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Journal articles on the topic 'Flint Water Crisis'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 12 February 2022

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1

Ruckart, Perri Zeitz, Adrienne S. Ettinger, Mona Hanna-Attisha, Nicole Jones, Stephanie I. Davis, and Patrick N. Breysse. "The Flint Water Crisis." Journal of Public Health Management and Practice 25 (2019): S84—S90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/phh.0000000000000871.

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2

Wakes, Nakiya. "The Flint Water Crisis." Anglican Theological Review 100, no. 1 (December 2018): 143–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000332861810000116.

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3

Hammer, Peter J. "The Flint Water Crisis, the Karegnondi Water Authority and Strategic–Structural Racism." Critical Sociology 45, no. 1 (October 6, 2017): 103–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0896920517729193.

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Everyone knows that what happened in Flint is connected to race, but we lack the necessary frameworks to fully understand the multiple ways that race and racism contributed to the Flint Water Crisis. This article introduces the notion of Strategic–Structural racism, the manipulation of the forces of intentional racism, structural racism and unconscious bias for economic or political gain. This construct is applied to critical aspects of the Flint Water Crisis: the imposition of emergency management, the approval of the Karegnondi Water Authority (KWA) pipeline, the decision to use the Flint River as an interim source of drinking water and how municipal finance rules were manipulated to obtain financing for the KWA pipeline but not to fund necessary upgrades to the Flint Water Treatment Plant (WTP). Tragically, the strategic racism embedded in the KWA approval process created an environment of denial, cover-up and complicity as aspects of the public health crisis began to emerge.

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4

Heard-Garris, Nia Jeneé, Jessica Roche, Patrick Carter, Mahshid Abir, Maureen Walton, Marc Zimmerman, and Rebecca Cunningham. "Voices from Flint: Community Perceptions of the Flint Water Crisis." Journal of Urban Health 94, no. 6 (April 13, 2017): 776–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11524-017-0152-3.

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5

McGuire, Michael J., Janice A. Beecher, Mona Hanna-Attisha, Susan J. Masten, and Joan B. Rose. "Roundtable -- The Flint Crisis." Journal - American Water Works Association 108 (July 1, 2016): 26–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2016.108.0137.

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6

Carrera, Jennifer, Kent Key, Sarah Bailey, Joseph Hamm, Courtney Cuthbertson, E. Lewis, Susan Woolford, et al. "Community Science as a Pathway for Resilience in Response to a Public Health Crisis in Flint, Michigan." Social Sciences 8, no. 3 (March 13, 2019): 94. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/socsci8030094.

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While the story of the Flint water crisis has frequently been told, even sympathetic analyses have largely worked to make invisible the significant actions of Flint residents to protect and advocate for their community. Leaving the voices of these stakeholders out of narratives about the crisis has served to deepen distrust in the community. Our project responds to these silences through a community-driven research study aimed explicitly at elevating the frame of Flint residents in and around the Flint water crisis. This paper describes the coming together of the research team, the overall project design for each of the three research efforts, and lessons learned. The three sub-projects include: (1) a qualitative analysis of community sentiment provided during 17 recorded legislative, media, and community events, (2) an analysis of trust in the Flint community through nine focus groups across demographic groups (African American, Hispanic, seniors, and youth) of residents in Flint, and (3) an analysis of the role of the faith-based community in response to public health crises through two focus groups with faith based leaders from Flint involved with response efforts to the water crisis. Our study offers insight for understanding trust in crisis, which could be valuable to other communities and researchers seeking to address similar situations. The project offers community science as a model for considering community engagement in research as part of the process of resilience.

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7

Kruger, Daniel J., Suzanne Cupal, Gergana D. Kodjebacheva, and Thomas V. Fockler. "Perceived Water Quality and Reported Health among Adults during the Flint, MI Water Crisis." Californian Journal of Health Promotion 15, no. 1 (April 1, 2017): 56–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.32398/cjhp.v15i1.1889.

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Background and Purpose: In April 2014, the municipal water source for Flint, Michigan was changed from Lake Huron to the Flint River. Although residents reported concerns about the quality of tap water and resulting health problems, officials insisted that the water was safe. This study examined relationships between self-reported tap water quality during the water crisis and health conditions among Flint residents. Methods: Participants from each residential Census Tract in the City of Flint were recruited via address lists, online social media, and community-based events. The survey included mental and physical health items from the CDC’s Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System and an item on tap water quarter quality experiences. Analyses were weighted to be demographically representative. Results: Participants (N = 277) rated their tap water quality (taste, smell, appearance) as Poor (57%), Fair (20%), Good (13%), Very Good (6%), and Excellent (3%). Controlling for age, gender, years of education, whether respondents were African American or Hispanic/Latino/a, and population demographics, lower perceived tap water quality was associated with worse mental and physical health across all indicators. Conclusion: This study demonstrates associations of tap water quality experiences with reported poor physical and mental health among adults in Flint during the Flint Water Crisis.

