Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Fodder tree'

This study investigated the potential benefit of introducing Moringa oleifera (MO) and Leucaena leucocephala (LL) leaves as supplementary feed resource for indigenous goats feeding systems in southern Mozambique. The study started with a description of smallholder goat production systems in three resource-poor districts of Mozambique and subsequently investigated the variation and seasonal fluctuations of natural fodder quality in the Changalane district throughout a year period. Thereafter, the effect of tree forage supplementation on growth and reproductive performance of Landim goats were evaluated by simulating a typical feeding system used in the study area. In study one, a survey was conducted in three villages to collect data on indigenous goats and in smallholder husbandry practices in terms of feeding, health and reproduction management. Information from 45-smallholder goat keepers were recorded using a survey, which was complemented by interviews. Results showed that goats were raised under extensive systems, under free grazing. Tethering was a common management practice, with limited supplementation during the dry season. In general, during the dry season the natural pasture were scarcity and poor in quality and consequently does not sustained the energy and protein requirements of ruminants for maintenance and other functions. In study two, the eight key species that were consumed by the goats (namely Sclerocarya birrea, Spirostachys africana, Dichrostachys cinerea, Flueggea virosa, Acacia nigrescens, Acacia nilotica, Panicum maximum and Morus alba) were collected and analysed. Daily energy intake (4.27 ± 0.17 MJ/kg DM vs 3.71 ± 0.41 MJ/kg DM) and crude protein (CP) intake (92.83 ± 16.05 g DM/head/day vs. 59.38 ± 13.12 g DM/head/day) were higher in the rainy season than in the dry season. Daily intake of calcium and phosphorus did not show significant seasonal variations and were below the requirements levels for maintenance of a 20 kg bodyweight goat during the dry season and for the pregnant goat during both seasons. These results showed a need to supplement goats with energy, protein and phosphorus for maintenance, growth and reproduction during the dry season. In study three, the impact of supplementation with LL and MO on the growth and reproduction performance of indigenous goats were evaluated. Fifty-six goats were randomly divided into seven groups, with four castrated males and four females in each group. One group was used as the control group (animals grazing on natural veld without any supplementation), while first three groups were fed with LL and the other three groups with MO tree leaves, respectively. Compared to the control group, both treatments had a significant effect, irrespective of the level of supplementation in terms of overall body weight gain and the final body weight of the bucks. All female reproduction parameters measured for the supplemented groups were superior when compared to the control group. Findings of this study suggest the benefit of using LL and MO tree leaves as supplement for Mozambican goats to overcome the adverse effects of seasonal fluctuations in feed quality on their growth and reproductive performance.
Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2019.
Animal and Wildlife Sciences
PhD
Unrestricted

Thesis (PhD (Forest and Wood Science))—University of Stellenbosch, 2007.
Sustainable livestock production in semi-arid Botswana could be improved through tree planting on-farm to provide much needed protein and shade. Such action can be encouraged if the growth, productivity, nutritional value of trees and their contribution to mass gain of livestock are known.. A study at Malotwana investigated two indigenous species, Acacia galpinii and Faidherbia albida, and two exotic species, Leucaena diversifolia and L. leucocephala, at three spacings in a randomised complete block design replicated five times. The three spacings represented 400, 317 and 241 trees per hectare. The study was conducted over 6.5 years. Indigenous trees were sampled biennially and exotics annually to evaluate crown width, height, stem diameter, stem number and stem volume index. Complete plant harvesting of exotic trees at 2.5, 4.5 and 6.5 years evaluated agroforestry production. Leaves from all four species and pods of exotic species were analysed for chemical composition. Two groups of eight lambs were balanced for mass at selection for an on-farm feeding trial. Browse from exotic trees, comprising a 2:1 ratio of pods to leaves, was fed at 30% as supplement to hay to one group whose mean mass was contrasted with that of the control group fed sorghum bran at 30%. A. galpinii was a promising species, adaptable to planting away from its origin. Its crown width ranged from 5.86 m in high density plots to 6.08 m at low density and was significantly different among stands (p = 0.0406) at 6.5 years. Diameter at breast height (dbh) was significantly different among stands aged 6.5 years (p = 0.0003) and ranged between 10.38 cm at high density to 12.48 cm in low density plots, demonstrating a capacity to provide both shade and poles on-farm. At 4.5 years, F. albida attained a mean height of 4.5 m and 4.5 cm in dbh but suffered 67% mortality during a severe drought. Annual fodder production of 0.647 and 0.996 metric tonnes ha-1 for leaves and pods of L. diversifolia and 1.237 and 1.431 for L. leucocephala was recorded in years of average rainfall. Yields of 0.3 and 0.59 metric tonnes ha-1 were recorded for both species in the driest year. Equally good agroforestry production was obtained from both low and high density stands suggesting that low density plantings, which foster higher plant survival and reduce disease incidence, are best suited to the semi-arid conditions of Botswana. The crude protein of leaves ranged between 16.26 (L. diversifolia) and 25.25% (F. albida). They were highly digestible with more than twice the calcium content livestock require. Crude protein and digestibility measures were significantly different among leaves and varied significantly at different spacings (p<0.0001). Pods of the exotic species contained significantly more protein than the leaves (p<0.0001). Lambs supplemented with browse gained 102.33 g per animal per day while the control group gained 83.95 g. There were significant differences between groups during growth (p<0.05). Growing of A. galpinii, complemented with L. diversifolia and L. leucocephala, can supply short and long term feed, and greatly enhance livestock production while diversifying farm feed sources

