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)." PLOS Pathogens 17, no. 6 (June 11, 2021): e1009654. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1009654.
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Leishmania parasites, causative agents of leishmaniasis, are currently divided into four subgenera: Leishmania, Viannia, Sauroleishmania and Mundinia. The recently established subgenus Mundinia has a wide geographical distribution and contains five species, three of which have the potential to infect and cause disease in humans. While the other Leishmania subgenera are transmitted exclusively by phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae), natural vectors of Mundinia remain uncertain. This study investigates the potential of sand flies and biting midges of the genus Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) to transmit Leishmania parasites of the subgenus Mundinia. Sand flies (Phlebotomus argentipes, P. duboscqi and Lutzomyia migonei) and Culicoides biting midges (Culicoides sonorensis) were exposed to five Mundinia species through a chicken skin membrane and dissected at specific time intervals, post bloodmeal. Potentially infected insects were also allowed to feed on ear pinnae of anaesthetized BALB/c mice and the presence of Leishmania DNA was subsequently confirmed in the mice using polymerase chain reaction analyses. In C. sonorensis, all Mundinia species tested were able to establish infection at a high rate, successfully colonize the stomodeal valve and produce a higher proportion of metacyclic forms than in sand flies. Subsequently, three parasite species, L. martiniquensis, L. orientalis and L. sp. from Ghana, were transmitted to the host mouse ear by C. sonorensis bite. In contrast, transmission experiments entirely failed with P. argentipes, although colonisation of the stomodeal valve was observed for L. orientalis and L. martiniquensis and metacyclic forms of L. orientalis were recorded. This laboratory-based transmission of Mundinia species highlights that Culicoides are potential vectors of members of this ancestral subgenus of Leishmania and we suggest further studies in endemic areas to confirm their role in the lifecycles of neglected pathogens.
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THEODORIDIS (Ι. ΘΕΟΔΩΡΙΔΗΣ), Y., I. GEORGOULAKIS (Ι. ΓΕΩΡΓΟΥΛΑΚΗΣ), and A. FOUNDA (Α. ΦΟΥΝΤΑ). "Dipteran species in agricultural region of eastern Thessaloniki." Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society 50, no. 1 (January 31, 2018): 50. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.15697.
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In an agricultural region of Thessaloniki province, fly traps were placed, which contained substances in order to attract flies with the purpose to trap and identify them. The substances were, pieces offish, meat and feta cheese, sugar and faeces of small ruminants. Fifteen different flies species were trapped, of which, thirteen are mentioned in the international bibliography, as parasites, such as, Musca domestica, Muscina sp, Fannia sp, Phormia regina, Lucilia (Phaenicia) sericata, Calliphora erythrocephala (vicina), Sarcophaga sp, Oestrus ovis, Gasterophillus sp, Stomoxys calcitrans, Haematobia (Shiphona) irritans, Chrysops sp and Hydrotaea (Ophyra) spp and two, as no parasites, such as Drosophilla melanogaster and Apis mellifera. From the trapped flies, Hydrotaea sp, Muscina sp, Fannia sp and Phormia regina, were identified for the first time in Greece. From the substances which were used in order to attract the flies, the fish was the one that all flies showed preference to, in the greater number, while the rest of the substances they chose descending order, was meat, sugar and feta cheese. Finally, only one fly was found in the excrement of small ruminants.
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Kamhawi, Shaden. "Phlebotomine sand flies and Leishmania parasites: friends or foes?" Trends in Parasitology 22, no. 9 (September 2006): 439–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2006.06.012.
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Mooring, Michael S., and Benjamin L. Hart. "Animal Grouping for Protection From Parasites: Selfish Herd and Encounter-Dilution Effects." Behaviour 123, no. 3-4 (1992): 173–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853992x00011.
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AbstractGrouping has been widely accepted as a mechanism for protection from predation. Just as has been apparent with predation, there is now ample evidence that parasites (biting flies, warble flies and parasitoids) can impact an animal's individual fitness. Some aspects of grouping, namely an encounter-dilution effect and the selfish herd effect, appear to apply as much to protection of animals from flying parasites as protection from predators. The encounter-dilution effect provides protection when the probability of detection of a group does not increase in proportion to an increase in group size (the encounter effect), provided that the parasites do not offset the encounter effect by attacking more members of the group (the dilution effect). The selfish herd effect provides protection from flying parasites to animals that are in the center of a group or more closely placed to other animals. Most of the quantitative evidence for the protection from flying parasites from grouping comes from studies on ungulates. Further investigation of these effects among a variety of taxa is needed for a full appreciation of the role of parasites in animal grouping and sociality.