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8

Masten, Susan J., Simon H. Davies, and Shawn P. McElmurry. "Flint Water Crisis: What Happened and Why?" Journal - American Water Works Association 108 (December 1, 2016): 22–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2016.108.0195.

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9

Pieper, Kelsey J., Rebekah Martin, Min Tang, LeeAnne Walters, Jeffrey Parks, Siddhartha Roy, Christina Devine, and Marc A. Edwards. "Evaluating Water Lead Levels During the Flint Water Crisis." Environmental Science & Technology 52, no. 15 (June 22, 2018): 8124–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b00791.

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10

Forrer, Donald A., Karen McKenzie, Tina Milano, Sunny Davada, Maria Gabriela Orlando McSheehy, Francis Harrington, Diania Breakenridge, Steven W. Hill, and Elizabeth D. Anderson. "Water Crisis In Flint Michigan – A Case Study." Journal of Business Case Studies (JBCS) 15, no. 1 (May 10, 2019): 29–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/jbcs.v15i1.10282.

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This case study is designed to provide detailed information about the water crisis in Flint, Michigan brought on by a series of decisions that could have been researched better prior to enactment. The results were catastrophic to the citizens that public officials were sworn to protect. This case study will provide university classes with information to use while analyzing the causes and decisions that lead to the Flint Water Crisis. This study is not designed to provide all information, but to supplement class research in order to determine what happened and what should have happened. Available research offers numerous issues and plenty of blame, but no definitive answers.

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11

Gostin, Lawrence O. "Politics and Public Health:The Flint Drinking Water Crisis." Hastings Center Report 46, no. 4 (July 2016): 5–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hast.598.

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12

Venkataraman, Bhawani. "The Paradox of Water and the Flint Crisis." Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 60, no. 1 (December 29, 2017): 4–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00139157.2018.1397466.

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13

Flaum, S., M. Seewald, A. Echols, L. Minadeo, V. Dalton, and L. Harris. "P81 Family planning and the Flint water crisis." Contraception 102, no. 4 (October 2020): 303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2020.07.101.

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14

Robinson, Tomeka, Garrett Shum, and Sabrina Singh. "Politically Unhealthy: Flint’s Fight Against Poverty, Environmental Racism, and Dirty Water." Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research 1, no. 2 (October 15, 2018): 303–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.30658/jicrcr.1.2.6.

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The social force of race in relation to natural resources plays a prominent role in which communities are disproportionately affected by pollution. Scholars have described how people of color are disproportionately victims of environmental discrimination and disparities because they lack the necessary social capital to bring attention to their plight, as demonstrated by the case of the Flint, Michigan, Water Crisis. In this article, we use a critical race theory lens to explore how the Flint Water Crisis constitutes a case study of environmental racism. More specifically, we discuss the public health implications of environmental racism on the residents of Flint and conclude with a discussion of the overall implications of environmental justice for public health and social science research.

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15

Burns, Andrea A. "Building a “Stately Pleasure Dome”." Public Historian 42, no. 4 (October 23, 2020): 63–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/tph.2020.42.4.63.

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The industrial heritage attraction known as AutoWorld, which opened in downtown Flint in July 1984, was intended to lure businesses and tourists to a struggling city. Yet just six months after opening, AutoWorld closed. This essay explores AutoWorld’s creation, its exhibits, and why audiences rejected it. I argue that this “half museum” and “half theme park” prioritized the auto industry’s agenda and white suburbanites over the needs of Flint residents. In doing so, I trace the connections between AutoWorld and the Flint Water Crisis, the origins of which are partially rooted in the subsidization of the auto industry’s expansion to the Flint suburbs. Because of misguided planning initiatives like AutoWorld, as well as the criminal enabling of the water crisis, the foundation of trust between Flint residents and those who operate the city’s institutions has been severely weakened.

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16

Grossman, Daniel S., and David J. G. Slusky. "The Impact of the Flint Water Crisis on Fertility." Demography 56, no. 6 (December 2019): 2005–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00831-0.

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17

Lewis, E. Yvonne, and Richard C. Sadler. "Community–academic partnerships helped Flint through its water crisis." Nature 594, no. 7863 (June 15, 2021): 326–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-01586-8.