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Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq
Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES
The characteristics of the semi-arid region of northeast Brazil lead to the development of a forest formation known as Caatinga, composed mostly by xerophytes. The Caatinga forest is fundamental to the economic activities of the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil. However, very often, these activities put the ecosystem integrity at risk. Among the most frequent tree species, jurema preta (Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd) Poiret) stands out for its potential for forage production, especially in the dry period of the year, when fodder shortage is in its peak. Its stems may be used for fence construction, or as high caloric power firewood for bakeries and ceramic industries. Its bark can be used as a source of tannins for fur treatment. Bark extraction also brings the extra benefit of reducing the attack of wood-eating fungi and insects and increasing the energetic quality of its firewood. There are many ecological benefits of this species for the semi-arid region. First it plays an important role in the initial phase of recovery of degraded areas, in preparing the environment for the secondary species of the later stages of plant and animal succession in the Caatinga forest. In addition, it helps to protect the soil and produce food for the native fauna. Jurema preta shows a high efficiency in N fixation and nutrient uptake, as it is able to successfully associate to rizobium bacteria and mycorrizal fungi. Due to the described importance of this species for the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil, studies were conducted to evaluate its growth rate, forage production and natural regeneration in the semi-arid region of Paraiba. These points are presented in the following chapters.
As características da região semi-árida do nordeste do Brasil favorecem o desenvolvimento de uma formação florestal denominada Caatinga, constituída especialmente por plantas xerófilas. A Caatinga é a base das atividades econômicas da região, e o manejo inadequado da vegetação, muitas vezes, coloca em risco a integridade deste ecossistema. Dentre as espécies arbóreas mais freqüentes da Caatinga, a jurema preta (Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poiret) se destaca pelo seu potencial para produção de forragem, especialmente no período seco do ano, quando se intensifica a escassez de alimentos para os animais. Da madeira da jurema preta podem ser obtidas estacas e lenha de alto poder calorífico, utilizada nos fornos das padarias, olarias e cerâmicas. A sua casca pode ser explorada como fonte de taninos para a curtição de peles, com o benefício extra de diminuir o ataque de fungos e insetos xilófagos nas estacas, além de aumentar a qualidade energética da sua lenha. Os benefícios ecológicos desta espécie para a região vão desde a sua participação nos estágios iniciais de recuperação de áreas degradadas, preparando o ambiente para as espécies dos estágios sucessionais finais do bioma Caatinga, até a proteção do solo e produção de alimentos para a fauna nativa. É uma espécie de alta eficiência na fixação de N2 e absorção de nutrientes, via associação com Rhizobium e fungos micorrízicos. Devido à importância dessa espécie para a região, desenvolveram-se estudos com o objetivo de compreender o comportamento dessa espécie no que se refere ao seu crescimento, produção de forragem e regeneração natural na região semi-árida da Paraíba, os quais são relatados nos próximos capítulos.

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Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq
The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the deposition, chemical composition, and decomposition of litter in a sabiá (Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth) canopy. The experiment was carried out at the Experimental Station of Itambé-IPA. The evaluation of existing and deposited litter was carried through the period of August of 2006 until July of 2007, every 28 days. Twenty squares with 1m² were used, in random points to each evaluation. The nylon bag technique was used for litter decomposition evaluation, incubating the following litter fractions: just-fallen leaves, “aging” leaves already deposited and in the beginning of the mineralization, and branches. The incubation periods were 0, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 100, and 256 days, being the same procedure carried through in 2006 and 2007. Treatments were distributed in randomized block design with five replications. Leaf deposition reached the value of 15,167 kg OM/ha, presenting greater deposition in the rainy period. Leaves represented the greater proportion of litter deposited, with average ratio of 87% of predominance in the majority of the evaluations. Branches and leaves presented average nitrogen concentration of 1.4% and 2. 7%, respectively, demonstrating that leaves were the maincontributors of nutrients via litter. The C/N ratio of leaves was below 30, branches presented C/N ratio between 30 and 40, likely favoring the nitrogen immobilization by ground microorganisms. The relationship between litter deposition and litter accumulation in the last month of evaluation was 0.30 indicating that it presented greater accumulation than deposition. In the decomposition assay, branches presented lesser mineralization than leaves both for total biomass and nitrogen, with leaf and branch decomposition varying with the incubation periods. The decomposition of substrata was influenced by the rainfall amount occurred in the evaluation period. In a general way, it was concluded that the litter component is essential in the process of nutrient recycling in a sabiá canopy, however, the mineralization occurs in relatively slow taxes, being this fact relevant in the reduction of nutrient losses by leaching, contributing for the maintenance of this ecosystem.
