Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Food industry and trade, data processing'

Personal computers (PC) and high level programming techniques have been developing so rapidly during last decade leading to new and exciting opportunities in the field of education. The purpose of this research was to develop food processing virtual labs as efficient teaching and study tools for food processing courses using user-friendly computer languages (VC++, MFC and OpenGL). A 3D graphic technique was employed in this study as a specific objective to generate 3D graphics in the visualization mode.
According to functionalities, virtual labs were designed for three basic simulations: (1) Calculation simulations, which perform various calculations related to food processing. These simulations help users to remember and understand the formula used in process calculations. Several simple concept calculations were included: conduction heat transfer in steady state through individual and composite slabs; two-component mass balance systems, Pearson rule applications; freezing and thawing time calculations; (2) Animation simulations, which are aimed to visualize processing scenarios for different physical phenomena or working principles. Included in these simulations were: conduction heat transfer through single and multiple walls under steady state; mixing processes involving two and three component systems and Pearson rule concept; freezing and thawing processes through slab, cylinder, and sphere, the three regular shapes, agitation thermal processing modes which include axial agitation and end-over-end agitation in rotational retort; (3) Virtual equipment simulations, which are aimed to dynamically simulate a real operating environment and to demonstrate equipment working principle, internal structure, and operating procedures. The simulated equipment include a horizontal retort used in thermal processing and a high pressure processing equipment used in non-thermal processing.
The food processing virtual labs provide a new way in teaching and learning, with no risk, time or place limitations, and are cost effective. The simulated scenarios and equipment can be used as teaching tools in food processing courses, which provide an efficient way to the instructor/assistant. Instructor/assistant can dynamically and repeatedly demonstrate the operating process for the simulated equipment in a vivid and interested manner. Also students can get intuitive understanding by viewing these simulations. Computers are the waves of the future; however, traditional learning techniques should not be forgotten.*
*This dissertation is a compound document (contains both a paper copy and a CD as part of the dissertation). The CD requires the following system requirements: Windows 95 or higher.

This research was undertaken to provide a quantitative assessment of the impact of a Canada/U.S. free trade agreement on six B.C. food and beverage processing industries. The objective was achieved by building a partial equilibrium model simulating changes in trade policy. The six industries were modelled as oligopolists in which the degree of oligopolistic behaviour and the industries' characteristics were captured through specified parameters. Following the abolition of trade barriers the model allowed the industries to rationalize, where necessary, and the highest-cost firms in an industry left for the benefit of lower-cost ones. The final effect is measured for each industry through changes in output, employment, trade volume and prices. As different policy scenarios have been simulated for each industry, the results obtained are quite diverse but they generally follow the a priori expectations. In open industries such as meat, fruit and vegetable and flour mixes, results, however differents for each scenario, tend to leave the industries in a better off or no worse off situation. For heavily protected industries like dairy and poultry, very sensitive to the elimination or not of the quota system, the range of possible results between the scenarios is pronounced. It was concluded that the final effect of the abolition of trade barriers on each industry cannot be assessed specifically but in rather general terms.
Land and Food Systems, Faculty of
Graduate

