Academic literature on the topic 'Flood depth'

Pluvial floods are the most difficult and to date least investigated phenomena in urban hydrology. While efforts are being made to increase the knowledge base concerning this type of flooding, a large part of the difficulty lies in the nature of the precipitation. Convective storms represent most of the larger intensity short term rainfall in urban areas and is also the raintype, that is expected to increase the most in the future. The rain cells of this type have a more distinct boundary, larger intensity, a smaller extent and a shorter life span, than frontal rains. Combined with the low availability of densely spaced rain gauge networks and also low temporal resolution of measurements in 15 minutes intervals at best, makes this rain type still very difficult to analyze and even harder to predict. The resolution of cloud radar images at 2x2km and taken every 15 minutes is too coarse and the error reduction algorithms for radar based precipitation (HIPRAD) images to analysera in patterns are not sufficient by them selves to analyze the characteristics of such rainfields and the processes occurring within these fields. The spatial variation of raincells, their development and decay, the distance between them, and the velocity and direction of their movement can however be investigated employing a combination of densely spaced rain gauges and radar images to reach a more realistic representation of short-term precipitation for the use of in hydraulic models. The movement of rain fields has been investigated with two main areas of focus: The influence of direction or directional bias, often with an interest in the most crucial case referred to as the resonance effect, and in context of areal reduction of point rainfall. Most of these studies have been carried out with statistical methods and in laboratory experiments. In this study a hydraulic model was built on the terrain model of a realcity, a 28 km area in the city of Falun, to test the recently gathered information about the temporal variation of five empirical hyetographs with different peak arrival times and peak intensities, which are representative of Swedish climate. The hyetographs were produced and provided by SMHI. The empirical rain types were derived from 20 years of rain gauge observations and confirmed by radar images. For reference purposes, a standard Chicago design storm (CDS) rain was modeled as well. The simulated scenarios were modeled as a MIKE 21 hydraulic model, as a stationary scenario and in four movement directions. It was foundthat the empirical rain types produced lower inundation depth than the CDS, in a range of 20 to 50 % lower. The effect of modeling rainfall in motion produced on average only about 4-20 % lower water depths than the corresponding non-moving scenario. In a few instances, in a single evaluation point, the moving scenarios resulted in a relative water depth of a maximum of just above 1%. It was concluded that the conceptual approach of areal reduction from movement seems to be accurate and could help improve modeling rainfall in general, and specifically for cloud burst scenarios of shorter durations in urban catchments. It was also found that further investigation of the physical processes in rainfields could serve to increase the accuracy in areal reduction of precipitation for more realistic hydraulic models and in turn reduce over design.<br>Pluviala översvämningar är den typen, som är både svårast att reda ut och samtidigt den minst utforskade fenomenen inom urban hydrologi. Medan ansträngningar görs för att förbättra kunskapsläget, ligger den största svårigheten i nederbördens skepnad. Det är konvektiva regn som utgör de flesta av de starkare korttids regntillfällen i urbana områden och är också regntypen som förväntas att öka mest i framtiden. Regncellerna har en tydligare avgränsning, en större intensitet, mindre utsträckning, och en kortare livscykel än frontala regn. I kombination med den låga tillgängligheten av regnmätarnätverk med hög täthet i positioneringen av mätare, samt den låga tidsupplösningen av mätningar i intervaller av 15 minuter gör att konvektiva regn fortfarande är svåra att analysera och ännu svårare att förutse. Upplösningen av molnradar bilder av 2x2 km som tas varje 15:de minut är för grova och algoritmer för felreducering av bilder från radarbaserad nederbördsdata (HIPRAD) för analys av regn mönster är inte tillräckligt noggranna, för sig, för att kunna analysera egenskaperna av sådana regnfält och de processerna som karakteriserar dessa. Den spatiala variationen inom regnceller, deras utveckling och förfall, avståndet mellan dem samt riktningen och hastigheten kan ändå undersökas med hjälp av kombinationen av regnmätarnätverk och radar bilder för att uppnå mer realistiska korttids nederbördsscenarier för användning i hydrauliska model. Studier, som har undersökt regn i rörelse har varit fokuserade på två huvudområden: Betydelsen av riktningen, i vilken regnet rör sig, där den största effekten som denna riktningsbias kan uppnå, har döpts resonans effekt och i samband med ytreducering (areal reduction) av punkt nederbörd. De flesta av dessa studier har genomförts med hjälp av statistiska metoder och laboratorieexperiment. I denna studie skapades en hydraulisk modell baserad på en realistisk terräng av ett existerade urbant område, en yta på 28 km i Falun, för att testa den nyligen utvärderade informationen om temporala intensitets fördelningen som representerar det svenska klimatet. Regndatat producerades och tillhandahölls av SMHI och representerar en mätserie från regnmätare över en period av 20 år. Som referens modellerades även ett Chicago regn (CDS). Med hjälp av en MIKE21 hydraulisk modell, simulerades ett stationärt scenario och fyra rörelseriktningar för varje empirisk hyetograf. Resultaten visade att de empiriska regntyperna skapade översvämningar med 20-50% lägre vattendjup än CDS regnet. Att modellera rörelsen resulterade i 4-20% lägre vattennivåer jämfört med respektive stationär scenario. I några enstaka tillfällen, i en av evalueringspunkterna, skapade de rörliga scenarierna större resultat, med lite över 1% i det största fallet. Det drogs slutsatsen att konceptet av areal reduction genom molnrörelse verkar vara korrekt och skulle kunna hjälpa att förbättra sättet att modellera regn generellt, men också specifikt för skyfalls scenarier med korta varaktigheter över urbana avrinningsområden. Man kom ytterligare till slutsatsen att framtida studier i samband med de fysiska processerna i regnceller skulle kunna användas för att höja noggrannheten av ytreducering av nederbörd för mer realistiska hydrauliska modeller, som i sin tur kunde minska överdesign.