O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a deposição, composição química e decomposição de liteira em um bosque de sabiá (Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth). O experimento foi realizado na Estação Experimental de Itambé-IPA. A avaliação de liteira existente e depositada foi realizada no período de agosto de 2006 a julho de 2007 a cada 28 dias. Foram utilizados 20 quadrados com 1m2, em pontos aleatórios a cada avaliação. Para avaliação da decomposição de liteira, foram utilizadas bolsas de “nylon”, sendo incubadas as seguintes frações: folhas recém-caídas, folhas senescentes já depositadas e no início da mineralização e ramos. Os tempos de incubação foram 0, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 100 e 256 dias, sendo o mesmo procedimento realizado em 2006 e 2007. Os tratamentos foram distribuídos em delineamento de blocos ao acaso com 5 repetições. A deposição de folhas atingiu valor de 15.167 kg MO/ha, tendo maior deposição no período chuvoso. As folhas representaram a maior contribuição na deposição de liteira, com proporção média de 87% predominando na maioria das avaliações. Os ramos e folhas apresentaram teores médios de nitrogênio de 1,4% e 2,7% respectivamente, demonstrando assim que as folhas foram os principais contribuintes de nutrientes da liteira. A relação C/N de folhas ficou abaixo de 30; os ramos apresentaramrelação mais elevada entre 30 e 40, favorecendo assim a imobilização de nitrogênio pelos microorganismos do solo. A relação entre a deposição e o acúmulo de liteira no último mês de avaliação foi de 0,30 indicando assim que houve maior acúmulo do que deposição. No ensaio de decomposição, os ramos apresentaram taxa de mineralização menor que as folhas tanto para biomassa total como para nitrogênio, tendo as decomposições de folhas e ramos variando de acordo com os períodos de incubação. A decomposição dos substratos foi influenciada pela quantidade de chuvas ocorridas ao longo do período de avaliação. De maneira geral, conclui-se que o componente liteira é essencial no processo de reciclagem de nutrientes em um bosque de sabiá, todavia a mineralização ocorre a taxas relativamente lentas, sendo esse fato relevante na redução de perdas de nutrientes por lixiviação, contribuindo para a manutenção desse sistema

The research described in this thesis consists of two components. The objective of the first one was to examine the role of yeast culture, based on Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as a rumen modifier and to examine the viability of yeast cells in the rumen and their mode of action in stimulating fermentation. For this purpose, two in vitro and four in vivo experiments were carried out. In vivo and in vitro experiments were undertaken to examine the viability of yeast cells in the anaerobic environment of the rumen. In vivo, the decline in numbers of viable yeast cells in the rumen of sheep receiving YC was slower than the outflow of Cr-mordanted yeast and PEG. In vitro experiments showed a weak growth under anaerobic conditions. It was concluded that yeast cells could not maintain sustainable growth in the rumen because their multiplication rate was slower than the outflow rate. If a yeast could be selected which grew in the rumen, there would be added beneficial effects on fermentation. In the second component, chemical analysis, in situ, 4 in vitro and one in vivo experiments were carried out to examine the potential nutritive value of multipurpose trees (MPTs) and to detect antinutritive factors or toxic substances. The first experiment aimed to study the chemical composition and degradability of MPTs, Medicago sativa hay (alfalfa) and Eragrostis abyssinica (teff). Chemical analyses showed that MPTs are rich in CP and minerals except phosphorous. The in vitro digestibility and in situ nylon bag technique showed that MPTs are promising protein supplements to low protein, poor quality tropical fodders and agricultural by-products and residues, provided their nutritive value is not limited by antinutritional factors.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Sverges lantbruksuniversitet, 2001.
Thesis statement in Swedish and English abstract inserted. Based on 4 previously prepared or published papers reprinted here. Includes bibliographical references.