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Patterson, Bruce D., Carl W. Dick, and Katharina Dittmar. "Roosting habits of bats affect their parasitism by bat flies (Diptera: Streblidae)." Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, no. 2 (March 2007): 177–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467406003816.
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The Smithsonian Venezuela Project (SVP) conducted extensive surveys of mammals and ectoparasites in the 1960s. The 25 238 individuals and 130 species of bat collected by SVP hosted 36 663 streblid bat flies, representing 116 species of these ectoparasitic dipterans. Roosts of bat species differ in durability and protection, and bat flies separate from the host to pupate in the roost. We predicted higher levels of parasitism and more parasitic associates for bats roosting in more permanent structures (e.g. caves, tunnels) that would facilitate their association with hosts. We also predicted wing development of flies should correlate inversely with roost duration, restricting flightless forms to bats in permanent roosts. Ranking roosting structures by durability and protection, we sought correlations among bat species in prevalence, mean intensity and number of associated fly species. All three measures of parasitism were positively and significantly related to roosting habits: bats roosting in more permanent, enclosed structures were more likely to be infested, to carry heavier parasite loads, and to harbour more species of ectoparasitic flies. However, roosting habits were not correlated with the average wing development of bat flies. Although other factors affect parasitism rates in bats, the study provides a compelling example of both ecological and evolutionary responses of parasites to features of the host's environment.
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Lira, Rosalia, Mark Doherty, Govind Modi, and David Sacks. "Evolution of Lesion Formation, Parasitic Load, Immune Response, and Reservoir Potential in C57BL/6 Mice following High- and Low-Dose Challenge with Leishmania major." Infection and Immunity 68, no. 9 (September 1, 2000): 5176–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.68.9.5176-5182.2000.
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ABSTRACT A model of cutaneous leishmaniasis using 102 Leishmania major metacyclic promastigotes inoculated into the footpads of genetically resistant C57BL/6 mice was studied in order to more accurately reproduce the evolution of lesion formation and the kinetics of parasite growth and immune response as they might occur in naturally exposed reservoirs and in human hosts. In contrast to the more conventional experimental model employing 106metacyclic promastigotes, in which the rapid development of footpad lesions was associated with an increasing number of amastigotes in the site, the low-dose model revealed a remarkably “silent” phase of parasite growth, lasting approximately 6 weeks, during which peak parasitic loads were established in the absence of any overt pathology. Footpad swelling was observed after 6 weeks, coincident with the onset of parasite clearance and with production of high levels of interleukin-12 (IL-12) and gamma interferon (IFN-γ) in draining lymph nodes. Low-dose challenge of IL-12- and IFN-γ-depleted or -deficient mice provided strong evidence that the induction or expression of cellular immunity is essentially absent during the first 6 to 8 weeks of intracellular growth, since the concentration of amastigotes in the site was not enhanced compared to that for wild-type animals during this time. By monitoring the ability of infected mice to transmit parasites to vector sand flies, it was observed that following low-dose challenge, footpads without apparent lesions provided an efficient source of parasites for exposed flies and that the low-dose challenge actually extended the duration of parasite transmissibility during the course of infection.
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Hoyos, Juliana, Ranulfo González, Maria E. Cuellar, and Cielo León. "Ecology of Sand Flies (Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) and Natural Infection of Pintomyia townsendi With Leishmania amazonensis in a Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Focus in Colombia." Journal of Medical Entomology 57, no. 5 (March 29, 2020): 1653–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjaa056.
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Abstract Humans have influenced the epidemiological patterns of American cutaneous leishmaniasis by habitat disturbance, which has led to the emergence of new transmission foci. In these transmission areas, detecting natural infection of sand fly species with Leishmania parasites is of prime importance in epidemiological studies. In this study, we examined the species composition, spatial distribution, seasonality, and natural infection with Leishmania of the sand fly fauna in an emergent leishmaniasis focus located in Colombia. Sand flies were collected from September 2014 to June 2015 using CDC light traps located in indoor, peridomestic, and outdoor habitats within areas with confirmed clinical patients. In total, 13,488 sand flies of 12 species and seven genera were collected. Among these, Pintomyia townsendi (Ortiz) was the most abundant species comprising 76.3% of total flies collected. The sand fly richness and abundance were influenced by habitat and weather conditions. Outdoor areas harbored the greatest diversity of sand flies. Rainfall negatively affected abundance, whereas increased temperature showed a low positive effect. We detected Leishmania amazonensis parasites in Pi. townsendi for the first time.
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Carmichael, Samuel, Ben Powell, Thomas Hoare, Pegine B. Walrad, and Jonathan W. Pitchford. "Variable bites and dynamic populations; new insights in Leishmania transmission." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 15, no. 1 (January 25, 2021): e0009033. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009033.