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18

Krings, Amy, Dana Kornberg, and Erin Lane. "Organizing Under Austerity: How Residents’ Concerns Became the Flint Water Crisis." Critical Sociology 45, no. 4-5 (March 14, 2018): 583–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0896920518757053.

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What might it take for politically marginalized residents to challenge cuts in public spending that threaten to harm their health and wellbeing? Specifically, how did residents of Flint, Michigan contribute to the decision of an austerity regime, which was not accountable to them, to spend millions to switch to a safe water source? Relying on evidence from key interviews and newspaper accounts, we examine the influence and limitations of residents and grassroots groups during the 18-month period between April 2014 and October 2015 when the city drew its water from the Flint River. We find that citizen complaints alone were not sufficiently able to convince city officials or national media of widespread illness caused by the water. However, their efforts resulted in partnerships with researchers whose evidence bolstered their claims, thus inspiring a large contribution from a local foundation to support the switch to a clean water source. Thus, before the crisis gained national media attention, and despite significant constraints, residents’ sustained organization—coupled with scientific evidence that credentialed local claims—motivated the return to the Detroit water system. The Flint case suggests that residents seeking redress under severe austerity conditions may require partnerships with external scientific elites.

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19

Calhoun, Karen D., Kent Key, E. Yvonne Lewis, Jennifer Carerra, Joseph Hamm, Susan Woolford, E. Hill De Loney, et al. "2447 Community voices first: A multi-method approach to shaping institutional response to Flint’s water crisis." Journal of Clinical and Translational Science 2, S1 (June 2018): 66–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cts.2018.243.

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OBJECTIVES/SPECIFIC AIMS: Explore perceptions of Flint stakeholders on the water crisis regarding trust and the capacity of faith and community-based organizations providing public health services to address community needs. Analyze the community’s voice shared at (1) 17 key community communications (community/congressional meetings and events), and (2) during 9 focus group sessions, in which residents, faith-based leadership and other stakeholders discuss issues and concerns on the Flint Water Crisis, and recommend ways to address them. Develop a framework that defines core theories, concepts and strategies recommended by the community to help rebuild trust and the quality of life in Flint, Michigan, and support other communities experiencing environmental stress. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: Study population: faith-based leaders, seniors, youth, Hispanic/Latino and African American stakeholders, and others experiencing inequities in the city of Flint. Convene 9 focus group sessions (recorded and transcribed) to learn community perceptions on trust and ways to address it. Validate accuracy of the transcriptions with community consultants to reconcile any inaccurate information. Through a community engaged research (CEnR) process, review and analyze qualitative data from the 9 focus group sessions, and quantitative data from 2 surveys documenting (1) demographic backgrounds of focus group participants, and (2) their perceptions on trust and mistrust. Prepare a codebook to qualitatively analyze the focus group data summarizing community input on trust, mistrust, changes in service delivery among community and faith-based organizations, and ways to re-build trust in the city of Flint. Transcribe the community’s voice shared during 17 key events, identified by a team of community-academic stakeholders (i.e., UM Flint water course, congressional and community events, etc.), in which residents and other stakeholders discuss issues and concerns on the Flint Water Crisis, and recommend ways to address it. Qualitatively analyze the transcriptions, using a CEnR process to prepare a codebook on key themes from the community’s voice shared at these events, and recommendations on ways to address it. Compare and contrast findings between the two codebooks developed from (1) the focus group data and (2) qualitative analysis of community voice during public meetings and events. Synthesize this information into a framework of core theories, concepts and rebuilding strategies for Flint, Michigan. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: It is important to note many undocumented immigrant populations in Flint fear deportation and other consequences, hampering their ability to obtain service and provide community voice. Through our purposive sampling approach, we will hear from community voices not often included in narratives (i.e., seniors, youth, Hispanic/Latino residents). The presentation will present findings documenting levels of trust and mistrust in the city of Flint; and a framework of recommendations, core theories and concepts on ways to reduce, rebuild and eliminate stress that will be helpful to other communities experiencing distress. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT: To our knowledge, levels of trust and mistrust in Flint have not been documented thus far. We will compare and contrast common themes presented by the community at public meetings and events with themes presented in our focus group effort on trust. Faith and community-based providers were among the first responders to the Flint Water Crisis. The effort will also share perceptions on changes in public health service delivery, and observations on preparedness for these roles that occurred among community and faith-based providers. Finally, the effort will (1) support the design of a research agenda, (2) define a framework of core theories, concepts and recommendations developed by the community to help rebuild trust in Flint, Michigan; and (3) support other communities addressing environmental distress.