Previous work in animal nutrition has focused on single feeds and assumed additivity in ration systems. In the tropics, farmers are likely to feed mixtures of feeds, including tree fodders, which may not be simply additive in nutritional terms. This study has increased our understanding of the mechanisms that determine the associative effects on the in vitro fermentation of mixtures of fodder tree leaves. Associative effects are governed by a synchronisation in the fermentation rates of the components of the mixture. This is in turn dependent on the fermentability of their chemical constituents. Effects were demonstrated by changes in the fermentation kinetics of gas production curves. The chemical components of fodder tree leaves that affect the fermentation, and the time at which the effect occurs, were identified, using two media of different nitrogen contents. The fermentation of mixtures of pure chemical entities in various combinations was then examined. The greatest associative effects were found when the mixture had components of similar fermentability. It is proposed that associative effects are a function of the synchronisation of fermentation of the different components and was shown to occur at the point when the rate was maximal. With two types of protein (casein and bovine serum albumin (BSA)), utilisation of a protein by rumen microbes was shown to be a function of its fermentability and not of its solubility. This is also influenced by the type of associated carbohydrate. Fodder tree leaves were then combined with different pure chemical entities. Associative effects between fodder tree leaves and carbohydrates were shown to occur and the responses were similar to those obtained with mixtures of pure carbohydrates and proteins. The effect of tannins and phenolic compounds was studied using quebracho tannin as a model, and in five of the tree species. They were shown to affect the fermentability of both carbohydrates and proteins. The effect was greater with carbohydrates of medium to low fermentability. They also reacted with both soluble and insoluble protein. Forages with phenolic compounds showed both positive and negative effects. The effects were possible due to a synchrony or asynchrony in the release of protein. In mixtures of leaves from different species, associative effects were related to their fermentability. Again, this appeared to be the result of the synchronisation of the release of nutrients. Associative effects with fodder tree leaves were of a composite nature and can be both positive and negative. The implications of these findings in relation to in vivo digestion and animal production are discussed. Due to the diversity of fodder trees, there is the potential to develop feeding systems based on mixtures which make better use of available resources. This will also contribute to improved efficiency in the management and use of natural resources, and take advantage of natural plant diversity in the tropics.

Les regions des hautes collines du centre nepal presentent encore, a partir de 2500 m, de vastes zones boisees; mais sous l'effet des prelevements (bois de feu et de construction, fourrage. . . ) la foret climacique a quercus semecarpifolia de l'etage montagnard fait place a des formations degradees. Dix-huit stations forestieres, situees au sud du dhaulagiri, entre 2300 et 2900 m, ont ete analysees par la methode du transpect lineaire. Les caracteristiques des peuplements (structures specifiques et spatiales, regeneration) permettent de distinguer deux types

The nutritional value of indigenous fodder plants has been reported to be high and constant throughout seasons as compared to grasses. The aim of this study was to evaluate the nutritional value of three tree species of the Combretum family, C. apiculatum, C. molle, C. zeyheri, and two other plant species, Colophospermum mopane and Pelthophorum africanum. This would be achieved through the determination of chemical composition (ash, dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), CP, acid detergent fibre (ADF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), acid detergent indigestible nitrogen (ADIN), condensed tannins (CT) and ether extract (EE)), rumen degradability and in vitro digestibility of the leaves of these species were determined. The foliage of the tree species were collected in and north of Pretoria. After rinsing a portion of each species' samples, they were freeze-dried, prepared for analyses and stored as fresh samples pending analyses. The in situ analysis was done as blanket analysis over all the seasonal samples of each plant species excluding Mopane. This was done because the leaf materials collected were not enough to conduct a complete trial for each seasonal collection. Therefore sites were not considered for statistical analyses hence species were compared across seasons only. All the plant species exhibited a wider range of the chemical fractions. Their ash concentrations ranged from 30.3 g/kg DM for C. zeyheri to 85.8 g/kg DM forC. molle, NDF 270.3 g/kg DM for C. apiculatum to 410.1 g/kg DM for P africanum, ADF 208.1 g/kg DM P. africanum to 375.2 g/kg DM for C. molle. Their CP ranged from 62.9 g/kg DM for C. molle to 172 g/kg DM for Mopane, CT 65.6 mg sorghum tannin equivalent (STE)/g DM for C. zeyheri to 660.3 mg STE/g DM for Mopane, ADIN ranged from 1.2 g/kg DM for C. apiculatum to 3.3 g/kg DM in C. mopane. The range of some mineral concentrations of all the plants was not as wide as the other fractions. The concentrations of Ca ranged from 7.9 g/kg DM for Mopane to 16 g/kg DM for C. molle, K 1.2 g/kg DM Mopane to 7.8 g/kg DM for C. molle, Mg 1.4 g/kg DM for C. molle to 3.8 g/kg DM for C. apiculatum. The concentrations of Cu ranged from 7.8 mg/kg DM for C. molle to 66 mg/kg DM for C apiculatum, Fe 169 mg/kg DM for Mopane to 435 mg/kg DM for C. zeyheri. The in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDOM) ranged from 52.6% for Mopane and C. zeyheri to 64.1% for C. apiculatum. The in situ degradability fractions for the Combretum species ranged as follows: soluble fraction was 4.02% for C. apiculatum to 25.4% for C. zeyheri; degradable fraction was 34% for C. zeyheri to 44% for C. apiculatum and the extent of nitrogen (N) degradation was 47% for C. apiculatum to 60% for C. zeyheri. The concentrations of the chemical fractions of all the plants did not show a particular seasonal trend. However significant and insignificant variations were observed. The CP concentrations were almost constant implying a better N supply to animals throughout the seasons. The CT concentrations were not high enough to adversely affect the digestibility of protein. The Combretum species showed reasonable N degradability in situ, C. zeyheri the most degradable. The plant's digestibility values were within the range of browse plants. These results cannot be conclusive on the eventual nutritional value of these plants to the animals. Further studies would be necessary to quantify the availability of the chemical fractions and the foliage's palatability to the animals.