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Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease which kills an estimated 50,000 people each year, with its deadly impact confined mainly to lower to middle income countries. Leishmania parasites are transmitted to human hosts by sand fly vectors during blood feeding. Recent experimental work shows that transmission is modulated by the patchy landscape of infection in the host’s skin, and the parasite population dynamics within the vector. Here we assimilate these new findings into a simple probabilistic model for disease transmission which replicates recent experimental results, and assesses their relative importance. The results of subsequent simulations, describing random parasite uptake and dynamics across multiple blood meals, show that skin heterogeneity is important for transmission by short-lived flies, but that for longer-lived flies with multiple bites the population dynamics within the vector dominate transmission probability. Our results indicate that efforts to reduce fly lifespan beneath a threshold of around two weeks may be especially helpful in reducing disease transmission.
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RODRIGUEZ, N. M., Z. DE GUGLIELMO, M. A. BARRIOS, R. M. BARRIOS, O. ZERPA, and M. D. FELICIANGELI. "Genetic homogeneity within Leishmania (L.) infantum isolated from human and dogs: the relationship with the sandfly fauna distribution in endemic areas of Nueva Esparta State, Venezuela." Parasitology 130, no. 6 (February 22, 2005): 611–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182004007085.
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Leishmania infantum has been described as a highly polymorphic group of parasites, responsible for visceral leishmaniasis and cutaneous leishmaniasis. In this paper we report the life-cycle of L. (L.) infantum in an endemic area of visceral leishmaniasis in Venezuela, by using molecular diagnosis and characterization of parasites isolated from dogs, humans with visceral leishmaniasis and sand flies. The molecular characterization was carried out by use of kDNA restriction analysis, dot-blot hybridization with species-specific probes and RFLP of the PCR products. The results demonstrated that L. (L.) infantum is the parasite responsible for VL in the island. The parasites were revealed to be genetically homogeneous with no intra-specific differences between isolates from different individuals. The highest homology of the isolates was with L. (L.) infantum from the Old World rather than with L. (L.) chagasi from the New World. Additionally, we report the geographical distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis, and the relationship with the transmission of L. (L.) infantum in the studied area.
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Jaenike, J. "Aggregations of nematode parasites within Drosophila: proximate causes." Parasitology 108, no. 5 (June 1994): 569–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s003118200007743x.
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SummaryMacroparasites almost invariably exhibit overdispersed distributions of parasites/host, yet the specific causes of such aggregations remain poorly understood. The present study focused on the distribution of the parasitic nematode Howardula aoronymphium among its hosts, several species of mycophagous Drosophila. The distribution of parasites/host is close to random for cohorts of flies of a given host species emerging from single mushrooms. At the level of Howardula populations, overdispersion of parasites among hosts results primarily from variation among subgroups of hosts in their exposure to infective-stage nematodes. The sources of variation identified in this study include Drosophila host species, the site where flies bred, mushroom species within sites, and, most importantly, individual mushrooms within mushroom species at a site. For the mean intensity of parasitism observed in this study, the degree of aggregation is typical of macroparasites in general. Combinations of random distributions with different means, resulting from variation among groups in exposure to parasites, may be a common cause of the overdispersion of macroparasites among hosts.
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Szentiványi, Tamara, Wanda Markotter, Muriel Dietrich, Laura Clément, Laurie Ançay, Loïc Brun, Eléonore Genzoni, et al. "Host conservation through their parasites: molecular surveillance of vector-borne microorganisms in bats using ectoparasitic bat flies." Parasite 27 (2020): 72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2020069.
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Most vertebrates host a wide variety of haematophagous parasites, which may play an important role in the transmission of vector-borne microorganisms to hosts. Surveillance is usually performed by collecting blood and/or tissue samples from vertebrate hosts. There are multiple methods to obtain samples, which can be stored for decades if properly kept. However, blood sampling is considered an invasive method and may possibly be harmful to the sampled individual. In this study, we investigated the use of ectoparasites as a tool to acquire molecular information about the presence and diversity of infectious microorganism in host populations. We tested the presence of three distinct vector-borne microorganisms in both bat blood and bat flies: Bartonella bacteria, malaria-like Polychromophilus sp. (Apicomplexa), and Trypanosoma sp. (Kinetoplastea). We detected the presence of these microorganisms both in bats and in their bat flies, with the exception of Trypanosoma sp. in South African bat flies. Additionally, we found Bartonella sp. in bat flies from one population in Spain, suggesting its presence in the host population even if not detected in bats. Bartonella and Polychromophilus infection showed the highest prevalence in both bat and bat fly populations. Single, co- and triple infections were also frequently present in both. We highlight the use of haematophagous ectoparasites to study the presence of infectious microorganism in host blood and its use as an alternative, less invasive sampling method.