Yes<br>During flooding, the suspended sediment transport usually experiences a wide-range of dilute to hyper-concentrated suspended sediment transport depending on the local flow and ground con-ditions. This paper assesses the distribution of sediment for a variety of hyper-concentrated and dilute flows. Due to the differences between hyper-concentrated and dilute flows, a linear-power coupled model is proposed to integrate these considerations. A parameterised method combining the sediment size, Rouse number, mean concentration, and flow depth parameters has been used for modelling the sediment profile. The accuracy of the proposed model has been verified against the reported laboratory measurements and comparison with other published analytical methods. The proposed method has been shown to effectively compute the concentration profile for a wide range of suspended sediment conditions from hyper-concentrated to dilute flows. Detailed com-parisons reveal that the proposed model calculates the dilute profile with good correspondence to the measured data and other modelling results from literature. For the hyper-concentrated profile, a clear division of lower (bed-load) to upper layer (suspended-load) transport can be observed in the measured data. Using the proposed model, the transitional point from this lower to upper layer transport can be calculated precisely.

The impacts of floods on buildings in urban areas are increasing due to the intensification of extreme weather events, unplanned or uncontrolled settlements and the rising vulnerability of assets. There are some approaches available for assessing the flood damage to buildings and critical infrastructure. To this point, however, it is extremely difficult to adapt these methods widely, due to the lack of high resolution classification and characterisation approaches for built structures. To overcome this obstacle, this work presents: first, a conceptual framework for understanding the physical flood vulnerability and the physical flood susceptibility of buildings, second, a methodological framework for the combination of methods and tools for a large-scale and high-resolution analysis and third, the testing of the methodology in three pilot sites with different development conditions. The conceptual framework narrows down an understanding of flood vulnerability, physical flood vulnerability and physical flood susceptibility and its relation to social and economic vulnerabilities. It describes the key features causing the physical flood susceptibility of buildings as a component of the vulnerability. The methodological framework comprises three modules: (i) methods for setting up a building topology, (ii) methods for assessing the susceptibility of representative buildings of each building type and (iii) the integration of the two modules with technological tools. The first module on the building typology is based on a classification of remote sensing data and GIS analysis involving seven building parameters, which appeared to be relevant for a classification of buildings regarding potential flood impacts. The outcome is a building taxonomic approach. A subsequent identification of representative buildings is based on statistical analyses and membership functions. The second module on the building susceptibility for representative buildings bears on the derivation of depth-physical impact functions. It relates the principal building components, including their heights, dimensions and materials, to the damage from different water levels. The material’s susceptibility is estimated based on international studies on the resistance of building materials and a fuzzy expert analysis. Then depth-physical impact functions are calculated referring to the principal components of the buildings which can be affected by different water levels. Hereby, depth-physical impact functions are seen as a means for the interrelation between the water level and the physical impacts. The third module provides the tools for implementing the methodology. This tool compresses the architecture for feeding the required data on the buildings with their relations to the building typology and the building-type specific depth-physical impact function supporting the automatic process. The methodology is tested in three flood plains pilot sites: (i) in the settlement of the Barrio Sur in Magangué and (ii) in the settlement of La Peña in Cicuco located on the flood plain of Magdalena River, Colombia and (iii) in a settlement of the city of Dresden, located on the Elbe River, Germany. The testing of the methodology covers the description of data availability and accuracy, the steps for deriving the depth-physical impact functions of representative buildings and the final display of the spatial distribution of the physical flood susceptibility. The discussion analyses what are the contributions of this work evaluating the findings of the methodology’s testing with the dissertation