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1

Gegear, Robert J., and Terence M. Laverty. "Effect of a colour dimorphism on the flower constancy of honey bees and bumble bees." Canadian Journal of Zoology 82, no. 4 (2004): 587–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z04-029.

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We assessed the flower constancy of Italian honey bees (Apis mellifera ligustica Spinelli, 1808) and bumble bees (Bombus impatiens Cresson, 1863) by presenting individual foragers with a mixed array of equally rewarding yellow and blue flowers after they were trained to visit each colour in succession. All honey bees showed a high degree of flower constancy to one colour and rarely visited the alternate colour, whereas most bumble bees indiscriminately visited both colours. Foraging rates (flowers visited per minute) and flower handling times did not differ between honey bee and bumble bee foragers; however, bumble bees tended to fly farther between consecutive flower visits and make fewer moves to nearest neighbouring flowers than honey bees. When bees were forced to specialize on one of two previously rewarding flower colours by depleting one colour of reward, honey bees required almost twice as many flower visits to specialize on the rewarding flower colour as bumble bees. Together, these results suggest that the relationship between individual flower constancy and colour differences is not a general behavioural phenomenon in honey and bumble bees, perhaps because of differences in the ability of each group to effectively manage multiple colours at the same time and location.
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2

PINDER, ROHIT, and NAMITA NAMITA. "Influence of dehydration techniques on colour retention and related traits of gerbera (Gerbera hybrida) flowers." Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 88, no. 5 (2018): 733–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.56093/ijas.v88i5.80066.

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Gerbera (Gerbera hybrida) is the most popular florist flower due to various colours, shapes and sizes. It belongs to the family Asteraceae. The present study was conducted to determine the effect of different drying techniques on retention of flower colour and its related traits of Gerbera hybrida var. Doni. Maximum flower colour acceptability score (3.67), high acceptability of texture of dry flowers (3.67), minimum brittleness of dried flowers (2.33), minimum damage of florets (1.33) and maximum score (2.67) for the shape of embedded dry flowers were observed with vacuum air oven drying upto 60 days. Maximum colour retention up to 60 days was observed on the adaxial surface of the floret in vacuum drying (Y-O14A); however, on the abaxial surface of the floret, colour retention was seen maximum up to 60 days at room temperature drying, i.e. control (Y-12B) technique. Minimum reduction in flower size (5.22 %) was observed in vacuum drying; however, minimum reduction in flower weight (82.21%) was foundin microwave drying technique. Vacuum air oven drying method was observed to be the best technique for retention of flower colour and related traits.
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3

Dyer, Adrian G., Skye Boyd-Gerny, Stephen McLoughlin, Marcello G. P. Rosa, Vera Simonov, and Bob B. M. Wong. "Parallel evolution of angiosperm colour signals: common evolutionary pressures linked to hymenopteran vision." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1742 (2012): 3606–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.0827.

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Flowering plants in Australia have been geographically isolated for more than 34 million years. In the Northern Hemisphere, previous work has revealed a close fit between the optimal discrimination capabilities of hymenopteran pollinators and the flower colours that have most frequently evolved. We collected spectral data from 111 Australian native flowers and tested signal appearance considering the colour discrimination capabilities of potentially important pollinators. The highest frequency of flower reflectance curves is consistent with data reported for the Northern Hemisphere. The subsequent mapping of Australian flower reflectances into a bee colour space reveals a very similar distribution of flower colour evolution to the Northern Hemisphere. Thus, flowering plants in Australia are likely to have independently evolved spectral signals that maximize colour discrimination by hymenoptera. Moreover, we found that the degree of variability in flower coloration for particular angiosperm species matched the range of reflectance colours that can only be discriminated by bees that have experienced differential conditioning. This observation suggests a requirement for plasticity in the nervous systems of pollinators to allow generalization of flowers of the same species while overcoming the possible presence of non-rewarding flower mimics.
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4

Narbona, Eduardo, José C. del Valle, and Justen B. Whittall. "Painting the green canvas: how pigments produce flower colours." Biochemist 43, no. 3 (2021): 6–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bio_2021_137.

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Flowering plants are characterized by the production of striking flower colours and these colours are primarily caused by the accumulation of pigments in cells of the floral organs. The extraordinary array of colours displayed in flowers relies on four main pigment groups: chlorophylls, carotenoids, flavonoids and betalains. With thousands of different compounds, flavonoids are the most diverse and widespread pigment group. They include coloured anthocyanins, aurones and chalcones, as well as many flavonoid compounds such as flavones and flavonols that are invisible to humans, but visible to most pollinators since they absorb ultraviolet light (UV). Flowers may exhibit homogenous colours produced by only one type of pigment or extremely complex colour patterns caused by the accumulation of several types of pigments in the same or in different floral organs. Here, we review the ecological biochemistry of pigments affecting flower colour. We also present data of flower colour variation and provide future research directions guided by the physiological functions of floral pigments.
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5

M, Visalakshi, Jawaharlal M, and Thirupathi V. "Freeze Drying on Physiological Characteristics and Sensory Quality of Flowers." Madras Agricultural Journal 102, March (2015): 80–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.29321/maj.10.001072.

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Drying technique of many ornamental flowers by freeze drying retains the quality and longevity of flowers. In this experiment freeze drying effect on different flowers (rose, carnation, jasmine, orchid and chrysanthemum) for flower colour, flower physiology, tissue integrity and moisture content with dry flower shape were studied. Flowers which recorded optimum moisture loss provided rigidity and uniform cell contraction with shape retention while higher moisture loss resulted in shriveled flowers. Light colour flowers retained colour value compared to dark flowers. The carnation (pink) and jasmine flowers recorded optimum percentage of moisture loss due to freeze drying, which did not affect the pigment concentration and retained the colour and shape. These flowers scored better for quality parameters and found suitable for freeze drying in dry flower industry.
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6

Hill, Peggy S.M, Patrick H. Wells, and Harrington Wells. "Spontaneous flower constancy and learning in honey bees as a function of colour." Animal Behaviour 54, no. 3 (1997): 615–27. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14818217.

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(Uploaded by Plazi for the Bat Literature Project) When presented with an artificial flower patch of blue and yellow pedicellate flowers, individual honey bees, Apis mellifera L., became constant to one of the two flower colours, rarely even sampling the alternative colour. Some bees visited only blue flowers while others visited only yellow flowers. This paper describes the onset of constancy for bees that had had no experience with the experimental apparatus. In 3020 visits, bees failed to land on or drink from the flower colour on which they first landed only 17 times. This behaviour was not modified by quality or quantity of reward, training to the experimental site, group effects or presence of odour during trials. However, when we trained bees to a target painted with two colours and then forced them to sample monomorphic flower patches in sequence, all bees visited the only colour present: yellow or blue. When we subsequently offered these same bees yellow and blue flowers simultaneously (rewarded choices), they became constant. Eleven of 23 bees showed constancy to the less rewarding flower morph without even sampling the alternative. Those bees failed to sample even though they had previously been forced to visit the alternative flower morph, which offered a reward with twice the calories/volume. Constancy is thus spontaneous in honey bees, but it can be hidden by some experimental protocols designed to study learning.
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7

Rizqiani, Yanuar, Florentina Kusmiyati, and Syaiful Anwar. "Keragaman warna bunga m1 tanaman aster (Callistephus chinensis) Hasil induksi mutasi iradiasi sinar gamma." Journal of Agro Complex 2, no. 1 (2018): 52. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/joac.2.1.52-58.

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The aims of research was to determine the effect of gamma ray on the flower colour of Daisies. The research design was completely randomized design with five replicates. The irradiation treatment of gamma ray were 0 Gy, 5 Gy, 10 Gy, 15 Gy, 20 Gy. Parameters observed were stalk length, time of flowering, number of flowers, flower diameter, and flower colour. The collected data were analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and continued by Least Significance Different (LSD) of 5% level. The result showed that irradiation of gamma ray did not affected stalk length, number of flowers, and time of flowering. The gamma ray irradiation had a significant effect on flower diameter. Gamma ray irradiation significantly decreased the diameter of flower. The flower colour at doses 0 Gy (control) was purple. Colour flower was varied from dark purple to pink at irradiation 10 Gy and 15 Gy. Keywords: Callistephus chinensis, mutation, irradiation, colour of flower.
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8

Ryan, Ryan Firman Syah. "Pengaruh Kualitas Cahaya dan Frekuensi Aplikasi Paclobutrazol Terhadap Pertumbuhan dan Hasil Tanaman Krisan (Chrysanthemum morifolium)." JURNAL AGRI-TEK : Jurnal Penelitian Ilmu-Ilmu Eksakta 24, no. 2 (2023): 23–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.33319/agtek.v24i2.157.