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GOTO, Chie, Hitoshi TSUTSUI, and Hirohumi HAYAKAWA. "Parasites of some noctuid larvae in Hokkaido. I. Parasitic flies." Japanese journal of applied entomology and zoology 30, no. 3 (1986): 204–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1303/jjaez.30.204.
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MIMORI, Tatsuyuki, Edowald GOMEZ, and Yoshihisa HASHIGUCHI. "P22 Prevalence of Leishmania parasites in Sand flies using PCR." Medical Entomology and Zoology 52, Supplement (2001): 83. http://dx.doi.org/10.7601/mez.52.83_2.
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Skoda, Steven R., John B. Campbell, and Gustave D. Thomas. "Parasites of Face Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) in South Central Nebraska1." Environmental Entomology 16, no. 4 (August 1, 1987): 902–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ee/16.4.902.
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Mierzejewski, Monika K., Collin J. Horn, and Lien T. Luong. "Ecology of fear: environment-dependent parasite avoidance among ovipositing Drosophila." Parasitology 146, no. 12 (July 15, 2019): 1564–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182019000854.
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AbstractHabitat avoidance is an anti-parasite behaviour exhibited by at-risk hosts that can minimize exposure to parasites. Because environments are often heterogeneous, host decision-making with regards to habitat use may be affected by the presence of parasites and habitat quality simultaneously. In this study we examine how the ovipositing behaviour of a cactiphilic fruit fly, Drosophila nigrospiracula, is affected by the presence of an ectoparasitic mite, Macrocheles subbadius, in conjunction with other environmental factors – specifically the presence or absence of conspecific eggs and host plant tissue. We hypothesized that the trade-off between site quality and parasite avoidance should favour ovipositing at mite-free sites even if it is of inferior quality. We found that although flies avoided mites in homogeneous environments (86% of eggs at mite-free sites), site quality overwhelmed mite avoidance. Both conspecific eggs (65% of eggs at infested sites with other Drosophila eggs) and host plant tissue (78% of eggs at infested sites with cactus) overpowered mite avoidance. Our results elucidate the context-dependent decision-making of hosts in response to the presence of parasites in variable environments, and suggest how the ecology of fear and associated trade-offs may influence the relative investment in anti-parasite behaviour in susceptible hosts.
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da Silva, Sydnei M., Izabela F. G. Amorim, Raul R. Ribeiro, Erly G. Azevedo, Cynthia Demicheli, Maria N. Melo, Wagner L. Tafuri, Nelder F. Gontijo, Marilene S. M. Michalick, and Frédéric Frézard. "Efficacy of Combined Therapy with Liposome-Encapsulated Meglumine Antimoniate and Allopurinol in Treatment of Canine Visceral Leishmaniasis." Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 56, no. 6 (March 12, 2012): 2858–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aac.00208-12.
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ABSTRACTAn innovative liposomal formulation of meglumine antimoniate (LMA) was recently reported to promote both long-term parasite suppression and reduction of infectivity to sand flies in dogs with visceral leishmaniasis. However, 5 months after treatment, parasites were still found in the bone marrow of all treated dogs. In order to improve treatment with LMA, the present study aimed to evaluate its efficacy in combination with allopurinol. Mongrel dogs naturally infected withLeishmania infantumwere treated with six doses of LMA (6.5 mg Sb/kg of body weight/dose) given at 4-day intervals, plus allopurinol (20 mg/kg/24 hper os) for 140 days. Comparison was made with groups treated with LMA, allopurinol, empty liposomes plus allopurinol, empty liposomes, and saline. Dogs remained without treatment from day 140 to 200 after the start of treatment. The drug combination promoted both clinical improvement of dogs and significant reduction in the parasitic load in bone marrow and spleen on days 140 and 200 compared to these parameters in the pretreatment period. This is in contrast with the other protocols, which did not result in significant reduction of the bone marrow parasite load on day 200. Strikingly, the combined treatment, in contrast to the other regimens, induced negative quantitative PCR (qPCR) results in the liver of 100% of the dogs. Both xenodiagnosis and skin parasite determination by qPCR indicated that the drug combination was effective in blocking the transmission of skin parasites to sand flies. Based on all of the parasitological tests performed on day 200, 50% of the animals that received the combined treatment were considered cured.
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Rohner, Christoph, Charles J. Krebs, D. Bruce Hunter, and Douglas C. Currie. "Roost Site Selection of Great Horned Owls in Relation to Black Fly Activity: An Anti-Parasite Behavior?" Condor 102, no. 4 (November 1, 2000): 950–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/condor/102.4.950.