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20

Martin, Rebekah L., Owen R. Strom, Amy Pruden, and Marc A. Edwards. "Interactive Effects of Copper Pipe, Stagnation, Corrosion Control, and Disinfectant Residual Influenced Reduction of Legionella pneumophila during Simulations of the Flint Water Crisis." Pathogens 9, no. 9 (September 4, 2020): 730. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090730.

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Flint, MI experienced two outbreaks of Legionnaires’ Disease (LD) during the summers of 2014 and 2015, coinciding with use of Flint River as a drinking water source without corrosion control. Using simulated distribution systems (SDSs) followed by stagnant simulated premise (i.e., building) plumbing reactors (SPPRs) containing cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) or copper pipe, we reproduced trends in water chemistry and Legionella proliferation observed in the field when Flint River versus Detroit water were used before, during, and after the outbreak. Specifically, due to high chlorine demand in the SDSs, SPPRs with treated Flint River water were chlorine deficient and had elevated L. pneumophila numbers in the PEX condition. SPPRs with Detroit water, which had lower chlorine demand and higher residual chlorine, lost all culturable L. pneumophila within two months. L. pneumophila also diminished more rapidly with time in Flint River SPPRs with copper pipe, presumably due to the bacteriostatic properties of elevated copper concentrations caused by lack of corrosion control and stagnation. This study confirms hypothesized mechanisms by which the switch in water chemistry, pipe materials, and different flow patterns in Flint premise plumbing may have contributed to observed LD outbreak patterns.

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21

McClung, R. Paul, Mateusz Karwowski, Caroline Castillo, Jevon McFadden, Sarah Collier, Jim Collins, Marty Soehnlen, et al. "Shigella sonnei Outbreak Investigation During a Municipal Water Crisis—Genesee and Saginaw Counties, Michigan, 2016." American Journal of Public Health 110, no. 6 (June 2020): 842–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2020.305577.

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Objectives. To investigate a shigellosis outbreak in Genesee County, Michigan (including the City of Flint), and Saginaw County, Michigan, in 2016 and address community concerns about the role of the Flint water system. Methods. We met frequently with community members to understand concerns and develop the investigation. We surveyed households affected by the outbreak, analyzed Shigella isolate data, examined the geospatial distribution of cases, and reviewed available water quality data. Results. We surveyed 83 households containing 158 cases; median age was 10 years. Index case-patients from 55 of 83 households (66%) reported contact with a person outside their household who wore diapers or who had diarrhea in the week before becoming ill; results were similar regardless of household drinking water source. Genomic diversity was not consistent with a point source. In Flint, no space-time clustering was identified, and average free chlorine residual values remained above recommended levels throughout the outbreak period. Conclusions. The outbreak was most likely caused by person-to-person contact and not by the Flint water system. Consistent community engagement was essential to the design and implementation of the investigation.

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22

Santucci, Raymond J., and John R. Scully. "The pervasive threat of lead (Pb) in drinking water: Unmasking and pursuing scientific factors that govern lead release." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 38 (September 8, 2020): 23211–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1913749117.

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The Flint water crisis raised questions about the factors resulting in unacceptable soluble lead concentrations in the city’s drinking water. Although water treatment strategies, failure to follow regulations, and unethical behavior were all factors, knowledge deficits at the intersection of several scientific fields also contributed to the crisis. Pursuit of opportunities to address unresolved scientific questions can help avert future lead poisoning disasters. Such advances will enable scientifically based, data-driven risk assessments that inform decisions involving drinking water systems. In this way, managers and decision makers can anticipate, monitor, and prevent future lead in water crises.

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23

Fortenberry, Gamola Z., Patricia Reynolds, Sherry L. Burrer, Vicki Johnson-Lawrence, Alice Wang, Amy Schnall, Price Pullins, Stephanie Kieszak, Tesfaye Bayleyegn, and Amy Wolkin. "Assessment of Behavioral Health Concerns in the Community Affected by the Flint Water Crisis — Michigan (USA) 2016." Prehospital and Disaster Medicine 33, no. 3 (April 19, 2018): 256–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x18000250.