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Abstract-This research aims to determine the effect of light quality and frequency of application of Paclobutrazol on the growth and yield of chrysanthemum plants. The research was carried out from February to April 2023 using factorial experiments and arranged in a Split Plot Design consisting of a Main Plot and a Sub Plot. The main plot is the influence of light quality using three different colours of light: white, red, and blue. The subplot is the frequency of application of Paclobutrazol, which consists of 4 types, namely 0 times, 1 time, 2 times and 3 times. The data analysis used in this research is the analysis of variance with a confidence level of 5%. The results showed an interaction between light quality and the frequency of Paclobutrazol application on the parameters of stem diameter and leaf area. The quality of light has a good influence on the parameters of plant height, flower colour, flower quality, number of flowers, number of leaves and flower diameter. The frequency of application of Paclobutrazol has a good influence on the parameters of plant height, flower colour, flower quality, number of flowers, number of leaves and flower diameter. The best plant height is 106.39 cm, the most significant number of leaves is 15.5, the best leaf area is 89.42 cm2, the best stem diameter is 0.41 inches, the best flower colour with a score of 2.5, the best flower quality with a score of 2.8, the largest flower diameter is 7.93 cm. The most significant number of flowers is 5 flowers.
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9

Hassan Al-Bugg, Younis Saeed. "Fruiting Season, Flowering and Peel Characteristics of Leucaena spp. Analytical Study (B)." Biological Sciences - PJSIR 64, no. 2 (2021): 175–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.52763/pjsir.biol.sci.64.2.2021.175.181.

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 During the flowering seasons the species varied greatly and the seasons were seldom repeated (August-October) with only three species and two species (April-June), which means that they continued throughout the months of the year. Three colours of the flower were observed in total with gradient within these three colours distributed to the studied species. In terms of the colour of the peel, two colours were distinguished only in favour of the brown-gray colour, while the forms of cracks on the outer peel surface were divided into three forms. On the other hand, each type was independent when examining the colour of the inner peel. The shape of the cross section of the branch exceeded 81.8% for the circular shape on the angular shape, while two types of branch thickness were recorded and exactly the same for texture. It was possible to observe two forms of branching of the flower-bearing branches, which were very similar to those of the two forms (non-branching and branching) with a large difference between the two forms of the flower's apex, at a rate of 20 times the round shape and 90.9% of the shape of the flower. Two flowers shoots growing types were observed named (Auxotelic and an Anauxotelic). Three main colours, white, yellow and pink were distinguished and the flower head diameter varied widely between (6.5-30 mm). Flowers season seems to be in all of the year. Outer peel thickness also varied from thick to thin to intermediate. Three forms of peel fissures were found and 54.5% to mid-brown colour. Inner peel colour can be a good item to be a key of classification of this tree. Correlation coefficient between peel thickness and outer peel colour was 0.935.
 
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10

Hanifa, Yumna Rahmadias, Elke Gildantia, Pauline Destinugrainy Kasi, Aziz Purwantoro, and Endang Semiarti. "Characterization of Flower’s Color based on CHS Gene Structure in <i>Phalaenopsis</i> ‘OX Queen’ and <i>Dendrobium</i> ‘Cheddi Jagan’ Orchids." Journal of Tropical Biodiversity and Biotechnology 9, no. 3 (2024): 91511. http://dx.doi.org/10.22146/jtbb.91511.

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Orchids (Orchidaceae) are ornamental plants known for their high aesthetic value attributed to the shapes, colours, and fragrances of their flowers. Two types of hybrid orchids with attractive flowers, namely the Phalaenopsis 'OX Queen' orchid and the Dendrobium 'Cheddi Jagan' boast attractive flowers were used in this research, because of the beauty of its flower colour. The objective of this research is to characterise the morphology of flower colour and CHS (Chalcone Synthase) gene content that induces flower colour. The method used in this research analyzing the flower’s colour by using the RHS (Royal Horticultural Society) colour chart and molecular analysis by DNA genomic isolation and PCR amplification of gDNA for CHS gene specific primers. The results showed that purple colour is observed through the RHS, with P. 'OX Queen' coded as Deep Purple Pink (N73A) and D. 'Cheddi Jagan' coded as Strong Reddish Purple (N72C). The CHS gene can be amplified in P. ’OX Queen’ 1,287 bp and D. ’Cheddi jagan’ 3,731 bp. In both orchids, the results of amplification showed CHS motifs with conserved domains PLN03172 and PLN03170. The research results show that there is a significant difference in the morphology of the flowers of orchids. Purple colour is observed through the RHS, with P. 'OX Queen' coded as N73A and D. 'Cheddi Jagan' coded as N73C. The results showed that gDNA can be isolated by using CTAB method according to Murray and Thomson, and the CHS gene can be amplified by using CHS primers, resulting 1200 bp of P. 'OX Queen' and 2500 bp for D. 'Cheddi Jagan'. Through this study, preliminary data is expected to be obtained for future research, which is the formation of variegated flowers through editing the CRISPR/Cas9 genome in the CHS gene. This research is intended to support further studies on the formation of variegated flower patterns in P. 'OX Queen' and D. 'Cheddi Jagan’, focusing on the CHS gene using CRISPR/Cas9 technique.
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11

Donoso, Amanda, Constanza Rivas, Alan Zamorano, Álvaro Peña, Michael Handford, and Danilo Aros. "Understanding Alstroemeria pallida Flower Colour: Links between Phenotype, Anthocyanins and Gene Expression." Plants 10, no. 1 (2020): 55. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants10010055.

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Flower colour is mainly due to the accumulation of flavonoids, carotenoids and betalains in the petals. Of these pigments, flavonoids are responsible for a wide variety of colours ranging from pale yellow (flavones, flavonols and flavanodiols) to blue-violet (anthocyanins). This character plays a crucial ecological role by attracting and guiding pollinators. Moreover, in the ornamental plants market, colour has been consistently identified as the main feature chosen by consumers when buying flowers. Considering the importance of this character, the aim of this study was to evaluate flower colour in the native Chilean geophyte Alstroemeria pallida, by using three different approaches. Firstly, the phenotype was assessed using both a colour chart and a colourimeter, obtaining CIELab parameters. Secondly, the anthocyanin content of the pigmented tepals was evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and finally, the expression of two key flavonoid genes, chalcone synthase (CHS) and anthocyanidin synthase (ANS) was analysed using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Visual evaluation of A. pallida flower colour identified 5 accessions, ranging from white (Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) N999D) to pink (RHS 68C). Moreover, this visual evaluation of the accessions correlated highly with the CIELab parameters obtained by colourimetry. An anthocyanidin corresponding to a putative 6-hydroxycyanidin was identified, which was least abundant in the white accession (RHS N999D). Although CHS was not expressed differentially between the accessions, the expression of ANS was significantly higher in the accession with pink flowers (RHS 68C). These results suggest a correlation between phenotype, anthocyanin content and ANS expression for determining flower colour of A. pallida, which could be of interest for further studies, especially those related to the breeding of this species with ornamental value.
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Klecka, Jan, Jiří Hadrava, Paolo Biella, and Asma Akter. "Flower visitation by hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) in a temperate plant-pollinator network." PeerJ 6 (December 3, 2018): e6025. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6025.