goals. The conclusions of the work show the contributions and limitations of the research in terms of methodological and empirical advancements and the general applicability in flood risk management<br>In vielen Städten nehmen die Auswirkungen von Hochwasser auf Gebäude aufgrund immer extremerer Wetterereignisse, unkontrollierbarer Siedlungsbauten und der steigenden Vulnerabilität von Besitztümern stetig zu. Es existieren zwar bereits Ansätze zur Beurteilung von Wasserschäden an Gebäuden und Infrastrukturknotenpunkten. Doch ist es bisher schwierig, diese Methoden großräumig anzuwenden, da es an einer präzisen Klassifizierung und Charakterisierung von Gebäuden und anderen baulichen Anlagen fehlt. Zu diesem Zweck sollen in dieser Arbeit erstens ein Konzept für ein genaueres Verständnis der physischen Vulnerabilität von Gebäuden gegenüber Hochwasser dargelegt, zweitens ein methodisches Verfahren zur Kombination der bestehenden Methoden und Hilfsmittel mit dem Ziel einer großräumigen und hochauflösenden Analyse erarbeitet und drittens diese Methode an drei Pilotstandorten mit unterschiedlichem Ausbauzustand erprobt werden. Die Rahmenbedingungen des Konzepts grenzen die Begriffe der Vulnerabilität, der physischen Vulnerabilität und der physischen Anfälligkeit gegenüber Hochwasser ein und erörtern deren Beziehung zur sozialen und ökonomischen Vulnerabilität. Es werden die Merkmale der physischen Anfälligkeit von Gebäuden gegenüber Hochwasser als Bestandteil der Vulnerabilität definiert. Das methodische Verfahren umfasst drei Module: (i) Methoden zur Erstellung einer Gebäudetypologie, (ii) Methoden zur Bewertung der Anfälligkeit repräsentativer Gebäude jedes Gebäudetyps und (iii) die Kombination der beiden Module mit Hilfe technologischer Hilfsmittel. Das erste Modul zur Gebäudetypologie basiert auf der Klassifizierung von Fernerkundungsdaten und GIS-Analysen anhand von sieben Gebäudeparametern, die sich für die Klassifizierung von Gebäuden bezüglich ihres Risikopotenzials bei Hochwasser als wichtig erweisen. Daraus ergibt sich ein Ansatz zur Gebäudeklassifizierung. Die anschließende Ermittlung repräsentativer Gebäude beruht auf statistischen Analysen und Zugehörigkeitsfunktionen. Das zweite Modul zur Anfälligkeit repräsentativer Gebäude beruht auf der Ableitung von Funktion von Wasserstand und physischer Einwirkung. Es setzt die relevanten Gebäudemerkmale, darunter Höhe, Maße und Materialien, in Beziehung zum erwartbaren Schaden bei unterschiedlichen Wasserständen. Die Materialanfälligkeit wird aufgrund internationaler Studien zur Festigkeit von Baustoffen sowie durch Anwendung eines Fuzzy-Logic-Expertensystems eingeschätzt. Anschließend werden Wasserstand-Schaden-Funktionen unter Einbeziehung der Hauptgebäudekomponenten berechnet, die durch unterschiedliche Wasserstände in Mitleidenschaft gezogen werden können. Funktion von Wasserstand und physischer Einwirkung dienen hier dazu, den jeweiligen Wasserstand und die physischen Auswirkung in Beziehung zueinander zu setzen. Das dritte Modul stellt die zur Umsetzung der Methoden notwendigen Hilfsmittel vor. Zur Unterstützung des automatisierten Verfahrens dienen Hilfsmittel, die die Gebäudetypologie mit der Funktion von Wasserstand und physischer Einwirkung für Gebäude in Hochwassergebieten kombinieren. Die Methoden wurden anschließend in drei hochwassergefährdeten Pilotstandorten getestet: (i) in den Siedlungsgebieten von Barrio Sur in Magangué und (ii) von La Pena in Cicuco, zwei Überschwemmungsgebiete des Magdalenas in Kolumbien, und (iii) im Stadtgebiet von Dresden, das an der Elbe liegt. Das Testverfahren umfasst die Beschreibung der Datenverfügbarkeit und genauigkeit, die einzelnen Schritte zur Analyse der. Funktion von Wasserstand und physischer Einwirkung repräsentativer Gebäude sowie die Darstellung der räumlichen Verteilung der physischen Anfälligkeit für Hochwasser. In der Diskussion wird der Beitrag dieser Arbeit zur Beurteilung der Erkenntnisse der getesteten Methoden anhand der Ziele dieser Dissertation analysiert. Die Folgerungen beleuchten abschließend die Fortschritte und auch Grenzen der Forschung hinsichtlich methodischer und empirischer Entwicklungen sowie deren allgemeine Anwendbarkeit im Bereich des Hochwasserschutzes<br>El impacto de las inundaciones sobre los edificios en zonas urbanas es cada vez mayor debido a la intensificación de los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos, asentamientos no controlados o no planificados y su creciente vulnerabilidad. Hay métodos disponibles para evaluar los daños por inundación en edificios e infraestructuras críticas. Sin embargo, es muy difícil implementar estos métodos sistemáticamente en grandes áreas debido a la falta de clasificación y caracterización de estructuras construidas en resoluciones detalladas. Para superar este obstáculo, este trabajo se enfoca, en primer lugar, en desarrollar un marco conceptual para comprender la vulnerabilidad y susceptibilidad física de