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AbstractObjectivesThe Flint Community Resilience Group (Flint, Michigan USA) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC; Atlanta, Georgia USA) assessed behavioral health concerns among community members to determine the impact of lead contamination of the Flint, Michigan water supply.MethodsA Community Assessment for Public Health Emergency Response (CASPER) was conducted from May 17 through May 19, 2016 using a multi-stage cluster sampling design to select households and individuals to interview.ResultsOne-half of households felt overlooked by decision makers. The majority of households self-reported that at least one member experienced more behavioral health concerns than usual. The prevalence of negative quality of life indicators and financial concerns in Flint was higher than previously reported in the Michigan 2012 and 2014 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) survey.ConclusionsThe following can be considered to guide recovery efforts in Flint: identifying additional resources for behavioral health interventions and conducting follow-up behavioral health assessments to evaluate changes in behavioral health concerns over time; considering the impact of household economic factors when implementing behavioral health interventions; and ensuring community involvement and engagement in recovery efforts to ease community stress and anxiety.FortenberryGZ, ReynoldsP, BurrerSL, Johnson-LawrenceV, WangA, SchnallA, PullinsP, KieszakS, BayleyegnT, WolkinA. Assessment of behavioral health concerns in the community affected by the Flint water crisis — Michigan (USA) 2016. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2018;33(3):256–265.

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24

Lossing, David. "Flint fights back: Environmental justice and democracy in the Flint water crisis, by Benjamin Pauli." Journal of Urban Affairs 42, no. 8 (April 15, 2020): 1347–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2020.1739502.

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25

Moors, M. Rae. "What is Flint? Place, storytelling, and social media narrative reclamation during the Flint water crisis." Information, Communication & Society 22, no. 6 (February 11, 2019): 808–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2019.1577477.

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26

Nowling, William D., and Matthew W. Seeger. "Sensemaking and crisis revisited: the failure of sensemaking during the Flint water crisis." Journal of Applied Communication Research 48, no. 2 (March 2, 2020): 270–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00909882.2020.1734224.

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27

Burke, Katie L. "Flint Water Crisis Yields Hard Lessons in Science and Ethics." American Scientist 104, no. 3 (2016): 134. http://dx.doi.org/10.1511/2016.120.134.

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28

Sobeck, Joanne, Joanne Smith-Darden, Megan Hicks, Poco Kernsmith, Paul E. Kilgore, Lara Treemore-Spears, and Shawn McElmurry. "Stress, Coping, Resilience and Trust during the Flint Water Crisis." Behavioral Medicine 46, no. 3-4 (August 13, 2020): 202–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2020.1729085.

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29

Peplow, Mark. "The Flint water crisis: how citizen scientists exposed poisonous politics." Nature 559, no. 7713 (July 2018): 180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05651-7.

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30

DeWitt, Rachel D. "Pediatric lead exposure and the water crisis in Flint, Michigan." Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants 30, no. 2 (February 2017): 43–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.jaa.0000511794.60054.eb.

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31

Washington, Sylvia Hood, and David Pellow. "Water Crisis in Flint, Michigan: Interview with David Pellow, Ph.D." Environmental Justice 9, no. 2 (April 2016): 53–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/env.2016.29003.shw.

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32

Nickels, Ashley E., and Amanda D. Clark. "Framing the Flint Water Crisis: Interrogating Local Nonprofit Sector Responses." Administrative Theory & Praxis 41, no. 3 (June 7, 2019): 200–224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2019.1621653.

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33

Sneed, Rodlescia S., Kenyetta Dotson, Allysoon Brewer, Pamela Pugh, and Vicki Johnson-Lawrence. "Behavioral Health Concerns During the Flint Water Crisis, 2016–2018." Community Mental Health Journal 56, no. 5 (January 14, 2020): 793–803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10597-019-00520-7.

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34

Liévanos, Raoul S., Clare R. Evans, and Ryan Light. "An Intercategorical Ecology of Lead Exposure: Complex Environmental Health Vulnerabilities in the Flint Water Crisis." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 5 (February 24, 2021): 2217. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052217.

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In 2014, city and state officials channeled toxic water into Flint, Michigan and its unevenly distributed and corroding lead service lines (LSLs). The resulting Flint water crisis is a tragic example of environmental racism against a majority Black city and enduring racial and spatial disparities in environmental lead exposures in the United States. Important questions remain about how race intersected with other established environmental health vulnerabilities of gender and single-parent family structure to create unequal toxic exposures within Flint. We address this question with (1) an “intercategorical ecology” framework that extends the “racial ecology” lens into the complex spatial and demographic dimensions of environmental health vulnerabilities and (2) a multivariate analysis using block-level data from the 2010 U.S. decennial census and a key dataset estimating the LSL connections for 56,038 land parcels in Flint. We found that blocks exposed to LSLs had, on average, higher concentrations of single-parent white, Black, and Latinx families. However, logistic regression results indicate that the likelihood of block exposure to LSLs was most consistently and positively associated with the percentage of single-father Black and single-mother Latina families, net of other racialized and gendered single-parent family structures, socioeconomic status, and the spatial concentration of LSL exposure.