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Hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) are among the most important pollinators, although they attract less attention than bees. They are usually thought to be rather opportunistic flower visitors, although previous studied demonstrated that they show colour preferences and their nectar feeding is affected by morphological constraints related to flower morphology. Despite the growing appreciation of hoverflies and other non-bee insects as pollinators, there is a lack of community-wide studies of flower visitation by syrphids. The aim of this paper is to provide a detailed analysis of flower visitation patterns in a species rich community of syrphids in a Central European grassland and to evaluate how species traits shape the structure of the plant-hoverfly flower visitation network. We found that different species varied in the level of specialisation, and while some species visited a similar spectre of flowers, others partitioned resources more strongly. There was a consistent difference in both specialisation and flower preferences between three syrphid subfamilies. Eristalinae and Pipizinae were more specialised than Syrphinae. Trait-based analyses showed that relative flower visitation (i) increased with plant height, but most strongly in Eristalinae; (ii) increased with inflorescence size in small species from all three subfamilies, but was independent of inflorescence size in large species of Eristalinae and Syrphinae; and (iii) depended on flower colour, but in a subfamily-specific way. Eristalinae showed the strongest flower colour preferences for white flowers, Pipizinae visited mostly white and yellow flowers, while Syrphinae were less affected by flower colour. Exploration of the structure of the plant-hoverfly flower visitation network showed that the network was both modular and nested. We also found that there were almost no differences in specialisation and relative visitation frequency between males and females. Overall, we showed that flower visitation in syrphids was affected by phylogenetic relatedness, body size of syrphids and several plant traits.
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13

Newman, Ethan, Bruce Anderson, and Steven D. Johnson. "Flower colour adaptation in a mimetic orchid." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1737 (2012): 2309–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.2375.

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Although the tremendous variability in floral colour among angiosperms is often attributed to divergent selection by pollinators, it is usually difficult to preclude the possibility that floral colour shifts were driven by non-pollinator processes. Here, we examine the adaptive significance of flower colour in Disa ferruginea , a non-rewarding orchid that is thought to attract its butterfly pollinator by mimicking the flowers of sympatric nectar-producing species. Disa ferruginea has red flowers in the western part of its range and orange flowers in the eastern part—a colour shift that we hypothesized to be the outcome of selection for resemblance to different local nectar-producing plants. Using reciprocal translocations of red and orange phenotypes as well as arrays of artificial flowers, we found that the butterfly Aeropetes tulbaghia , the only pollinator of the orchid, preferred both the red phenotype and red artificial flowers in the west where its main nectar plant also has red flowers, and both the orange phenotype and orange artificial flowers in the east, where its main nectar plant has orange flowers. This phenotype by environment interaction demonstrates that the flower colour shift in D. ferruginea is adaptive and driven by local colour preference in its pollinator.
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14

Ng, Leslie, Jair E. Garcia, and Adrian G. Dyer. "Why colour is complex: Evidence that bees perceive neither brightness nor green contrast in colour signal processing." FACETS 3, no. 1 (2018): 800–817. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/facets-2017-0116.

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Honey bees ( Apis mellifera Linnaeus, 1758) potentially rely on a variety of visual cues when searching for flowers in the environment. Both chromatic and achromatic (brightness) components of flower signals have typically been considered simultaneously to understand how flower colours have evolved. However, it is unclear whether honey bees actually use brightness information in their colour perception. We investigated whether free-flying honey bees can process brightness cues in achromatic stimuli when presented at a large visual angle of 28° to ensure colour processing. We found that green contrast (modulation of the green receptor against the background) and brightness contrast (modulation of all three receptors against the background) did not have a significant effect on the proportion of correct choices made by bees, indicating that they did not appear to use brightness cues in a colour processing context. Our findings also reveal that, even at a small visual angle, honeybees do not reliably process single targets solely based on achromatic information, at least considering values up to 60% modulation of brightness. We discuss these findings in relation to proposed models of bee colour processing. Therefore, caution should be taken when interpreting elemental components of complex flower colours as perceived by different animals.
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15

Rudall, Paula J. "Colourful cones: how did flower colour first evolve?" Journal of Experimental Botany 71, no. 3 (2019): 759–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erz479.

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Abstract Angiosperms that are biotically pollinated typically produce flowers with bright and contrasting colours that help to attract pollinators and hence contribute to the reproductive success of the species. This colourful array contrasts with the much less multicoloured reproductive structures of the four living gymnosperm lineages, which are mostly wind pollinated, though cycads and Gnetales are predominantly pollinated by insects that feed on surface fluids from the pollination drops. This review examines the possible evolutionary pathways and cryptic clues for flower colour in both living and fossil seed plants. It investigates how the ancestral flowering plants could have overcome the inevitable trade-off that exists between attracting pollinators and minimizing herbivory, and explores the possible evolutionary and biological inferences from the colours that occur in some living gymnosperms. The red colours present in the seed-cone bracts of some living conifers result from accumulation of anthocyanin pigments; their likely primary function is to help protect the growing plant tissues under particular environmental conditions. Thus, the visual cue provided by colour in flower petals could have first evolved as a secondary effect, probably post-dating the evolution of bee colour vision but occurring before the subsequent functional accumulation of a range of different flower pigments.
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16

Tanaka, Yoshikazu, and Filippa Brugliera. "Flower colour and cytochromes P450." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 368, no. 1612 (2013): 20120432. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0432.

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Cytochromes P450 play important roles in biosynthesis of flavonoids and their coloured class of compounds, anthocyanins, both of which are major floral pigments. The number of hydroxyl groups on the B-ring of anthocyanidins (the chromophores and precursors of anthocyanins) impact the anthocyanin colour, the more the bluer. The hydroxylation pattern is determined by two cytochromes P450, flavonoid 3′-hydroxylase (F3′H) and flavonoid 3′,5′-hydroxylase (F3′5′H) and thus they play a crucial role in the determination of flower colour. F3′H and F3′5′H mostly belong to CYP75B and CYP75A, respectively, except for the F3′5′Hs in Compositae that were derived from gene duplication of CYP75B and neofunctionalization. Roses and carnations lack blue/violet flower colours owing to the deficiency of F3′5′H and therefore lack the B-ring-trihydroxylated anthocyanins based upon delphinidin. Successful redirection of the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway to delphinidin was achieved by expressing F3′5′H coding regions resulting in carnations and roses with novel blue hues that have been commercialized. Suppression of F3′5′H and F3′H in delphinidin-producing plants reduced the number of hydroxyl groups on the anthocyanidin B-ring resulting in the production of monohydroxylated anthocyanins based on pelargonidin with a shift in flower colour to orange/red. Pelargonidin biosynthesis is enhanced by additional expression of a dihydroflavonol 4-reductase that can use the monohydroxylated dihydrokaempferol (the pelargonidin precursor). Flavone synthase II (FNSII)-catalysing flavone biosynthesis from flavanones is also a P450 (CYP93B) and contributes to flower colour, because flavones act as co-pigments to anthocyanins and can cause blueing and darkening of colour. However, transgenic plants expression of a FNSII gene yielded paler flowers owing to a reduction of anthocyanins because flavanones are precursors of anthocyanins and flavones.
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Dafni, Amots, Hagai Tzohari, Rachel Ben-Shlomo, Nicolas J. Vereecken, and Gidi Ne’eman. "Flower Colour Polymorphism, Pollination Modes, Breeding System and Gene Flow in Anemone coronaria." Plants 9, no. 3 (2020): 397. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants9030397.

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The flower colour of Anemone coronaria (Ranunculaceae) is a genetically inherited trait. Such intra-specific flower colour polymorphism might be driven by pollinators, other non-pollinating agents, or by abiotic factors. We investigated the genetic relations among red, white and purple-blue flower colour morphs growing in 10 populations of A. coronaria in Israel, in relation to their breeding system, pollination modes, differential perception by bees and visitors’ behaviour. Flowers of these three morphs differed in their reflectance that could be perceived by bees. Honeybees, solitary bees and flies demonstrated only partial preferences for the different colour morphs. No spontaneous self-pollination was found; however, fruit set under nets, excluding insects but allowing wind pollination, was not significantly lower than that of natural free pollinated flowers, indicating a potential role of wind pollination. Anemone coronaria flowers were visited by various insects, honeybees and Andrena sp. preferred the white and purple-blue morphs, while the syrphid flies preferred the white flowers. Thus, visitor behaviour can only partially explain the evolution or maintenance of the colour polymorphism. No significant genetic differences were found among the populations or colour morphs. Wind pollination, causing random gene flow, may explain why no significant genetic divergence was found among all studied populations and their colour morphs. The existence of monomorphic red populations, along other polymorphic populations, might be explained by linked resistance to aridity and/or grazing.
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Casci, Tanita. "Flower colour power." Nature Reviews Genetics 5, no. 1 (2004): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrg1256.