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Abstract We document a shift in roosting behavior of Great Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus) from winter and late spring to summer. During summer, Great Horned Owls roosted near the ground or exposed on open ground, whereas they chose concealed perches at mid-canopy level for the rest of the year as typical for forest owls. This shift of roosting behavior coincided with the emergence of ornithophilic black flies, which transmit avian malaria (Leucocytozoon spp.). The shift in roosting behavior was consistent with measurements of parasite exposure at different habitat positions. Black fly activity was highest at mid-canopy level, and almost no black flies were active on open ground. Ground-roosting was not caused by poorly developed flying capability of juveniles, because solitarily-roosting adult owls showed the same behavioral shift in a second year of study. Black flies and avian malaria are widely distributed, and the effect of the vertical distribution of these parasites in forests on roosting, nesting, and foraging of sylvatic birds deserves further study.
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Oforka, Linda C., Monsuru A. Adeleke, Joseph C. Anikwe, Nate B. Hardy, Derrick K. Mathias, Winifred A. Makanjuola, and Henry Y. Fadamiro. "Biting Rates and Onchocerca Infectivity Status of Black Flies from the Simulium damnosum Complex (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Osun State, Nigeria." Journal of Medical Entomology 57, no. 3 (January 4, 2020): 901–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjz250.
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Abstract The Simulium damnosum Theobald complex transmits Onchocerca volvulus Leuckart (Spirurida: Onchocercidae), the causative agent of onchocerciasis. Recent evidence suggests that control efforts have strongly suppressed parasite populations, but vector surveillance is needed in parts of Africa where the disease remains endemic. Here, studies on biting rates and infectivity status of suspected vector species were conducted in three onchocerciasis-endemic areas, namely Iwo, Ede, and Obokun, in Osun State, Nigeria. A total of 3,035 black flies were collected between October 2014 and September 2016, and examined for parity and parasites using standard methods. A separate collection of 2,000 black flies was pool-screened for infectivity using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the O-150 marker. Results showed that parous flies were significantly less common than nulliparous flies with overall parous rates of 8.02% in Iwo and 35.38% in Ede at the end of the study period. Obokun had a parous rate of 22.22% obtained in the first year only. None of the dissected parous flies were infected with O. volvulus and PCR assays showed no amplification of O-150 O. volvulus-specific repeats in head and body pools. However, annual biting rates exceeded the World Health Organization threshold of 1,000 bites/person/yr. Thus it appears that, with such high rates of biting, even low levels of vector infection can sustain onchocerciasis in African communities.
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Basáñez, M. G., M. Boussinesq, J. Prod'hon, H. Frontado, N. J. Villamizar, G. F. Medley, and R. M. Anderson. "Density-dependent processes in the transmission of human onchocerciasis: intensity of microfilariae in the skin and their uptake by the simuliid host." Parasitology 108, no. 1 (January 1994): 115–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182000078586.
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SUMMARYThe transmission success of Onchocerca volvulus is thought to be influenced by a variety of regulatory or density-dependent processes that act at various points in the two-host life-cycle. This paper examines one component of the life-cycle, namely, the ingestion of microfilariae by the simuliid vector, to assess the relationship between intake of larvae and the density of parasites in the skin of the human host. Analysis is based on data from three areas in which onchocerciasis is endemic and includes published information as well as new data collected in field studies. The three areas are: Guatemala (Simulium ochraceum sl.), West and Central Africa (savanna members of the S. damnosum complex), and South Venezuela (S. guianense). The data record experimental studies of parasite uptake by flies captured in the field and fed to repletion on locally infected subjects who harboured varying intensities of dermal microfilarial infection. Regression analyses of log transformed counts of parasite burdens ingested by the flies plotted against log transformed counts of microfilariae per mg of skin revealed little evidence for saturation in parasite uptake by the flies as the intensity in the human host increased. There was a positive and highly significant rank correlation between both variables for the three blackfly species. In an alternative analysis a model was fitted to data on prevalence of flies with ingested microfilariae (mff) versus dermal mean intensities. The model assumed an overdispersed distribution of the number of mff/fly and a given functional relationship between intake and skin load. The results of both approaches were consistent. It is concluded that parasite ingestiossssn by the vector host is not strongly density dependent in the three geographical areas and ranges of dermal loads examined. It therefore appears that this transmission process is of reduced importance as a regulatory mechanism in the dynamics of parasite population growth.
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Calzolari, Mattia, Elena Carra, Gianluca Rugna, Paolo Bonilauri, Federica Bergamini, Romeo Bellini, Stefania Varani, and Michele Dottori. "Isolation and Molecular Typing of Leishmania infantum from Phlebotomus perfiliewi in a Re-Emerging Focus of Leishmaniasis, Northeastern Italy." Microorganisms 7, no. 12 (December 3, 2019): 644. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7120644.