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35

Zahran, Sammy, Shawn P. McElmurry, Paul E. Kilgore, David Mushinski, Jack Press, Nancy G. Love, Richard C. Sadler, and Michele S. Swanson. "Assessment of the Legionnaires’ disease outbreak in Flint, Michigan." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 8 (February 5, 2018): E1730—E1739. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718679115.

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The 2014–2015 Legionnaires’ disease (LD) outbreak in Genesee County, MI, and the outbreak resolution in 2016 coincided with changes in the source of drinking water to Flint’s municipal water system. Following the switch in water supply from Detroit to Flint River water, the odds of a Flint resident presenting with LD increased 6.3-fold (95% CI: 2.5, 14.0). This risk subsided following boil water advisories, likely due to residents avoiding water, and returned to historically normal levels with the switch back in water supply. During the crisis, as the concentration of free chlorine in water delivered to Flint residents decreased, their risk of acquiring LD increased. When the average weekly chlorine level in a census tract was <0.5 mg/L or <0.2 mg/L, the odds of an LD case presenting from a Flint neighborhood increased by a factor of 2.9 (95% CI: 1.4, 6.3) or 3.9 (95% CI: 1.8, 8.7), respectively. During the switch, the risk of a Flint neighborhood having a case of LD increased by 80% per 1 mg/L decrease in free chlorine, as calculated from the extensive variation in chlorine observed. In communities adjacent to Flint, the probability of LD occurring increased with the flow of commuters into Flint. Together, the results support the hypothesis that a system-wide proliferation of legionellae was responsible for the LD outbreak in Genesee County, MI.

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36

McKay, Athena S., Adam Paberzs, Patricia Piechowski, Donald Vereen, and Susan Woolford. "4449 Building Capacity in the Flint Community in the Midst of the Ongoing Water Crisis." Journal of Clinical and Translational Science 4, s1 (June 2020): 82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cts.2020.262.

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OBJECTIVES/GOALS: Examining the impact of the Building Capacity for Research and Action (BCRA) Award created by the Community Engagement (CE) Program at the Michigan Institute for Clinical & Health Research (MICHR)--a Clinical & Translational Science Award (CTSA) site at the University of Michigan--in partnership with Community Based Organization Partners (CBOP). METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: The BCRA is a funding mechanism that supports new community-engaged research (CEnR) partnerships and projects that address community-identified health needs in Flint, Michigan. BCRA projects are required to be Flint-based and inclusive of both community and academic partners. A study section consisting of 10 MICHR-affiliated faculty and community partners reviewed proposals and made funding decisions. Funded teams were trained on Institutional Review Board (IRB) and reporting requirements by CE staff. MICHR provides support to BCRA-funded teams through monthly email correspondence with the CE Flint connector, budget review, mediation, regulatory assurance of IRB and the National Center for Advancing Translational Science (NCATS) requirements, coordinating six-month and final reporting, and hosting an annual stakeholder meet and greet. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: In 2017, the BCRA Award submitted its first request for proposals. It received 20 applications in 2018, and selected eight awardees, providing them with a total of $60,000 in funding. Four received $5,000 for partnership development and another four received $10,000 for their research projects. The BCRA Award received 16 applications in 2019, expanding its academic pool to include the University of Chicago, U-M Flint, Michigan State University, and Michigan State University-Flint in addition to the University of Michigan. Five recipients were selected and received a total of $45,000 in funding. One was awarded $5,000 for partnership development and another four were awarded $10,000 for their research projects. MICHR has invested over $100,000 in Flint through this mechanism, which was renewed in 2019. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT: Each awardee presented at the annual stakeholder meet and greet. They showcased their projects with a brief overview and spoke about their expectations, lessons learned, partnership strengths and challenges, translational issues, and proposed next steps for subsequent grants, publications.

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Fasenfest, David. "A Neoliberal Response to an Urban Crisis: Emergency Management in Flint, MI." Critical Sociology 45, no. 1 (August 28, 2017): 33–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0896920517718039.

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The fiscal crisis faced by municipalities is the product of a range of structural and political factors that leave communities unable to meet their obligations. To deal with this crisis, the State of Michigan turned to a program of Emergency Managers who were given the power to overrule locally elected officials, abrogate existing contracts and arrangements, sell public property, and in short do whatever they wished to address the problem. Emergency Managers imposed austerity-based neoliberal policies with little regard for underlying structural forces that left communities impoverished, and which in the end protected bond holders. As the case of Flint, Michigan, demonstrates, these actions did little to alter the long-term prospects of cities, and inflicted real harm on Flint’s residents when the EM embarked on a ‘money saving’ plan to terminate an agreement to use safe Detroit water. In the interim, Flint began drawing drinking water from the Flint River, resulting in high levels of lead in their water, producing a health crisis. At the end of the day, cities where Emergency Managers were in charge were left in unsustainable positions, burdened by new long-term debt, with every likelihood they would find themselves in another fiscal crisis in the coming decades.