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Nur'Aeni, Nopi, and Vivi Indriani. "Microbiological and Hedonic Test of Lanolin Listick with the Addition of Rosella Flower (Hibiscus sabdariffa L) Extract Dye." Jurnal Peternakan Integratif 12, no. 1 (2024): 42–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.32734/jpi.v12i1.16469.

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Lanolin fat is produced from processing sheep wool. Lanolin is one of the ingredient for processing lipstick. a solid bar-shaped cosmetic preparation, serves as a lip colorant in makeup. Lanolin lipstick, still in need of innovation, for example in colour. Organic colouring can use, among other things, colours from Rosella flowers (Hibiscus sabdariffa L). The purpose of this study is to look at the microbiological and sensory properties of lanolin lipstick that has different amounts of Rosella flower extract (Hibiscus sabdariffa L) added to it. This study used a completely randomized design (CRD) unidirectional pattern with four treatments, namely, 0%, 20%, 40%, and 60% levels of Rosella flower extract. The data obtained were analyzed by ANOVA (analysis of variance) to determine the effect of each treatment, and if the data showed differences with a significant level of 95%, then Tukey's multiple comparison test was carried out. The study found that adding different amounts of Rosella flower extract to lanolin lipstick did not have a significant effect (P &gt; 0.05) on the total plate count (ALT) of lipstick during storage. However, it did have a significant effect (P&lt; 0.05) on the hedonic test and hedonic quality of color parameters. In conclusion, the addition of 60% rosella flower extract to lanolin lipstick is able to suppress bacterial growth during the lipstick storage process. Rosella flower extract affects the colour of the lipstick which is getting redder, the aroma of the extract is stronger, the texture is smooth.
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20

Kelber, A. "Innate preferences for flower features in the hawkmoth Macroglossum stellatarum." Journal of Experimental Biology 200, no. 4 (1997): 827–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.200.4.827.

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The diurnal hawkmoth Macroglossum stellatarum is known to feed from a variety of flower species of almost all colours, forms and sizes. A newly eclosed imago, however, has to find its first flower by means of an innate flower template. This study investigates which visual flower features are represented in this template and their relative importance. Newly eclosed imagines were tested for their innate preferences, using artificial flowers made out of coloured paper or projected onto a screen through interference filters. The moths were found to have a strong preference for 440 nm and a weaker preference for 540 nm. The attractiveness of a colour increases with light intensity. The background colour, as well as the spectral composition of the ambient illumination, influences the choice behaviour. Blue paper disks against a yellowish background are chosen much more often than the same disks against a bluish background. Similarly, under ultraviolet-rich illumination, the preference for 540 nm is much more pronounced than under yellowish illumination. Disks of approximately 32 mm in diameter are preferred to smaller and larger ones, and a sectored pattern is more attractive than a ring pattern. Pattern preferences are less pronounced with coloured than with black-and-white patterns. Tests using combinations of two parameters reveal that size is more important than colour and that colour is more important than pattern.
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Kannihalli, Saleemali, Sahana M, Shashank D U, and A. S. Vastrad. "Preference of Indian Honey Bee, Apis cerena indica Fab. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) for Varying Sucrose Concentrations and Colours." Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology 27, no. 8 (2024): 538–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/jabb/2024/v27i81167.

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Nectar foraging provides honey bees with essential energy and enhance pollination, supporting biodiversity. Flower colour attracts and guide them to nectar rich flowers promoting effective pollination. With this background, a study was conducted at apiary, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad to investigate the preference of honey bees to different concentrations of sucrose and colours. It was found that the highest activity of honey bees occurred between 10 AM to 11 AM. Among the different sucrose concentrations offered, honey bees showed a preference for 40 per cent concentration with an average of 9.53 bees/petri plate/5 mins over others. Colour preference experiment demonstrated that honey bees preferred yellow color the most, followed by blue, white and red, with 9.07, 6.00, 3.67 and 1.60 bees/petri plate/5 mins, respectively. The present study revealed that honey bees optimize their foraging activity by choosing flowers with higher nectar amounts and yellow coloured flowers.
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PANWAR, SAPNA, KANWAR PAL SINGH, and NAMITA NAMITA. "Assessment of variability, heritable components and grouping of Indian rose." Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 82, no. 10 (2012): 875–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.56093/ijas.v82i10.24180.

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Thirty-two genotypes of rose were evaluated for various vegetative and floral traits to ascertain genetic parameters such as variability, heritability, genetic (GCV) and phenotypic (PCV) coefficient of variation and genetic advance. Further, these genotypes were grouped into five categories, i e plant growth type, flower type, flower diameter, number of colours on inner side of petal and flower colour group on basis of DUS (Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability) guidelines. Analysis of variance for all traits showed highly significant differences among genotypes for all the vegetative and floral traits studied. Phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) for all traits was higher than the genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV). High estimates of PCV and GCV were observed for weight per flower, number of petals per flower, number of flowers per plant and prickle density. Moreover, high heritability (&gt;80%) were noticed for plant height, internodal length, neck length, flower diameter, weight per flower, number of petals per flower and number of flowers per plant. High genetic advance was observed for weight per flower followed by number of petals per flower and number of flowers per plant. High coefficient of variation both at the genotypic and phenotypic level along with high heritability and genetic advance was observed for weight per flower, number of petals per flower and number of flowers per plant. The diverse genotypes with peculiar characteristics, identified in the present study may be used as parents in the crop improvement programme for evolving elite genotypes.
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Suharman, L. S. Nadia, and A. Sutakwa. "Effect of sucrose addition to antioxidant activity and colour in blue pea flower (Clitoria ternatea L.) yoghurt." Food Research 6, no. 2 (2022): 70–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.6(2).143.

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Blue pea flower (Clitoria ternatea L.) yoghurt is the result of processing milk with the addition of blue pea flower extract through Lactic acid bacteria's fermentation process viz. Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. Blue pea flower (Clitoria ternatea L.) contains bioactive components, particularly flavonol glycosides, anthocyanins, flavones, flavonols, phenolic acids and terpenoid. This study was aimed to determine the effect of sucrose on the antioxidant activity and colour of blue pea flower yoghurt. This study used a completely randomized design with five treatments namely yogurt control = no added blue pea flower extract, and the following with 10% blue pea flower extract at different sucrose concentrations: P1 = 0% sucrose, P2 = 4% sucrose, P3 = 8% sucrose and P4 = 12% sucrose. Data analysis used the analysis of variance. The results showed that the highest antioxidant activity was P2 = 105.25 ppm. While the best colour parameter is P2 = L * 42.42, a * 5.12, b * -5.54). Based on the results of the study, the addition of sucrose 4% increased the highest antioxidant activity and colour of yoghurt extract of blue pea flowers (Clitoria ternatea L).
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Harrap, Michael J. M., Natalie Hempel de Ibarra, Heather M. Whitney, and Sean A. Rands. "Floral temperature patterns can function as floral guides." Arthropod-Plant Interactions 14, no. 2 (2020): 193–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11829-020-09742-z.

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AbstractFloral guides are signal patterns that lead pollinators to floral rewards after they have located the flower, and increase foraging efficiency and pollen transfer. Patterns of several floral signalling modalities, particularly colour patterns, have been identified as being able to function as floral guides. Floral temperature frequently shows patterns that can be used by bumblebees for locating and recognising the flower, but whether these temperature patterns can function as a floral guide has not been explored. Furthermore, how combined patterns (using multiple signalling modalities) affect floral guide function has only been investigated in a few modality combinations. We assessed how artificial flowers induce behaviours in bumblebees when rewards are indicated by unimodal temperature patterns, unimodal colour patterns or multimodal combinations of these. Bees visiting flowers with unimodal temperature patterns showed an increased probability of finding rewards and increased learning of reward location, compared to bees visiting flowers without patterns. However, flowers with contrasting unimodal colour patterns showed further guide-related behavioural changes in addition to these, such as reduced reward search times and attraction to the rewarding feeder without learning. This shows that temperature patterns alone can function as a floral guide, but with reduced efficiency. When temperature patterns were added to colour patterns, bees showed similar improvements in learning reward location and reducing their number of failed visits in addition to the responses seen to colour patterns. This demonstrates that temperature pattern guides can have beneficial effects on flower handling both when alone or alongside colour patterns.
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Qian, Renjuan, Youju Ye, Qingdi Hu, Xiaohua Ma, Xule Zhang, and Jian Zheng. "Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Analyses Reveal New Insights into the Role of Metabolites and Genes in Modulating Flower Colour of Clematis tientaiensis." Horticulturae 9, no. 1 (2022): 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9010014.