edificios por inudaciones, en segundo lugar, en desarrollar un marco metodológico para la combinación de los métodos y herramientas para una análisis de alta resolución y en tercer lugar, la prueba de la metodología en tres sitios experimentales, con distintas condiciones de desarrollo. El marco conceptual se enfoca en comprender la vulnerabilidad y susceptibility de las edificaciones frente a inundaciones, y su relación con la vulnerabilidad social y económica. En él se describen las principales características físicas de la susceptibilidad de edificicaiones como un componente de la vulnerabilidad. El marco metodológico consta de tres módulos: (i) métodos para la derivación de topología de construcciones, (ii) métodos para evaluar la susceptibilidad de edificios representativos y (iii) la integración de los dos módulos a través herramientas tecnológicas. El primer módulo de topología de construcciones se basa en una clasificación de datos de sensoramiento rémoto y procesamiento SIG para la extracción de siete parámetros de las edficaciones. Este módulo parece ser aplicable para una clasificación de los edificios en relación con los posibles impactos de las inundaciones. El resultado es una taxonomía de las edificaciones y una posterior identificación de edificios representativos que se basa en análisis estadísticos y funciones de pertenencia. El segundo módulo consiste en el análisis de susceptibilidad de las construcciones representativas a través de funciones de profundidad del impacto físico. Las cuales relacionan los principales componentes de la construcción, incluyendo sus alturas, dimensiones y materiales con los impactos físicos a diferentes niveles de agua. La susceptibilidad del material se calcula con base a estudios internacionales sobre la resistencia de los materiales y un análisis a través de sistemas expertos difusos. Aquí, las funciones de profundidad de impacto físico son considerados como un medio para la interrelación entre el nivel del agua y los impactos físicos. El tercer módulo proporciona las herramientas necesarias para la aplicación de la metodología. Estas herramientas tecnológicas consisten en la arquitectura para la alimentación de los datos relacionados a la tipología de construcciones con las funciones de profundidad del impacto físico apoyado en procesos automáticos. La metodología es probada en tres sitios piloto: (i) en el Barrio Sur en Magangué y (ii) en la barrio de La Peña en Cicuco situado en la llanura inundable del Río Magdalena, Colombia y (iii) en barrio Kleinzschachwitz de la ciudad de Dresden, situado a orillas del río Elba, en Alemania. Las pruebas de la metodología abarca la descripción de la disponibilidad de los datos y la precisión, los pasos a seguir para obtener las funciones profundidad de impacto físico de edificios representativos y la presentación final de la distribución espacial de la susceptibilidad física frente inundaciones El discusión analiza las aportaciones de este trabajo y evalua los resultados de la metodología con relación a los objetivos. Las conclusiones del trabajo, muestran los aportes y limitaciones de la investigación en términos de avances metodológicos y empíricos y la aplicabilidad general de gestión del riesgo de inundaciones

Thailand has been often affected by severe flood events over the past century. The 2011’s Thailand Flood Catastrophe was the costliest in country’s history, and it was ranked to be the second most damaging natural hazard in the world in terms of economic losses. The Chao Phraya River Basin was noted to be the most vulnerable area prone to flooding in Thailand. The dynamics of flood risk in the river basin have changed drastically over the past fifty years. In particular, flood exposure increased due to rapid urbanization and population growth. Since 2012, integrated flood risk management has been addressed to be the major framework of water-related disasters with the goal of losses and damage reductions. However, there is currently little research in Thailand on how to quantify flood risks and mitigate flood inundation damage on the relation between the occurrence of flood events and their consequential socio-economic implications. In this study, a tradition method in flood risk assessment is implemented by integrating 2D hydrodynamic modelling and the assessment of socio-economic impact of floods into the Chao Phraya River Basin. More specifically, the fully 2D version of the LISFLOOD-FP model code was used to model flood inundation processes. The output of the model was then used to map inundation depth and assess the levels of physical/environmental risk associated to flood hazards on multiple receptors/elements at risk. The European Flood Directive and the KULTURisk methodology were applied to quantify flood risks in monetary terms for residential, industrial, and agricultural sectors. The 2011 flood event was used for model calibration, while a hypothetical flood event with a return period