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Day, Ashleigh, Sydney O'Shay-Wallace, Matthew Seeger, and Shawn McElmurry. "Gender and Presence of Children: Examining Media Uses, Informational Needs, and Source Preferences during the Flint, Michigan Water Crisis." Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research 3, no. 2 (October 1, 2020): 141–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.30658/jicrcr.3.2.2.

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In 2014, a water crisis emerged in Flint, Michigan. Using uses and gratifications theory as the guiding framework, this study examines if crisis-related media uses, informational needs, and source preferences are related to respondents’ gender and/or whether or not respondents had children. A random sample of 208 Flint residents yielded results that are largely consistent with extant research, although minor nuances were found. Media uses, preferred informational sources, and desire to receive future crisis-related health information varied between women and men. Women reported significantly higher use of Facebook and Instagram. However, there were not significant differences between genders or respondents with/without children regarding their future informational needs about crisis-related health topics. Results are discussed in relation to extant research, theory, and praxis. Limitations and future research are also discussed.

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Mayer, Monica. "Navigating Troubled Waters: Applying the IDEA Model to the Flint Water Crisis." Proceedings of the International Crisis and Risk Communication Conference 4 (2021): 49–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.30658/icrcc.2021.12.

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This study examines the instructional crisis communication surrounding the water crisis in Flint, Michigan. Although pre-crisis government communications were widely criticized for their failure to adequately warn the public about dangerous levels of lead and other carcinogenic chemicals in Flint’s water, instructional messaging during the crisis has not received the same level of attention. This study employs qualitative content analysis to examine the website content from the EPA, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Michigan governor’s office, Genesee County Health Department, and Flint mayor’s office through the lens of the IDEA model during the height of the crisis. The instructional content published to these agencies’ websites fits within the IDEA model framework and serves as effective instructional communication about the health concerns facing residents. Explanation and action were most prominently featured across the content, although internalization strategies were also used to varying degrees. The content was distributed and widely shared across agency websites, especially at the federal and state level. Future areas of research include how semantic and rhetorical choices in message content and structure may enhance elements within the IDEA model and how using images can increase message effectiveness.

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Antaya, Sean. "Flint Fights Back: Environmental Justice and Democracy in the Flint Water Crisis by Benjamin J. Pauli." Labour / Le Travail 86, no. 1 (2020): 208–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/llt.2020.0054.

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Baum, Rachel, Jamie Bartram, and Steve Hrudey. "The Flint Water Crisis Confirms That U.S. Drinking Water Needs Improved Risk Management." Environmental Science & Technology 50, no. 11 (May 17, 2016): 5436–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b02238.

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Nicholas, Matthew, and Noah Cohan. "Flint’s Toxic Narratives: Tales of Uplift and Athletes Who Resist Them." Journal of Sport and Social Issues 43, no. 1 (October 29, 2018): 3–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0193723518797035.

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This article considers the narratives of sports-based uplift, which have followed in the wake of Flint, Michigan’s lead-poisoned water crisis. It provides context for the sports culture of Flint, the corrupted educational system that fostered it, and the consequential sense of identity sports teams provide. Examining the water crisis via the off-the-field charitable efforts of (mostly Black) athletes in Flint and the preformed narratives in which they are figured by the media, the article demonstrates the means by which sports narratives have served the White American public’s interest in forgetting or minimizing the suffering of mostly Black Flint. These media narratives celebrate Black athletes for “giving back” as if it is their responsibility or duty to so, in large part so that White audiences do not have to confront the failures of neoliberal capitalism. The article also examines what it means that these redemptive narratives are premised on athletes’ off-the-field labor, rather than on-the-field triumph. Finally, it asserts that the athletes who write back against narratives that would co-opt their efforts in service of forgetting importantly complicate linear narratives of progress.

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JACOBSON, PETER D., COLLEEN HEALY BOUFIDES, DENISE CHRYSLER, JENNIFER BERNSTEIN, and TOBY CITRIN. "The Role of the Legal System in the Flint Water Crisis." Milbank Quarterly 98, no. 2 (April 28, 2020): 554–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12457.

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Plumb, Amy, Carla M. Roberts-Caudle, Frances K. Harper, and Durrell A. Jones. "Flint, Michigan, Water Crisis: Connecting to Local Issues in Mathematics Classrooms." Teaching Children Mathematics 23, no. 9 (May 2017): 518–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/teacchilmath.23.9.0518.