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Clematis tientaiensis is an ornamental plant with beautiful flowers that belongs to the Ranunculaceae family. C. tientaiensis is endemic to Zhejiang Province in China. Five different colours of the C. tientaiensis flower have been observed, and to explore the reason for this flower colour variation, transcriptome and metabolome sequencing analyses were conducted in this study. The results indicate that 32 metabolites participate in anthocyanin biosynthesis, and that 24 metabolites were differentially accumulated among the five different flower colours. The transcriptome sequencing results enabled the identification of 13,559 differentially expressed genes. Further analysis indicated that cyanidin-3-O-galactosidea and cyanidin-3-O-sophoroside promote anthocyanin accumulation in the flowers of C. tientaiensis, whereas the pelargonidin-3-O-galactoside plays a negative role in anthocyanin synthesis. In addition, a combined transcriptome and metabolome analysis showed that the WDR2 gene plays an important regulatory role in anthocyanin biosynthesis. The results of this study provide a basis for further research into the biosynthesis and regulation of anthocyanins in C. tientaiensis flowers.
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Tegrovsky, Lara, and Peter Pany. "Is there a connection between pollination and colour change of the nectar guides of common horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum)? – Results of a preliminary study." Neilreichia 10 (April 30, 2019): 127–34. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2630533.

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The nectar guides of the common horse chestnut change their colour during the anthesis of a single flower. After anthesis, withering flowers do not drop but remain on the inflorescence. This led to the hypothesis that the white colour of the remaining flowers aids in long-distance pollinator attraction. The present preliminary study explores whether the colour change of the nectar guides is influenced by the pollination status (pollinated versus non-pollinated). We pollinated 49 flowers on three different inflorescences artificially and evaluated the time until colour change. Pollinated flowers changed the colour of their nectar guides one day after pollination while unpollinated flowers started nectar guide colour change only after two days. These results support the hypothesis that the colour change of nectar guides helps pollinators differentiate between pollinated flowers (which do no longer produce nectar) and unpollinated flowers.
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Nieuwhof, M., J. P. van Eijk, and W. Eikelboom. "Relation between flower colour and pigment composition of tulip (Tulipa L.)." Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 37, no. 4 (1989): 365–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.18174/njas.v37i4.16621.

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Colour and pigment composition were determined in flowers of F1 plants produced by crossing tulip cultivars. Yellow flowers contained only carotenoids, orange flowers always at least carotenoids and cyanidin, and red flowers always and pink and purple flowers nearly always cyanidin. Most flowers, except purple ones, did not contain delphinidin. Highest carotenoid levels occurred in yellow, orange, dark red and orange-red flowers; highest delphinidin levels in purple flowers and highest cyanidin and pelargonidin levels in red flowers. Pigment levels in light coloured flowers were lower than in darker coloured flowers. Between flowers with the same colour substantial differences in pigment composition and level may occur, indicating that flower colour of tulip depends additionally on other chemical and physical characters. (Abstract retrieved from CAB Abstracts by CABI’s permission)
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Śmiechowska, Maria, Przemysław Dmowski, and Larysa Skowierzak. "Edible Flowers’ Antioxidant Properties and Polyphenols Content Reflect Their Applicability for Household and Craft Tincture Production." Applied Sciences 11, no. 21 (2021): 10095. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app112110095.

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The growing interest of consumers in regional and traditional products drew our attention to innovative products manufactured at home and using craft methods, which include, among others, alcohol tinctures of edible flowers. The aim of this paper is to present selected tinctures of edible flowers from home and craft production, their phenol content, antioxidant properties and colour. Novel alcoholic beverages obtained from edible flowers are characterized. The tinctures from wild rose flowers, elderberry, marigold and cornflower were studied. The content of phenolic compounds, the antioxidant properties and the colour of tinctures in the CIE L*a*b* system were analysed. The study showed that edible flower tinctures are characterized by an intense colour, which is not adversely affected by the maceration process. The determined parameters were influenced by the form of flowers (fresh or dried). The total content of polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in the studied tinctures were lower than in the fresh flowers. Edible flower tinctures can be an interesting alternative for both consumers looking for product innovations and alcohol connoisseurs.
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Reid, Clara. "Floral Longevity and Attraction of Arctic Lupine, Lupinus arcticus: Implications for Pollination Efficiency." Arbutus Review 10, no. 1 (2019): 83–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.18357/tar101201918921.

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Pollination by insects is a mutualistic relationship in which flowers receive pollen for reproduction while pollinators are rewarded with pollen or nectar. Floral longevity (the period an individual flower blooms) and floral attraction (the period during which pollinators are attracted to the flower, often indicated by petal colour) both play prominent roles in plant and pollinator success. This study investigated whether floral longevity and floral attraction were mediated by pollination type in arctic lupine (Lupinus arcticus S. Wats.), a common herbaceous perennial in northwestern North America. Flowers were either open to pollinators, cross-pollinated by hand, or bagged to prevent cross-pollination, and floral longevity, seed set, and flower colour were observed. Open and hand-pollinated flowers had significantly shorter floral longevities and higher percent fruit sets than bagged flowers. A colour change of the banner petal marking from white to pink occurred in some flowers and was a signal of floral attraction, as pollinators preferentially visited pre-change flowers. Pre-change flowers contained more pollen and were less likely to have been injured by herbivory than post-change flowers, yet the colour change was not related to pollination type or fruit set. Pollination-induced shortening of floral longevity is likely an adaptation to limited plant resources and pollinator visitation rates. For L. arcticus, this could be influenced by short growing seasons and low annual temperatures in the study area. In the face of climatic changes and shifting species phenologies, the mediation of floral longevity by pollinators could decrease temporal mismatch between plants and their pollinators, yet the many factors at play make this difficult to accurately predict.
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Debnath, Anirban, Koyel Sinha, Snehasish Mandal, et al. "Assess the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of herbal popsicles prepared by Hibiscus sabdariffa L. and Clitorea ternatea floral waste." Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences 12, no. 2 (2024): 284–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.18006/2024.12(2).284.296.

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In this study, we extracted bio-colour from two commonly available flowers, Rosella (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) and Butterfly pea flower (Clitoria ternatea), and evaluated their potential therapeutic benefits by examining their antioxidant and antibacterial activity. To assess the suitability and quality of the extracted bio-colour as a food additive, we formulated ice popsicles using bio-colour derived from H. sabdariffa and C. ternatea. The crude floral waste extract of H. sabdariffa showed the highest reducing capacity (FRAP assay), antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS assay), and antibacterial potential. This may be attributed to polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, ascorbic acids, organic acids, hibiscus acid, and other compounds in H. sabdariffa flower parts. The ice popsicles formulated with these two bio-colours contained significant polyphenol and flavonoid content, contributing to their antioxidant potential comparable to ice popsicles available in the local market. The formulated ice popsicles also retained better physical properties (texture, melting, smoothness/hardness) and sensory qualities (as per hedonic scale rating) than market-derived ice popsicles. Therefore, these two crude floral wastes can be utilized as functional food bio-colourants in the food industry.
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Kapilraj, N., S. Keerthanan, and M. Sithambaresan. "Natural Plant Extracts as Acid-Base Indicator and Determination of Their pKa Value." Journal of Chemistry 2019 (April 10, 2019): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/2031342.