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Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) caused by Leishmania (L.) infantum is a public health threat in the Emilia-Romagna region, northeastern Italy, but its epidemiology has not been fully elucidated in this area. The objective of this study was to characterize Leishmania infection in sand flies collected in a re-emerging focus of VL in the Bologna province. During the summer of 2016, 6114 sand flies were collected, identified, and tested for Leishmania detection. Of the identified sand flies, 96.5% were Phlebotomus (P.) perfiliewi and 3.5% were P. perniciosus. Detected parasites were characterized by biomolecular methods (multilocus microsatellite typing and characterization of repetitive region on chromosome 31), and quantified by real-time PCR. The prevalence of Leishmania infection in individually-tested P. perfiliewi sand flies varied from 6% to 10% with an increasing trend during the season. Promastigotes of L. infantum were isolated by dissection in one P. perfiliewi female; the isolated strain (Lein-pw) were closely related to Leishmania parasites from VL cases in northeastern Italy, but differed from strains isolated in dogs from the same area. Our findings strongly support the vector status of P. perfiliewi for human VL in the study area.
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Voigt, Christian C., and Detlev H. Kelm. "Host preferences of bat flies: following the bloody path of stable isotopes in a host–parasite food chain." Canadian Journal of Zoology 84, no. 3 (March 1, 2006): 397–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z06-007.
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Almost all mammals are infested with ectoparasites, but even though parasites may have a strong impact on their host, their host specificity is often unknown. We studied the host preferences of two bat fly species, Strebla wiedemanni Kolenati, 1856 and Trichobius parasiticus Gervais, 1844, identified on the common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus (E. Geoffroy, 1810), using stable carbon isotopes. Since D. rotundus was part of the C4 food web and other bats sharing the roost with D. rotundus were part of the C3 food web, bat flies were exposed to two isotopically distinct potential hosts. The δ13C values of the two bat fly species collected from D. rotundus were similar (–11.5 ± 1.1 (mean ± SD) for S. wiedemanni and –12.4 ± 1.9 for T. parasiticus) and identified them as members of the C4 food web, although their δ13C value was significantly lower by –1.7 ± 2.6 than that of the corresponding host individual. The δ13C value of bat flies collected from Carollia perspicillata (L., 1758) sharing roosts with D. rotundus averaged –24.2 ± 0.3, which was also significantly lower by –1.3 ± 1.1 than the host's δ13C value. We concluded that the negative shift in δ13C of D. rotundus bat flies relative to the host individual was caused by isotopic fractionation rather than by a mixed diet. The enrichment in nitrogen-15 from S. wiedemanni and T. parasiticus to D. rotundus equaled 2.3, which indicates one trophic step between the host and the parasite. In summary, both bat fly species preferred D. rotundus over other bat species and are therefore truly monoxenous parasites.
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Sulaiman, Sallehudin, Abdul Rahim Sohadi, and John Jeffery. "Human helminth parasite burdens on cyclorrhaphan flies (Diptera) trapped at an aboriginal settlement in Malaysia." Bulletin of Entomological Research 79, no. 4 (November 1989): 625–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300018770.
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AbstractThe human helminth parasite burdens on cyclorrhaphan flies was studied in an aboriginal settlement in Malaysia in 1987–88. Chrysomya megacephala (F.), which formed 79.5% of total fly population trapped in this settlement, had eggs of the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, the pinworm Trichuris trichiura and hookworm (Necator americanus and/or Ancylostoma duodenale) on the external body surface and gut lumen. There was a close correlation between monthly rainfall and the mean numbers of C. megacephala caught per two trap-hours. Eggs (but no larvae) of the parasites were found on flies when the monthly rainfall and the C. megacephala population were relatively high, in April-June 1987, October-November 1987 and March 1988. Human helminth eggs were also isolated from C. rufifacies (Macquart) and Hemipyrellia tagaliana (Bigot), being recorded from the latter in Malaysia for the first time.
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SADLOVA, JOVANA, JITKA MYSKOVA, TEREZA LESTINOVA, JAN VOTYPKA, MATTHEW YEO, and PETR VOLF. "Leishmania donovani development in Phlebotomus argentipes: comparison of promastigote- and amastigote-initiated infections." Parasitology 144, no. 4 (November 23, 2016): 403–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182016002067.