Dissertation (M Inst. Agrar (Animal Production))--University of Pretoria, 2005.
Animal and Wildlife Sciences
unrestricted

Energy and protein are the major limiting nutrients in dairy production on the small scale mixed farms in Kenya. Commercial feed supplements are expensive and therefore multipurpose fodder trees (MPT) and forage crops are advocated as the alternative supplements, because they are inexpensive, able to provide green forage even in dry season and have high protein content. These trees have tannins whose levels, seasonal and altitude distribution have not been established. Previous studies have indicated that tannins may have either beneficial effects like bloat control and increased protein bypass, or deleterious effects like the reduction feed intake and digestibility of protein in animals fed on tanniferous feed. The objectives of this study were to determine the tannin levels in the MPT, as influenced by altitude and season, and the effect of these tannins on ruminal degradation and intestinal digestion of the diet. Samples of four multipurpose fodder trees and four forage crops viz. leucaena, sesbania, gliricidia, calliandra, velvet bean, green leaf and silver leaf desmodium and cassava, were collected at Mombasa (low altitude, below 300 m ASL.) in the wet season and at Embu (high altitude, 1500 m ASL.) in both wet and dry season. Tannin and protein content were determined using gravimetric and wet oxidation nitrogen determination methods respectively. The effect of tannin on protein degradability was determined by comparing the polyethylene glycol (PEG) treated with untreated forage samples using the mobile nylon bag technique. The treated and untreated samples were incubated separately in the rumen of four Holstein cows with both rumen and duodenal cannula for 0, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 96 hours. Afterwards two sample of each species from time 12 and 24 hours were inserted into the intestine through duodenal cannula, and recovered from the feces. The dry matter (DM) and protein of samples recovered from the rumen and feces were determined and these values were fitted in anon linear regression equation P = a + b(1— ") The results indicated that the MPT had ytterbium-precipitatable tannins ranging from 16.08 (±2.39)% of the DM in Gliricidia sepium to 30.31 (±2.42)% in Desmodium. intortum. The tannin content varied significantly (P<0.05) with species. The altitude did not have significant effect on tannin content, but tannins within species behaved differently with season. The protein content differed significantly (P<0.05) with species. Proteins were significantly (P<0.05) higher in wet than in theory season. The altitude had no effect on protein content. The tannin : protein ratio also varied significantly (P<0.05) with species. Species also had a significant interaction with season. Tannins significantly (P<0.05) reduced the rumen effective degradability of both DM and crude protein in all species, resulting in large quantities of undegraded dietary nitrogen(N). Tannin also significantly (P<0.05) decreased the total tract digestion of the DM (DMD) and depressed the digestible crude protein (DCP) of leucaena, calliandra, cassava and aintortum, but had no effect on gliricidia, sesbania and velvet bean DCP. A large proportion of the rumen undegraded dietary protein that reached the intestines was degraded in most species except calliandra. Tannin significantly (P<0.05) altered the degradability constants a, b, and c for both DM and CP by reducing fraction a and the rate of degradation c and increasing the b fraction. From the study it was concluded that the MPT and forage crop species, despite their high protein content, are not good protein supplements. Their tannins reduce both the CP digestibility and the DM degradability in the rumen. Lastly, potentially viable treatments that reduce the effect of tannin on digestibility are suggested.