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Commonly used indicators for acid-base titrations are synthetic, and this work was focused to identify the eco-friendly natural indicators and to determine their pKa values. The analytical potential of the flower extracts is very promising as seen in its application in acid-base titrimetry. These selected flower extracts were found to perform well in titrating strong acid-strong base than in weak acid-strong base. We have obtained a sharp and clear colour change from red to brownish yellow for the Bougainvillea glabra extract, from red to yellow for the Bauhinia purpurea extract, and from red to brownish yellow for the Impatiens balsamina extract. All the three flower extracts gave clear colour change with acids and bases, and the colour change was maintained with different acids and bases. The sharp contrast between their colours in acid and base made the pigment suitable for use as acid-base indicators. As these flower extracts have very simple,cost-effective, environment friendly extraction procedure and excellent performance with sharp colour change in end points of the titrations, it would be possible to replace the standard indicators being used in conventional laboratories with natural flower indicators.
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Brovdi, A., V. Polischuk, O. Ukrainets, and L. Kunpan. "Evaluation of flower decorativeness of floribunda rose varieties by biological and morphological features." Agrobìologìâ, no. 2(191) (November 28, 2024): 21–26. https://doi.org/10.33245/2310-9270-2024-191-2-21-26.

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The decorative value of roses is determined by a combination of morphological and biological features and characteristics of each variety. Among others, the rose flower is of central decorative importance. Floribunda rose varieties are known for their wide range of shapes, colours and aromas, which make them a valuable material for landscaping using. The study of biological and morphological characteristics of the flower of 10 floribunda rose varieties was carried out at the experimental plots of the Department of Landscape Gardening of the Uman National University of Horticulture in 2019- 2023. It was determined that the flowers of the studied floribunda rose varieties differ significantly in such indicators as colour, diameter and terryness. It has been studied that the flower diameter of floribunda rose genotypes ranges from 5.3 cm in «Lavaglut» variety to 8.0 cm in «Novalis» variety. The vast majority of varieties are classified as densely double («Hans Gonewein», «Let’s Celebrate», «Lovely Green», «Novalis», «Pomponella» and «Rotkappchen») with the number of petals ranging from 41.7 to 117.4 pcs. Two varieties have semidouble («Carmagnola» and «Westpoint») and two double («Iceberg» and «Lavaglut») flowers. The «Rotkappchen» variety has the largest number of petals and is distinguished by its rosette shape. Particular attention is drawn to the densely double spherical flowers of the «Lovely Green» and «Pomponella» varieties and the perfect cup-shaped tea-hybrid flower of the «Novalis» variety. A wide range of colours of floribunda roses allows you creating bright floral arrangements with their help. Today the varieties of rare orange («Westpoint») and purple («Novalis») colours are particularly valuable. Thus, it was found that floribunda group rose varieties are characterised by wide variability in decorative flower characteristics, which allows to use them in various types of flower plantations. Key words: roses, floribunda group, flower, colouring, decorativeness, landscaping.
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Nur Dayini Wagiman, Muhammad Hail Haris Muhammad Hakim, Siti Roha Ab. Mutalib, and Azizah Othman. "Optimisation of Anthocyanin Co-pigmentation from Butterfly Pea (Clitoria ternatea) Flower and its Application in Gummy." Journal Of Agrobiotechnology 15, S1 (2024): 49–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.37231/jab.2024.15.s1.373.

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In contrast to natural food colours, food manufacturers have increasingly used synthetic food colours to achieve attributes such as low cost, excellent appearance, high colour intensity, increased colour stability, and consistency. Furthermore, natural colourants such as anthocyanins have been linked to potential health advantages such as dietary antioxidants. Pea Flower (Clitoria ternatea) was utilized in this research because the high quantity of polyacylated anthocyanins known as ternatins in blue pea flowers which is a distinctive property of anthocyanins found in blue pea flowers. The purpose of this research is to improve anthocyanin thermal stability via co-pigmentation process from Butterfly Pea flower and to analyse the physicochemical features of gummy. The potential of Response Surface Methodology (RSM) for optimising anthocyanin co-pigmentation from Butterfly Pea (Clitoria ternatea) flower was investigated in this study. The effect of two test variables on the half-life of anthocyanin was studied in a specific range of pH 3-6 and anthocyanin to metal ratio (1:1 to 1:100). The data from the experiment were analysed using the RSM of MINITAB Software (Version 19), and the optimum half-life of anthocyanin of 191 minutes was established and verified. The optimal conditions were stated to be pH 3.75 and an anthocyanin:metal ratio of 1:75. A significant regression equation or model with a correlation value of 95.38% was also achieved at the 5% level. For the application of gummy, three types of gummies (synthetic blue incorporated gummy (F1), anthocyanin incorporated gummy (F2) and co-pigmented anthocyanin incorporated gummy (F3)) were produced to analyse its physicochemical qualities. The physicochemical qualities of F3 gummy were reported to retain the physicochemical since the pH values, water activity, moisture content, and textural properties were not significantly different (p&gt;0.05). However, due to the % difference in polymeric colour present, the colour in terms of hue angle was noted to have a significant difference between F1, F2, and F3.
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BASUMATARY, PLATO, and PREETI HATIBARUA. "VALUE ADDITION OF CUT FLOWERS OF GARLAND CHRYSANTHEMUM (GLEBIONIS CORONARIA) BY TINTING WITH ARTIFICIAL FOOD DYES." Asian Journal of Microbiology, Biotechnology & Environmental Sciences 25, no. 02 (2023): 360–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.53550/ajmbes.2023.v25i02.029.

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–Value addition is a method of increasing the economic value of a product. Different value addition techniques are used in horticultural products to increase its economic value, especially in floricultural products. Tinting is one of the value addition techniques used in cut flowers to increase the economic and aesthetic value of simple white and light coloured flowers with food colouring dyes in different novel colour shades. The study “Value addition of cut flowers of garland chrysanthemum (Glebionis coronaria) by tinting with artificial food dyes” was conducted in laboratory of Department of Horticulture, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam during February 2022, with seven treatments. The observations like Time taken for tinting, Solution uptake, Colour intensity, Aesthetic appeal and vase life were recorded. Colour intensity of the tinted flower colour was compared using the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) Colour Chart. Chocolate food colour dye took the earliest time for full tinting (2.43 hr) and Raspberry red took the longest time for full tinting (3.10 hr). The most aesthetically appealing colours were observed on flowers tinted with Lemon yellow, Apple green and Raspberry red. Longest vase life was observed in control (7.6 days) followed by Lemon yellow (4.3 days). Chocolate and Green observed the lowest vase life (2 days). Cut flowers dyed with Lemon yellow recorded the best vase life among the different food dyes.
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Rahmati, Razieh, Rasmieh Hamid, Zahra Ghorbanzadeh, et al. "Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Unveils the Molecular Mechanism Underlying Sepal Colour Changes under Acidic pH Substratum in Hydrangea macrophylla." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 23 (2022): 15428. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms232315428.

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The hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb). Ser.), an ornamental plant, has good marketing potential and is known for its capacity to change the colour of its inflorescence depending on the pH of the cultivation media. The molecular mechanisms causing these changes are still uncertain. In the present study, transcriptome and targeted metabolic profiling were used to identify molecular changes in the RNAome of hydrangea plants cultured at two different pH levels. De novo assembly yielded 186,477 unigenes. Transcriptomic datasets provided a comprehensive and systemic overview of the dynamic networks of the gene expression underlying flower colour formation in hydrangeas. Weighted analyses of gene co-expression network identified candidate genes and hub genes from the modules linked closely to the hyper accumulation of Al3+ during different stages of flower development. F3′5′H, ANS, FLS, CHS, UA3GT, CHI, DFR, and F3H were enhanced significantly in the modules. In addition, MYB, bHLH, PAL6, PAL9, and WD40 were identified as hub genes. Thus, a hypothesis elucidating the colour change in the flowers of Al3+-treated plants was established. This study identified many potential key regulators of flower pigmentation, providing novel insights into the molecular networks in hydrangea flowers.
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O’Hanlon, J. C., G. I. Holwell, and M. E. Herberstein. "Predatory pollinator deception: Does the orchid mantis resemble a model species?" Current Zoology 60, no. 1 (2014): 90–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/60.1.90.