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SUMMARYLeishmania parasites alternate in their life cycle between promastigote stages that develop in the gut of phlebotomine sand flies and amastigotes residing inside phagocytic cells of vertebrate hosts. For experimental infections of sand flies, promastigotes are frequently used as this way of infection is technically easier although ingestion of promastigotes by sand flies is unnatural. Here we aimed to answer a critical question, to what extent do promastigote-initiated experimental infections differ from those initiated with intracellular amastigotes. We performed side-by-side comparison of Leishmania development in Phlebotomus argentipes females infected alternatively with promastigotes from log-phase cultures or amastigotes grown ex vivo in macrophages. Early stage infections showed substantial differences in parasite load and representation of morphological forms. The differences disappeared along the maturation of infections; both groups developed heavy late-stage infections with colonization of the stomodeal valve, uniform representation of infective metacyclics and equal efficiency of transmission. The results showed that studies focusing on early phase of Leishmania development in sand flies should be initiated with intracellular amastigotes. However, the use of promastigote stages for sand fly infections does not alter significantly the final outcome of Leishmania donovani development in P. argentipes and their transmissibility to the vertebrate host.
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Barnes, Amber N., Anu Davaasuren, Uyanga Baasandavga, Paul M. Lantos, Battsetseg Gonchigoo, and Gregory C. Gray. "Zoonotic enteric parasites in Mongolian people, animals, and the environment: Using One Health to address shared pathogens." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 15, no. 7 (July 8, 2021): e0009543. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009543.
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Background Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are important zoonotic enteric pathogens of One Health concern for humans, animals, and the environment. For this study, we investigated parasite prevalence and risk factors among rural, peri-urban, and urban households and environments of Mongolia. Methods This cross-sectional study implemented a household risk factor survey at 250 home sites along with sample collection from humans, animals, flies, and drinking water. Multiplex real-time PCR analysis was conducted to look for Cryptosporidium spp. and/or Giardia duodenalis within household samples. Results Lab analysis found one or both zoonotic parasites at 20% of the participating households (51/250). Human samples had a parasite prevalence of 6.4% (27/419), domestic animals at 3.3% (19/570), pooled filth flies at 14.8% (17/115), and drinking water samples at 2% (5/250). Parasite presence at the household was significantly associated with a household’s use of an improved drinking water source (OR 0.27; CI 0.12–0.61; p = < 0.01), having an indoor handwashing site (OR 0.41; CI 0.19–0.92; p = 0.03), domestic animal ownership (OR 2.40; CI 1.02–5.65; p = 0.05), and rural location (OR 0.50; CI 0.25–0.98; p = 0.04). Household use of an improved drinking water source remained significant in the multivariate model (OR 0.16; CI 0.04–0.68; p = 0.01). Conclusion In Mongolia, public and veterinary health are intertwined, particularly for rural herding households. Increased access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructure could help prevent further transmission of zoonotic enteric parasites. Public health interventions, policy and messaging should utilize a One Health framework employing joint leadership from local human and animal health sectors.
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Srisuton, Phumee, Sunantaraporn, Boonserm, Sor-suwan, Brownell, Pengsakul, and Siriyasatien. "Detection of Leishmania and Trypanosoma DNA in Field-Caught Sand Flies from Endemic and Non-Endemic Areas of Leishmaniasis in Southern Thailand." Insects 10, no. 8 (August 2, 2019): 238. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects10080238.
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Phlebotomine sand flies are tiny, hairy, blood-sucking nematoceran insects that feed on a wide range of hosts. They are known as a principal vector of parasites, responsible for human and animal leishmaniasis worldwide. In Thailand, human autochthonous leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis have been reported. However, information on the vectors for Leishmania and Trypanosoma in the country is still limited. Therefore, this study aims to detect Leishmania and Trypanosoma DNA in field-caught sand flies from endemic areas (Songkhla and Phatthalung Provinces) and non-endemic area (Chumphon Province) of leishmaniasis. A total of 439 sand flies (220 females and 219 males) were collected. Head and genitalia dissection of female sandflies were done for morphology identification, and the remaining parts of those sand flies were then used for the detection of Leishmania and Trypanosoma parasites. The DNA was extracted from individual female sand flies. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) anneal, specific to the ITS1 and SSU rRNA gene regions, was used to detect Leishmania and Trypanosoma DNA, respectively. The positive PCR products were cloned and sequenced. The results showed that the female sand fly species in this study consisted of Sergentomyia khawi (35.9%); Se. anodontis (23.6%); Phlebotomus betisi (18.6%); Ph. kiangsuensis (9.5%); Ph. asperulus (6.4%); Se. barraudi (2.3%); 0.9% of each Se. indica, Ph. stantoni, and Ph. major major; and 0.5% of each Se. sylvatica and Ph. mascomai. The PCR and sequence analysis were able to detect Leishmania and Trypanosoma DNA in sand fly samples, which were identified as L. martiniquensis, 1/220 (0.45%) in Se. khawi, 3/220 (1.36%) of T. noyesi in Se. anodontis, and Ph. asperulus. Fourteen (6.36%) of the unidentified trypanosome species in Se. khawi, Se. indica, Se. anodontis, Ph. asperulus, and Ph. betisi were found in all of the areas of this study. Interestingly, we found a 1/220 (0.45%) co-infection sample of L. martiniquensis and Trypanosoma in Se. khawi from Songkhla Province. These data indicate that several species of sand flies might be potential vectors of Leishmania and Trypanosoma parasites in southern Thailand. However, more extensive study for potential vectors using a larger number of sand flies should be conducted to prove whether these sand flies can be natural vectors of leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis in both humans and animals. In addition, our study could be useful for the future study of infection prevention, including effective vector control for leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis in Thailand.