This PhD thesis consists of nine chapters describing aspects of the subsistence farms of western Nepal in general, and a need-based evaluation of multipurpose fodder trees (MFT) as a source of dry-season forage for ruminants in particular, as a basis for mitigating the current high rate of land degradation and loss of productivity in livestock production systems in the region. Understanding the complex farming systems that provide a living for 65% of the 27.1 million people in Nepal is the key to designing effective programmes of research and development. Evaluation methods include review of past work, farmers group workshops to identify current practice in the use of MFT in Nepal, studies on biomass production of Artocarpus lakoocha and Ficus glaberrima trees older than 50 years in Nepal and the propagation of F. benjamina, comparison of the feeding preferences of sheep for alternative browse species, and study of the nutritive value of alternative forage diets for lactating buffalo. Reviews showed 2.2 million cattle and 1 million buffalo are an extra burden to steep land where productivity is declining at the rate of 1.25% per year. Indigenous knowledge identified Ficus glaberrima with its three varieties (Maghe, Chaite and Jethe), A. lakoocha, F. benjamina and Bassia butyracea as the best four MFT for renovating degraded lands. A survey study showed significantly higher dry matter (DM) production by F. glaberrima than A. lakoocha (154 vs 91 kg DM /tree/year) during dry periods at low altitude (800 - 1000m). There was no significant difference in production of fat - corrected milk (FCM ) between buffalos eating A. lakoocha, F.glaberrima or a diet of 53% straw and 47% F. glaberrima (DM basis). Metabolisable energy balance (MJME/day) was greater in Artocarpus than Ficus, with the mixed diet intermediate (+1.60, -0.34 and -12.94 MJ ME/buffalo/day respectively, relative to requirements, P=0.0318). When fed together in an indoor trial, poplar (48% = 106 g DM/sheep/day) and willow (43% = 95 g DM/sheep/day) were preferred to Ficus benjamina (8% = 18 g DM/sheep/day) by sheep, reflecting the greater maturity and structural strength of leaves of Ficus. These results are used to develop recommendations for choice of MFT species and management strategies to improve the sustainability and productivity of livestock systems incorporating fodder trees

New Zealand, having large areas of hilly landscapes, is subject to the risk of soil erosion, and summer and autumn droughts that limit pasture growth, which in turn affects the livestock-based economy. The nitrogen and phosphorus input in fertilisers coupled with livestock excreta and soil disturbance impose a serious threat to downstream water quality. The planting of trees is one option used to decrease soil erosion, increase the quantity of forage and manage runoff. To date, research has mainly focused on wide spaced poplar trees for feed quality and their effects on understorey pasture growth. However, there is increasing interest in the use of densely planted willow and poplar for fodder purpose. The effects of young (< 5 yrs old) willow and poplar planted at close spacing on runoff, soil erosion, growth of understory pasture and nutrient losses have never been studied in New Zealand. Three field trials (two at Crop and Research Unit, Moginie, Manawatu and one at Riverside Farm, Masterton) were conducted between October 2004 and November 2006 that incorporated comparative establishment and growth of densely planted willow and poplar and their effects on soil moisture, runoff, sediment load and nutrient losses from grazed and fertilised farmland. It was concluded that densely planted willow and poplar (3-4 yrs) reduced total nitrogen (TN) and dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) by 47 % each and sediment load by 52 %. Young trees reduced surface runoff and soil moisture more as they aged. However, due to their deciduous nature willow and poplar were not effective in reducing surface runoff in winter and early spring. Sheep preferred camping under trees, especially in late spring and summer, and this led to greater deposition of dung and urine under trees than open pasture. Sheep grazing, especially in winter, significantly increased sediment and nutrient loads in runoff water. The N and P fertiliser application increased nutrient load in runoff water well above the threshold level required to initiate algal growth to create eutrophication. Densely planted willow and poplar significantly reduced understorey pasture growth by 23 % and 9 %, respectively, in their second year at Moginie, mainly due to shade, but coupled with soil moisture deficit in summer. The pasture growth in a willow browse block was 52 % of that in open pasture as a result of shade and differences in pasture species composition. Sheep browsing reduced willow leaf area significantly. Willow and poplar survival rates were similar (P > 0.05) after two years of establishment (100 % vs 90.5 %, respectively). However, willow grew faster than poplar in height (1.90 vs 1.35 m), stem diameter (43.5 vs 32.6 mm), canopy diameter (69 vs 34 cm) and number of shoots (8.7 vs 2.3) at the age of two years, respectively. The research clearly demonstrated that densely planted young willow and poplar trees can reduce runoff, sediment load and nutrient losses from farmland to freshwater, but shade and soil moisture can limit pasture growth under trees. It is recommended that willow and poplar should be planted at wide spacing on the whole farm to minimise loss of pasture. Where blocks of trees are necessary, such as willow browse blocks, sheep browsing can be used as a tool to reduce shade to improve pasture growth. Livestock access to riparian strips should be minimal to avoid livestock camping that can have deleterious effects on water quality.