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Abstract Cases of imperfect or non-model mimicry are common in plants and animals and challenge intuitive assumptions about the nature of directional selection on mimics. Many non-rewarding flower species do not mimic a particular species, but attract pollinators through ‘generalised food deception’. Some predatory animals also attract pollinators by resembling flowers, perhaps the most well known, yet least well understood, is the orchid mantis Hymenopus coronatus. This praying mantis has been hypothesised to mimic a flower corolla and we have previously shown that it attracts and captures pollinating insects as prey. Predatory pollinator deception is relatively unstudied and whether this occurs through model mimicry or generalised food deception in the orchid mantis is unknown. To test whether the orchid mantis mimics a specific model flower species we investigated similarities between its morphology and that of flowers in its natural habitat in peninsular Malaysia. Geometric morphometries were used to compare the shape of mantis femoral lobes to flower petals. Physiological vision models were used to compare the colour of mantises and flowers from the perspective of bees, flies and birds. We did not find strong evidence for a specific model flower species for the orchid mantis. The mantis’ colour and shape varied within the range of that exhibited by many flower petals rather than resembling one type in particular. We suggest that the orchid mantis resembles an average, or generalised flower-like stimulus. Thus predatory pollinator deception in the orchid mantis is likely to function as a form of generalised food deception, as opposed to model mimicry.
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Lalhruaitluangi and Chhungpuii Khawlhring. "Standardization of drying techniques for hybrid tea rose variety, Valencia." Science Vision 17, no. 4 (2017): 217–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.33493/scivis.17.04.05.

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The present experiment was carried out to standardize suitable drying techniques for hybrid tea rose variety ‘Valencia”. Two types of desiccants viz., silica gel and boric acid were used as embedding materials for drying, and the flowers were dried in hot air oven with different temperature and time combinations such as 40°C for 24 hours and 48 hours, 45°C for 24 hours and 48 hours, 50°C for 24 hours and 48 hours, 55°C for 24 hours and 48 hours, 60°C for 24 hours and 48 hours. Different observations were taken such as fresh and dry weight of flowers and hence moisture loss percentage calculated, petal diameter before and after drying were taken and hence petal shrinkage was determined. Sensory evaluations such as flower colour, shape, texture and overall acceptability was also determined. Results show that maximum moisture loss percentage (86.44%) was obtained in flowers embedded with silica gel and dried at 60°C for 48 hours; largest difference between petal diameter of fresh and dry flowers, and also maximum petal shrinkage of 14.27% occurred in those embedded with silica gel and dried at 60°C for 48 hours, whereas best score in sensory evaluations in terms of flower colour, flower shape, flower texture and overall acceptability were obtained with rose flowers embedded in silica gel and drying at 50°C for 48 hours.
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Awad Hamza Abdelmageed, Mohamed Elkheir Abdelrahman, and Hatil Hashim Alkamali. "Genetics of flower colour in pink flowered “Rosea” and white flowers “Alba” in periwinkle Catharanthus roseus (L) G. Don." GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences 14, no. 3 (2021): 166–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2021.14.3.0015.

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Genetics of flower Colour in winka Catharanthus roseus (L) G. Don were in vestigate by inheritance two types (strains) of plants with different flowers colour were used in this study,pink corolla, and strong violet-purple eye color, and strong pink stem, and dark green leaf lamina (P), and White corolla, and yellow and greenish eye, and strong pink stem, and yellow and green leaf lamina (W) as parents, to determine the number of genes involved. This study was conducted at Horticulture Administration, Ministry of Agriculture, Kassala State, Sudan during for three years the period: Jan 2016 to Oct. 2020. First the two parents were covered to ensure self-pollination. Reciprocal cross has been carried out between the two inbred parents. The study showed that a single pair of genes is probably involved in flower colour and that gene for pink corolla, and strong violet-purple eye color, and strong pink stem, and dark green leaf lamina (P) is incompletely dominant over that for White corolla, and yellow and greenish eye, and strong pink stem, and yellow and green leaf lamina (W). The reciprocal crosses gave the same results indicating no role of cytoplasmic genes in the inheritance of these colors.
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Awad, Hamza Abdelmageed, Elkheir Abdelrahman Mohamed, and Hashim Alkamali Hatil. "Genetics of flower colour in pink flowered "Rosea" and white flowers "Alba" in periwinkle Catharanthus roseus (L) G. Don." GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences 14, no. 3 (2021): 166–74. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4656978.

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Genetics of flower Colour in winka&nbsp;<em>Catharanthus roseus</em>&nbsp;(L) G. Don were in vestigate by inheritance two types (strains) of plants with different flowers colour were used in this study,pink corolla, and strong violet-purple eye color, and strong pink stem, and dark green leaf lamina (P), and White corolla, and yellow and greenish eye, and strong pink stem, and yellow and green leaf lamina (W) as parents, to determine the number of genes involved. This study was conducted at Horticulture Administration, Ministry of Agriculture, Kassala State, Sudan during for three years the period: Jan 2016 to Oct. 2020. First the two parents were covered to ensure self-pollination. Reciprocal cross has been carried out between the two inbred parents. The study showed that a single pair of genes is probably involved in flower colour and that gene for pink corolla, and strong violet-purple eye color, and strong pink stem, and dark green leaf lamina (P) is incompletely dominant over that for White corolla, and yellow and greenish eye, and strong pink stem, and yellow and green leaf lamina (W). The reciprocal crosses gave the same results indicating no role of cytoplasmic genes in the inheritance of these colors.
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Rahmawati, Rahmawati, Siti Nuryanti, and Ratman Ratman. "Indikator Asam-Basa dari Bunga Dadap Merah (Erythrina crista-galliL.)." Jurnal Akademika Kimia 5, no. 1 (2017): 29. http://dx.doi.org/10.22487/j24775185.2016.v5.i1.7997.

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Dadap red (erythrina crista-galli L.) is belonged to the legumes (fabaceaea) family which, is one of the flowering shade plants that often used as an ornamental plant. This plant has a bright red flower, a taproot with root nodule bacteria nitrogen fixation and compound leaf consists three strands on each stem. This research is climed to proves that the extract of dadap red flower can be used as acid-base indicators. Dadap red flowers was macerated using methanol then filtered. The filtrate was ready to use as an acid-base indicator. The extract is tested in an acid-base, buffer solutions, and was compared with phenolphthalein for a strong acid with a strong base while a methyl orange a weak base with a strong acid. Based on the result, indicator of dadap red flower extrat in the strong acid was red colour, while in the weak acid was pink, and also in the strong base was dark green and in the weak base was purple. Furthermore, in the buffer solution, the indicator of dadap red flower extract gave four groups of colour change, namely red color at pH 1 to pH 6, colorless at pH 7 to pH 9, brown at pH 10 and blue at pH 11 to pH 12. Additionally, to attain the end point of titration, the indicators of dadap red flower extract gives a similar results with the comparison indicators. The results showed that the indicator of dadap red flower extracts can be used as an alternative indicator.
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41

Borghi, Monica, and Alisdair R. Fernie. "From flowers to seeds: how the metabolism of flowers frames plant reproduction." Biochemist 43, no. 3 (2021): 14–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bio_2021_134.

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Flowers are characterized by a plenitude of primary and secondary metabolites and flower-specific biosynthetic pathways that all concur to promote plant reproduction and the initial stages of embryo development. The floral secondary metabolites of flowers contribute to scent and colour, which are used by flowers to attract pollinators. Besides, many metabolites responsible for the conferral of colour also serve as photo-protectants towards the damaging effects of UV solar radiation. The whole metabolism of flowers is sustained by a network of primary metabolites that provide metabolic precursors for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and support flower development. Moreover, many primary metabolites are channelled into nectar, the food of pollinators. However, this complex metabolic network is susceptible to environmental constraints such as heat and drought, which can hamper plant reproduction by destabilizing the whole metabolism of flowers. Here, we provide a short overview of the different metabolic pathways of flowers and how they support pollination and fertilization.
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42

KALAIYARASI, A., M. V. DHANANJAYA, SUJATHA A. NAIR, et al. "Studies on floral morphology in different genotypes of Jasminum sambac." Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 88, no. 11 (2018): 1789–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.56093/ijas.v88i11.84932.