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MORGAN, E. R., E. L. CLARE, R. JEFFERIES, and J. R. STEVENS. "Parasite epidemiology in a changing world: can molecular phylogeography help us tell the wood from the trees?" Parasitology 139, no. 14 (August 24, 2012): 1924–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182012001060.
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SUMMARYMolecular phylogeography has revolutionised our ability to infer past biogeographic events from cross-sectional data on current parasite populations. In ecological parasitology, this approach has been used to address fundamental questions concerning host-parasite co-evolution and geographic patterns of spread, and has raised many technical issues and problems of interpretation. For applied parasitologists, the added complexity inherent in adding population genetic structure to perceived parasite distributions can sometimes seem to cloud rather than clarify approaches to control. In this paper, we use case studies firstly to illustrate the potential extent of cryptic diversity in parasite and parasitoid populations, secondly to consider how anthropogenic influences including movement of domestic animals affect the geographic distribution and host associations of parasite genotypes, and thirdly to explore the applied relevance of these processes to parasites of socio-economic importance. The contribution of phylogeographic approaches to deeper understanding of parasite biology in these cases is assessed. Thus, molecular data on the emerging parasites Angiostrongylus vasorum in dogs and wild canids, and the myiasis-causing flies Lucilia spp. in sheep and Cochliomyia hominovorax in humans, lead to clear implications for control efforts to limit global spread. Broader applications of molecular phylogeography to understanding parasite distributions in an era of rapid global change are also discussed.
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CAMPBELL, ERIN O., and LIEN T. LUONG. "Mite choice generates sex- and size-biased infection in Drosophila hydei." Parasitology 143, no. 6 (March 21, 2016): 787–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182016000305.
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SUMMARYHeterogeneities in parasite infection among conspecific hosts often manifest as sex- or size-biased infections, which are typically attributed to differential host susceptibility and exposure. Since parasite fitness is often tied to host quality, host preference by parasites is likely to be under strong selection. We test the hypothesis that host preference is sufficient to generate variability in infection rate among conspecifics. Specifically, we ask whether the mite Macrocheles muscaedomesticae is able to discriminate between Drosophila hydei hosts of different sex and size, while explicitly accounting for the potential confounding effects of these two factors. Our results indicate a preference for female hosts, but this preference appears to be driven by size and not sex per se. When differences in body size were controlled for, the sex-biased infection disappeared, while mites presented with the choice of two female flies of disparate sizes were more likely to select the larger host. Across the distribution of fly body weight in this study, mites preferentially attached to flies of intermediate size. This study provides evidence that mite choice for certain host types can play an important role in parasite transmission, even in the absence of differential susceptibility or exposure among hosts.
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Blanckenhorn, Wolf U. "A fungal parasite selects against body size but not fluctuating asymmetry in Swiss subalpine yellow dung flies." Alpine Entomology 5 (June 11, 2021): 27–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/alpento.5.65653.
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Evidence for selective disadvantages of large body size remains scarce in general. Previous studies of the yellow dung fly Scathophaga stercoraria have demonstrated strong positive sexual and fecundity selection on male and female size. Nevertheless, the body size of flies from a Swiss study population has declined by ~10% 1993–2009. Given substantial heritability of body size, this negative evolutionary response of an evidently positively selected trait suggests important selective factors being missed. An episodic epidemic outbreak of the fungus Entomophthora scatophagae permitted assessment of natural selection exerted by this fatal parasite. Fungal infection varied over the season from ~50% in the cooler and more humid spring and autumn to almost 0% in summer. The probability of dying from fungal infection increased with adult fly body size. Females never laid any eggs after infection, so there was no fungus effect on female fecundity beyond its impact on mortality. Large males showed their typical mating advantage in the field, but this positive sexual selection was nullified by fungal infection. Mean fluctuating asymmetry of paired appendages (legs, wings) did not affect the viability, fecundity or mating success of yellow dung flies in the field. This study documents rare parasite-mediated disadvantages of large-sized flies in the field. Reduced ability to combat parasites such as Entomophthora may be an immunity cost of large body size in dung flies, although the hypothesized trade-off between fluctuating asymmetry, a presumed indicator of developmental instability and environmental stress, and immunocompetence was not found here.