MSCAGR (Animal Science)
Department of Animal Science
Forage and browse legumes play an important role in sustaining livestock in small holder farming systems in the tropics, mainly as a result of their contribution to economic and environmental sustainability of livestock production. The study was conducted to determine the chemical composition, ruminal degradability and in vitro digestibility of dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) of Dichrostachys cinerea and Bauhinia thonningii leaves. The browse tree leaves were harvested in the wild in Shayandima, Limpopo province. The leaves were collected, oven-dried, milled to pass through a 1.0 mm sieve and analysed for chemical composition in the Animal Science Nutrition Laboratory, at the University of Venda. The browse tree leaves were analysed for DM nitrogen, neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF). Approximately 5 g of leaf sample milled to pass through through a 1 mm sieve were placed in nylon bags (external dimension: 6 × 12 cm, pore size of 41 μm) and incubated in duplicates for 0, 4, 8, 16, 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 hours periods in the rumen of three cannulated Bonsmara steers. The residues were then analysed for DM and nitrogen. Parameters to describe the dynamics of ruminal degradability of DM and CP were obtained by fitting the data on the exponential equation P = a + b (1 - e-ct) using NEWAY computer program, where “a” is the rapid degradable fraction, “b” is the slow degradable fraction and “c” is the outflow rate. The in vitro DM and CP degradability of rumen undegradable residue collected after 24 and 48 hour incubation was determined by sequential in vitro digestion in pepsin (abomasal) and pancreatin (small intestine) solutions. DM and CP content differed significantly (P ˂ 0.05). D. cinerea leaves had higher levels of DM and CP content than B. thonningii leaves. DM and CP disappearance increased (P < 0.01) as the incubation period increased. There was no difference (P > 0.05) in soluble fraction ‘a’ and ‘b’ of DM of the two species. The CP components for both fraction ‘a’ and ‘b’ differed significantly (P < 0.01) for CP among the two species. There was significant difference (P < 0.01) in post-ruminal digestibility among the two species. CP digestibility of B. thonningii and D. cinerea leaves was reduced (P < 0.01). In conclusion, B. thonningii and D. cinerea leaves showed significant difference based on their fermentation kinetics and in vitro digestibility, suggesting a good nutritional quality which can be used as protein source for ruminants in dry season and supplement to low-quality diets.
NRF

The grazing management project in the Okhombe ward of the Amazizi Tribal Authority formed part of the National Department of Agriculture's LandCare program to address communal natural resource management issues. Okhombe land is communal whereby every member of the community is the legal owner of the rangeland with individual ownership of stock with the chieftaincy playing a major role in land allocation. In order to avoid critics of the past and address the top-down approach of the past interventions, a participatory approach was conducted in the planning and implementation of the grazing system. The service providers held a series of visioning workshops with the community in an effort to better understand community resource use patterns, needs, constraints and opportunities as part of the participatory approach. Issues identified by the community were the need for fencing grazing camps, animal health improvement, subdivision of rangeland and crop fields and the development of a rotational grazing system. The main aims of this study were to develop a participatory grazing plan with the community, develop and support institutional structures governing range management, and build capacity of the community in range management. The effect of the current grazing system on species composition was determined. In addition to these, the project investigated the potential different fodder trees has on alleviating feed and nutritional deficit, particularly during the dry winter months of the Upper Thukela. Among the main achievements of this study was the development and strengthening of local institutional structures and effective liaison by all structures with the Inkosi and the tribal council. The community developed a rotational grazing plan, marked the camp boundaries, produced digital maps and successfully built fence boundaries (approximately 20 kms of fencing) to divide their land. The fence boundaries separated the crop fields and rangeland, closed ward boundaries in the upland to prevent access by cattle from neighbouring wards, and divided the land into three camps. Six crush pens were constructed in each subward of the Okhombe ward. A communal herders fund opened and fence construction improved crop yields due to a decrease in crop damage by cattle. Okhombe ward, located in the Highland Sourveld region of KwaZulu-Natal, experiences feed and nutrition deficits to ruminants during winter. The prevailing species composition in Okhombe was investigated as part of the grazing plan. The veld condition of the sites ranged from poor (40.7%) in the bottomland to an averaged of 47.0% in upland sites. The most distinctive feature of the rangeland in this area was the loss of highly palatable Decreaser grass species (P <0.05), such as Themeda triandra in the bottom slopes « 1300 m) when compared to the upland (> 1800 m). The proportional abundance of Decreaser species accounted for an averaged of 1.02% of the bottomland and an averaged of 11.5% of the upland compared to the values of 49% in the benchmark (grassland in optimal condition). The composition of the less palatable Increaser Il species was very high at all elevations (1200 m -80.7%, 1400 m - 75.8% and 1700 m - 55.7%) when compared to the low benchmark composition of 19%. The dominant grasses of the bottom slopes were Increaser Il species, such as Eragrostis curvula, Eragrostis plana and Sporobolus africanus and unpalatable Increaser III species such as Aristida junciformis. A significant difference (P < 0.05) in the composition of Decreaser, Increaser I and Increaser Il species was found between the bottom and slopes compared to the upland region. However, the grass cover formed by these tufted species was generally high, making it more resistant to physical degradation. The bottom slope ranged from reasonable