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The present investigation was undertaken to study the floral morphology behavior among 22 genotypes of Jasminum sambac. Results revealed that among the different genotypes, cluster bearing habit in terminal position was recorded in genotypes Iruvatchi and IIHR JS - 5, whereas other genotypes recorded forked cymes of cluster flowers in terminal and axillary. Three different shapes of flower bud was recorded among the genotypes, viz. pointed and long, pointed and short, rounded and short. Flower bud colour and colour on flower bud opening was white (155 B or 155 C) and pink tinge on flower bud was recorded in IIHR JS - 5. Star and round shaped flower was observed among different genotypes. Three different types of flowers were recorded, viz., single, double and multi-whorled (3 to 6). Among 22 genotypes, Arka Aradhana recorded longest bud (3.85 cm) and corolla (2.11 cm). The genotype IIHR JS - 5 recorded the longest corolla tube (2.29 cm) and Iruvatchi recorded maximum number of forks per cyme (14). Maximum number of calyx lobe was recorded in Gundumallige (8.79 cm), whereas longest calyx lobe was recorded in Soojimalli (1.49 cm). Bigger size of flower was recorded in Soojimalli (4.64 cm) and maximum number of petals was observed in IIHR JS - 1 (40). The information generated on floral morphological traits in different genotypes will facilitate the planned crop improvement programmes in jasmine.
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43

Gupta, Poonam, and Khayal Garg. "Study of preparation of Herbal indicator from selected flower parts for acid base titration: A Green Chemical Approach." Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment 28, no. 9 (2024): 30–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.25303/289rjce030032.

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Suffering from the rapid depletion of the natural resource, the current world scenario calls for the need of sustainable development so as to obtain ecofriendly environment. Flowers impart beauty to the nature, pleasure to the heart and attract insects for pollination by their diversified colour, fragrance, shape and size. The variation in colour of flowers is due to the presence of pigments present in the petals or bracts. One of these pigments is anthocyanin which is a natural plant pigment. These pigments impart different colours in acidic and basic medium. This change in colour forms the basis for using flower sap as indicator in acidimetry and alkalimetry. Synthetic indicators are good choice for acid base titration. But due to environmental pollution, less availability and high cost of synthetic indicator, the search for natural compounds as an acid base indicator started. Natural indicators are easy to prepare, are easily available and promising results are obtained when tested against standard synthetic indicators.
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44

Wilmsen, Sakkia, Adrian G. Dyer, and Klaus Lunau. "Conical flower cells reduce surface gloss and improve colour signal integrity for free-flying bumblebees." Journal of Pollination Ecology 28 (July 9, 2021): 108–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.26786/1920-7603(2021)606.

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Colour signals of flowers facilitate detection, spontaneous preference, discrimination and flower constancy by important bee pollinators. At short distances bees orient to floral colour patterns to find a landing platform and collect nutrition, potentially improving the plants’ reproductive success when multiple flowers are visited sequentially. In addition to pigments and backscattering structures within the petals’ internal layers, the epidermal micro-structure of the petals’ surface may also influence petal reflectance properties and thus influence overall colour patterns via optical effects. Gloss, i.e., shine caused by specular reflections of incident light from smooth surfaces, may for example alter the visual appearance of surfaces including flowers. We classify the epidermal surface properties of petals from 39 species of flowering plants from 19 families by means of a cell shape index, and measure the respective surface spectral reflectance from different angles. The spontaneous behavioural preferences of free flying bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) for surfaces with different micro-textures was then tested using specially prepared casts of selected flower petals. We specifically tested how the petal colour as function of the angle of incident light, surface structure and bee approach angle influences bumblebees’ spontaneous choices for artificial flowers. We observe that bumblebees spontaneously prefer artificial flowers with conical-papillate micro-structures under both multidirectional illumination and under spotlight conditions if approaching against the direction of spotlight, suggesting conical cells help promote constant signals by removing gloss that may confound the integrity of colour signalling.
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45

Nandini, Sutar* Sakshi More. "Acid-Base Indicator Paper Extracted from Rose (Rosa damascena Mill) and Hibiscus Flower (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) Ethanols." International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 3, no. 4 (2025): 3286–96. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15291640.

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This research aims to develop paper indicators extracted from rose (Rosa damascena Mill) and Hibiscus flower (Hibiscus rosa) ethanols. These flowers have anthocyanin pigment and are sensitive toward acidity (pH). The contents make rose and Hibiscus flower to have potentials as natural indicators. The anthocyanin pigment extraction from both flowers was done by maceration method with 96% ethanol solvent. It was done with 24 -hour soaking period. The ethanol extracts from rose and Hibiscus were calibrated by buffer solution with pH 1-12. Then, it was continued by cutting Whatman 42-paper sized &plusmn;5x1 cm. The paper was soaked in rose ethanol extract (Rosa damascena Mill) and Hibiscus flower (Hibiscus rosa) with a ratio of 1:1 for 24 hours. The indicator papers were dried then tested in acid-base solution. The indicator papers showed a colour change from pink, found in acid solution, to green-brownish, found in base solution. The findings showed that the rose and Hibiscus flower indicator papers could be used as an acid- base indicator. The produced indicator papers have several superiorities. They are made from natural materials, less- polluted, more economical, more durable, and have contrast colour gradation.
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Jawaharlal, M., S. P. Thamaraiselvi, and M. Ganga. "Packaging Technology for Export of Jasmine (Jasminum sambac Ait.) Flowers." Journal of Horticultural Sciences 7, no. 2 (2012): 180–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.24154/jhs.v7i2.372.

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A study was conducted to standardize packaging technology for export of jasmine flowers. Experiments were laid out in FCRD in three replications, with 12 chemical treatments, and packing with unit packing boxes and thermocol boxes under gel-ice cold condition. Effects of various chemical treatments and their interaction with packaging were studied and observations were recorded on visual quality (freshness index, flower-opening index, colour retention index and fragrance score) of flowers and physiological parameters associated with post harvest quality of flowers. Export suitability of the package was also studied and Cost:Benefit ratio (CBR) worked out. Chemical treatment of flowers with 4% boric acid, packing in aluminum-foil lined boxes and further packaging in thermocol boxes under gel-ice cold condition was found to be significantly superior to Control, and recorded a shelf life of 42.88h. This package also recorded maximum freshness index (70 to 90%), minimum flower-opening index (10.5 to 50%) and maximum colour retention index (77.77 to 88.88%) of flowers. CBR was 1:2.5.
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47

Tanaka, Yoshikazu. "Flower colour and cytochromes P450." Phytochemistry Reviews 5, no. 2-3 (2006): 283–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11101-006-9003-7.

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48

Schlangen, Karin, Heidrun Halbwirth, Fuat Topuz, Silvija Miosic, Christian Seitz, and Karl Stich. "Breeding for yellow flower colour." Journal of Biotechnology 131, no. 2 (2007): S35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2007.07.058.

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49

Kellenberger, Roman T., and Beverley J. Glover. "The evolution of flower colour." Current Biology 33, no. 11 (2023): R484—R488. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.01.055.

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50

Chen, Zhe, Chang-Qiu Liu, Hang Sun, and Yang Niu. "The ultraviolet colour component enhances the attractiveness of red flowers of a bee-pollinated plant." Journal of Plant Ecology 13, no. 3 (2020): 354–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtaa023.

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Abstract Aims Bee-pollinated flowers are rarely red, presumably because bees (which lack red receptors) have difficulty detecting red targets. Although the response of bees to red colour has been investigated in lab experiments, most stimuli have been pure red, while the subtle diversity of red as perceived by humans (human-red) has received very limited attention. Here we test the hypothesis that ultraviolet (UV) reflected from human-red flowers enhances their attractiveness to bees, through increased chromatic contrast. Methods Using Onosma confertum (Boraginaceae), a plant with UV-reflecting red flowers that are pollinated by bumblebees, we investigated the effects of UV reflection on pollinator responses by conducting phenotypic manipulation experiments in the field. Colour preferences of flower-naïve bumblebees were also examined. Colour perception by bumblebees was estimated in terms of chromatic and achromatic contrast, based on two different colour perception models. Important Findings We found that both natural and flower-naïve bumblebees strongly preferred visiting UV-reflecting targets compared with UV-absorbing ones. Colour models show that the UV-reflecting flowers exhibit higher spectral purity and higher chromatic contrast against the foliage background, whereas they have similar achromatic contrast in terms of green receptor contrast. These results indicate that the component of UV reflection increases chromatic contrast in O. confertum, enhancing the visual attractiveness of these red flowers to bumblebees. We further infer that the secondary reflectance might be a necessary component in human-red flowers that are primarily pollinated by animals without red receptors, such as bees.
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