of 100 years was simulated to identify the potential flood losses. Depth-damage functions comprising of JRC-ASIA, the Flemish, and JICA models were used to estimate potential damage for residential and industrial structures. The results showed that LISFLOOD-FP could satisfactorily reproduce the flood inundation extent obtained from satellite imagery in 2011. The model performance (Critical Success Index or F1) was of 56%, with a Bias of 112%. The latter meant the total inundated area was 12% larger than flood extent’s observation. Moreover, the model could simulate flood levels with overall Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 2.03 m a.s.l. and 1.78 m a.s.l., respectively. For the estimation of flood damage and losses, the Flemish model showed the strongest agreement with the reported flood damage in the residential sector, while JICA-ASIA model underestimated flood damage for industrial sector by just 1%. The KULTURisk methodology also well-estimated crop losses in the 2011 event which an overestimation about 21% from the reported value. Apart from that, fully 2D numerical method could not perfectly represent 1-in-100 year flood inundation due to non-consideration of important features such as the precise river channel topography, hydraulic infrastructures, and flood protection schemes in the river basin. Lack of such features results in an overestimation of flood damage and losses for 1-in-100 year flood comparing to the national flood hazard map and damage assessment which are simulated and estimated by JICA’s study. Such features can be better handled by using a coupled 1D/2D numerical method in order to simulate flood inundation extent more realistically and estimate flood losses. This could help the Thai government to better prepare a budget for flood risk prevention. In addition, even if the Flemish model indicates a good representation of relative flood damage to housing structures, the government should establish depth-damage curves specific for Thailand.

Cemeteries have a lot of different values, both to people but also to society. Besides from being a burial place where survivors can go to be close to their deceased, they can also function as restorative places or cultural and historical places. This study’s aim is to investigate how future changes in the climate may potentially have impacts on cemeteries in Sweden in forms of flooding and to make a rough estimation of how many cemeteries that would be affected by this. This study will also investigate how many individuals that would be affected by this. In order to investigate this an overlay analysis was done in a Geographical Information System (GIS). The results showed that there are some cemeteries that would potentially have 10% or more of the total area flooded, given the scenarios in this study. It also shows that there could potentially be a lot of individuals that would be affected, in different ways.

This journey based narrative inspired by the traditional narrative of the Major Arcana cards in the tarot, centers on The Fool and his interactions with the rest of the Major Arcana. The Fool’s journey centers on memory, regaining personal power, admitting and accepting weakness, and creating a personal place in relation to a larger world. This evolution throughout the journey is explored through detailed repeating imagery and symbols drawn from a mixture of traditional tarot imagery and the author’s personal image set created for this narrative.

Floyd Collins, a Kentucky caver who suffered a lengthy entrapment and eventual death inside Sand Cave in 1925, has had his story told repeatedly and in numerous forms. Although the countless genres (and their historical accuracy) vary, they are basically retellings of the same story—a story filled with drama, suspense, and heroics. Because of these characteristics, the rhetoric of the Floyd Collins ordeal lent itself to examination using Bormann's (1972) fantasy theme method. By using a fantasy theme analysis to explore the saga, I advanced beyond the retellings and gained a greater understanding of why seventy-seven years after he died alone in a Kentucky cave, Floyd Collins' story survives. Specifically, this researcher identified and examined dominant rhetorical visions and communities that emerged from the tragedy and how these influenced the story's perpetuation and continued audience appeal. The method for this study consisted of collecting and analyzing rhetoric produced both during and after Collins' entrapment to reconstruct rhetorical visions. Four dominant rhetorical visions of Floyd Collins were explored: Collins as a tragic hero, Collins as a victim of greed, Collins as a devoted suitor, and Collins as an uneducated hillbilly.

Thesis (M. En.)--Miami University, Institute of Environmental Sciences, 2005.<br>Title from first page of PDF document. Document formatted into pages; contains [1], v, 169, [1] p. : ill. Includes bibliographical references (p. 36).