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This department publishes brief news articles, announcements, and guest editorials on current mathematics education issues that stimulate the interest of TCM readers and cause them to think about an issue or consider a specific viewpoint about some aspect of mathematics education.

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Levin, Aaron. "Michigan DB Joins Other Groups in Response to Flint Water Crisis." Psychiatric News 51, no. 5 (March 4, 2016): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.pn.2016.3a12.

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Takahashi, Bruno, Ellis Adjei Adams, and Jack Nissen. "The Flint water crisis: local reporting, community attachment, and environmental justice." Local Environment 25, no. 5 (April 1, 2020): 365–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2020.1747415.

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Cederna-Meko, Crystal, Mona Hanna-Attisha, and Lauren O'Connell. "34.1 FLINT WATER CRISIS: THE DATA, DEVELOPMENTAL IMPACT, AND COMMUNITY RESPONSE." Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 55, no. 10 (October 2016): S311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.07.316.

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Muhammad, Michael, E. Hill De Loney, Cassandra L. Brooks, Shervin Assari, DeWaun Robinson, and Cleopatra H. Caldwell. "“I think that’s all a lie…I think It’s genocide”: Applying a Critical Race Praxis to Youth Perceptions of Flint Water Contamination." Ethnicity & Disease 28, Supp 1 (August 8, 2018): 241. http://dx.doi.org/10.18865/ed.28.s1.241.

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<p class="Pa7"><strong>Background: </strong>In April 2014, the emergency manager of Flint, Michigan switched the city’s water supplier from Detroit’s water department to the Flint River. The change in water source resulted in the Flint Water Crisis (FWC) in which lead (Pb) from the city’s network of old pipes leached into residents’ tap water. Residents of Flint reported concerns about the water to officials; however, the concerns were ignored for more than a year.</p><p class="Pa7"><strong>Objective: </strong>This study sought to understand how Black youth in Flint conceptualize, interpret, and respond to racism they perceive as part of the normal bureaucracy contributing to the FWC.</p><p class="Pa7"><strong>Methods: </strong>In 2016, we conducted four community forums with Flint youth aged 13 to 17 years. Sixty-eight youth participated with 93% self-identifying as Black. Participants completed a brief survey. We audio-recorded the forums and transcribed them verbatim. Critical Race Theory (CRT) guided the development of the interview protocol and Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP) served as an interpretive framework during qualitative data analysis. Content analyses were completed using software.</p><p class="Pa7"><strong>Results: </strong>Many youth viewed the FWC through a racially conscious frame. They described Flint as a Black city where historical and contemporary forms of racial stratification persist. Some described the contamination of the city’s water as a form of genocide targeting Blacks.</p><p class="Default"><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The findings from this exploratory study suggest some Black youth in Flint have difficulty coping with the FWC. Those who perceive it through a racial frame attribute the crisis to racism. They feel distressed about this and other traumas (eg, failure to address high rates of crime) they perceived as racism-related. Future research should examine the implications for specific mental health outcomes among youth. <em></em></p><p class="Default"><em>Ethn Dis. </em>2018;28(Suppl 1): 241-246; doi:10.18865/ed.28.S1.241.</p>

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Wilson, Kristi Jo, and Erin Stanley. "The Crisis and the Shutoffs: Reimagining Water in Detroit and Flint, Michigan, Through an EcoJustice Analysis." Annual Review of Nursing Research 38, no. 1 (December 23, 2019): 223–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0739-6686.38.223.

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This chapter outlines the guiding theoretical framework of EcoJustice Education (EJE), research questions, semistructured interviews with nursing scholars that begin to question the perceptions that lead us to the crisis and recommendations of how sustainability efforts can help to address the vital relationality of human beings to water. It highlights the profession of nursing education in order for nurses to understand their roles within the context of the crises. The EJE theoretical framework will help nurse educators reimagine a new understanding and a powerful discovery that includes the awareness of a broad set of historically constructed and politically motivated power knowledge relations in nursing. The chapter provides examples and discussions of four dominant discourses predominant within the Flint Water Crisis and Detroit Water Shutoffs: anthropocentrism, ethnocentrism, individualism, and mechanism. These discourses are related to nursing education to further explain how they are pervaded in nursing.

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Pieper, Kelsey J., Min Tang, and Marc A. Edwards. "Flint Water Crisis Caused By Interrupted Corrosion Control: Investigating “Ground Zero” Home." Environmental Science & Technology 51, no. 4 (February 2017): 2007–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04034.

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