to excellent cover (16.9%), the middle slope ranged from reasonable (15.9%) to a good cover of 18.1%, averaging 16.7% and a range of 16.1% to 17.9% for the upland plateau. In the agroforestry trial the potential of different fodder species for supplementing fodder was examined. Leucaena leucocephala had the potential of being a suitable fodder tree species for use in alley cropping (P < 0.05) compared to Morus alba and Acacia karroo. Results from the partially intercropped treatments showed that L. leucocephala yield (665 kg ha-I) varied significantly (P < 0.05) from the A. karroo (378 kg ha-I) and M alba yield (345 kg ha-I). Treatments that were fully intercropped varied, but no significant difference (P > 0.05) were recorded. Morus alba produced the least yield of 345 kg ha-I, A. karroo yielded 378 kg ha-1 and 1. leucocephala recorded the high of 664 kg ha-I. Results from the second season showed similar trend in that 1. leucocephala yielded a significant (P < 0.05) fodder production of 1715 kg ha-I in comparison to M. alba (1101 kg ha-I) and A karroo (1140 kg ha-I). M alba yielded the least dry matter production (P < 0.05) but had high potential (P < 0.05) for addressing lack of firewood in rural areas. Morus alba yielded high fuel wood production from both two seasons. There were no significant differences in fuel wood yield (P > 0.05) from the partially intercropped M alba (507.9 kg ha-I) and 1. leucocephala (455.0 kg ha-I) but the yield from both species varied significantly from the A. karroo yield (103.kg ha-I). With regard to fully intercropped plots, fuel wood yield from all tree species varied significantly, A karroo resulting in low yield (63 kg ha-I), 1. leucocephala recorded 243 kg ha-l and M alba the highest yield of 444 kg ha-I. In the second season, M. alba yielded an averaged fuel wood production of 728 kg ha-l and a low of 439 kg ha-I from 1. leucocephala. Acacia karroo, a slow growing indigenous tree, might be preferred by farmers due to its less branches resulting in minimal light competition with crops. Leucaena leucocephala tend to grow slowly in its initial establishment stage, but once roots become well established, it grows fast and produces high quantity of fodder. The effect all fodder trees had on crop yield was not negative during the trial period and further research on long term effects of alley cropping is recommended. The conclusions drawn here were based on tree growth and their likely impact in alley cropping. Leucaena leucocephala was also recommended as a preferred species for rural ruminants based on the forage quality study. The results showed high content of crude protein (19.27%), low NDF content (50.38%) and very low tannin content (1.19%) from 1. leucocephala compared to A. karroo with a high tannin content of 5.69%. Acacia karroo had a crude protein content of 13.60%, NDF percentages of 44.16 and 34.64% of ADF content. Morus alba also had a recommended chemical composition of 11.71% of CP, 42.86% of NDF, 36.96% of ADF and a low tannin content of 0.65%. L. leucocephala foliage proven is readily degradable under different diet ranging within 24 hrs of intake (P < 0.001) compared to other feeds. L. leucocephala had high dry matter loss degraded from the rumen under Eragrostis hay diet with poor nutrients to high protein concentrates diet. Under the Eragrostis hay diet for instance, L. leucocephala tend to degrade rapidly with values of dry matter loss ranging from 32.2% to 39% at 4 hrs to 16 hrs, when compared to low dry mater loss of 26% at 4 hrs to 31.33% at 16 hrs. Feeds such as M alba tend to degrade slowly within 24 hrs of intake and rapidly degrades after the stated period. The ep content of maize stover was very low ranging from 1.60% in maize stalks to 2.63% in maize leaves. The fibre content in maize stover was very high when compared to lower values in fodder samples. The NDF content ranged from 77.92% in maize leaves to 81.60% in maize stalks. Maize leaves when compared to a combination of maize leaves and maize stalks sole tend to degrade better within 24 hrs of intake. This was due to low (P < 0.05) degradability rate of maize stalks compared to a combination of maize stalks and leave and leaves sole and least NDF content in maize leaves might have attributed to these results. Due to poor chemical compositions of these roughage samples, the study recommended the establishment of fodder banks and agroforestry systems to curb the nutrients deficit during winter. In conclusion therefore, this study highlight that the sustainability of rural systems to manage communal grazing land should be further explored. Most of the challenging issues in communal range management are social in nature rather than technical concepts. These include ways of improving social contributions from cattle to the community while maintaining cultural values of the use of cattle. The interventions in communal range management by service providers should understand the institutional arrangements within a community and an attempt to strengthen such existing structures is recommended. Further interventions by service providers in Okhombe ward should bring in the planning discussions, experts from social sciences, to deal with understanding of community dynamics. Complexities in communal range management involve dealing with non-stock owners within project boundaries. Communities from neighbouring wards should not be ignored and ways of improving communications and updating project details to them should be formulated. Shortage of land and closing of ward boundaries to prevent access to land by neighbouring wards is among community complexities to be explored. Communities in rural lands do share land and in most cases boundaries are known but invisible by an outsider to identify. It is important to strengthen and maintain every success in communal lands as that may form core of the project. Successes on grazing management by locals is far from being the improvement in veld but there are rather various factors to the successes of grazing projects in rural areas. Examples of successes based on Okhombe project are reduction in stock theft, improved in relationship between community and locals institutions, a reduction in stock mortalities during winter and improved animal health. Veld improvement is among successes but there are accomplishments phases to fulfil before focusing on improvement of species composition.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.