Thesis (MSc Food Sc )--Stellenbosch University, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa is a developing country that relies heavily on its agricultural sector for economical welfare especially in the Western Cape Province. However, development gives rise to new technologies, new products, economical stability and unfortunately also to the production of larger volumes of liquid and solid waste. Anaerobic composting is becoming a very attractive treatment option for solid waste disposal because of its unique operational advantages and two valueadded by-products, compost and biogas. Over the last decade progress has been made in anaerobic digestion of solid wastes, but no literature could be found on the anaerobic composting of apple and peach pomace. The main objective of this study was to develop a method to anaerobically compost apple and peach pomace. In the first phase important operational parameters were identified and a method was developed to optimise the parameters. In the second phase of the study, the scaling-up and optimisation of the process were the major objectives. During the first phase of this research 2 L modified glass containers were used as composting units. The most important operational parameters (leachate pH, inoculum source and size, and initial moisture levels) were identified. Anaerobic compost from previous tests, brewery granules and anaerobic sludge were also used as inocula and evaluated for the best source of microbes. After optimising all the identified parameters, good results were obtained, which included higher biogas production, good volume reductions, less bad aromas and a compost product with a neutral pH. After developing the 2 L laboratory-scale method to compost the apple pomace anaerobically, the next step was to ascertain if the method would work if larger volumes of solid fruit waste were composted. A special 20 L composting unit made of PVC was designed to suit the operational requirements of the anaerobic composting process. It was also decided to mix apple pomace and peach pulp together and to use this solid waste source as part of the composting substrate. Different inocula, including cattle manure, anaerobic sludge, brewery granules and anaerobic compost produced in the previous tests, were used. Although good results were obtained with the anaerobic compost and cattle manure as inoculum, the aim was also to decrease the composting period by shortening the pH stabilisation period. To achieve this, it was decided to add NaHC03 to the substrate to be composted to facilitate a faster pH stabilisation. The composting period was subsequently shortened to 25 days with satisfactory results, which included a volume reduction, biogas production and faster pH stabilisation. An upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) bioreactor was also used to assist the composting process by facilitating the removal of the VFA's present in the composting leachate. This proved to be a valuable addition to the composting process as the UASB bioreactor also provided the composting units with a 'moisturising liquid', which was 'enriched' with a consortium of active anaerobic bacteria when the effluent from the bioreactor was re-added to the composting units. With all the operational parameters in place, good results were obtained and these included a volume reduction of 60% (m/m), a good biogas production, a composting period of only 25 days, a compost that was free of bad aromas, a final compost pH of > 6.5, final leachate COD values of less than 3 000 rnq.l", and a final leachate VFA's concentration of between 0 and 250 rnq.l". If in future research further scaling-up is to be considered, it is recommended that the composting unit be coupled directly to the UASB bioreactor, thus making the process continuous and more practical to operate. If the operational period of the anaerobic composting set-up could be further shortened and the inoculum adapted so that the process could be used for the treatment of other difficult types of solid wastes, it would probably be advantageous for the fruit processing industry to use this method as an environmental control technology.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika is 'n ontwikkelende land wat baie afhanklik is van die sukses van die landbousektor vir ekonomiese welstand, veral in die Wes Kaap Provinsie. Ontwikkeling gaan gepaard met nuwe tegnologie, nuwe produkte, ekonomiese stabiliteit en daarmee saam gaan die produksie van groter volumes vlooiebare en soliede afvalprodukte. Anaërobiese kompostering is tans besig om opgang te maak as en doeltreffende behandelingstegnologie vir vaste afvalstowwe. Tydens die laaste dekade is baie vooruitgang gemaak in die veld van anaërobiese vertering asook kompostering van afvalmateriaal met en hoë vaste stof inhoud. Anaërobiese kompostering van appel- en perskepulp, afkomstig van die versappingsindustrie, het tot dusver min aandag geniet. Die hoofdoel van hierdie navorsing was om 'n anaërobiese komposterings metode te ontwikkel vir die beheer van vrugte afval om sodoende die basis neer te lê vir en nuwe tegnologie wat baie voordele (biogas en kompos) inhou. In die eerste fase is die belangrikste operationele parameters geïdentifiseer om sodoende beter beheer oor die anaërobiese proses uit te oefen. In die tweede fase is die anaërobiese proses wat gedurende die eerste fase ontwikkel is, opgeskaal om optimum resultate te verkry. Gedurende die eerste fase van hierdie verhandeling was 2 L gemodifiseerde glas houers gebruik as komposteringseenhede. Die belangrikste operasionele parameters (pH beheer, inokulasie grootte, vloeistofvlakke en hoeveelheid vog asook vlugtige vetsuur produksie en verwydering) vir die beheer van die anaërobiese komposteringsproses was geïdentifiseer en gebruik as uitgangspunt om 'n anaërobiese komposteringsmetode te ontwikkel. Anaërobiese slyk, brouery granules en anaërobiese kompos van vorige eksperimente was as inokula gebruik. Gedurende hierdie studies was goeie resultate verkry en het 'n hoë biogas produksie, goeie volume reduksies, vermindering van slegte aromas en kompos met 'n neutrale pH ingesluit. . Nadat hierdie goeie resultate met die 2 L laboratorium-skaal metode verkry was, was groter volumes vaste vrugte afval gebruik om te bepaal of dieselfde metode toegepas kan word op en groter skaal. Spesiale 20 L komposteringseenhede was ontwerp om aan die operasionele vereistes van 'n anaërobiese proses te voldoen. Dit was ook besluit om appel pulp met perske pulp te meng en te gebruik as deel van die komposteringssubstraat. Verskeie inokula was weereens gebruik en het die volgende ingesluit: vars beesmis, anaërobiese slyk, brouery granules en anaërobiese kompos van vorige eksperimente. Hoewel baie goeie resultate met vars beesmis en anaërobiese kompos as inokula verkry was, was 'n volgende doel gewees om die kompoterings tydperk te verkort deur die pH vinniger te stabiliseer. Daar was besluit om NaHC03 by die komposteringssubstraat te voeg en so 'n vinniger pH stabilisasie te fasiliteer. 'n UASB ('upflow anaerobic sludge blanket') bioreaktor was ook gebruik om die komposteringsproses aan te help deur die vlugtige vetsure wat in die kompostloog teenwoordig was, te verwyder. Die insluiting van die bioreaktor in die anaërobiese komposteringsproses het bygedra tot die sukses van die proses deurdat die uitvloeisel as 'n vogmiddel vir die komposteringseenhede gebruik was en 'n konsortium van aktiewe anaërobiese bakterieë bevat het. Nadat al die operationele parameters in plek was, was goeie resultate bereik en het die volgende ingesluit: 'n volume reduksie van 60% (m/m), goeie biogas produksie, 'n komposteringstyd van 25 dae, 'n kompos wat vry was van slegste aromas, 'n finale kompos pH van >6.5, finale loog CSB van <3 000 rnq.l' en 'n finale vetsuur konsentrasie van tussen 0 en 250 mq.l'. lndien verdere navorsing onderneem word, word dit aanbeveel dat die UASB bioreaktor direk aan die komposteringseenheid gekoppel word om sodoende die proses meer aaneenlopend en die proses prakties makliker uitvoerbaar te maak. Indien die operationele tydperk nog korter gemaak kan word en die inokulum aanpasbaar kan wees om moeilik verteerbare afvalprodukte te akkomodeer, sal hierdie tegnologie baie voordelig wees as 'n metode om omgewingsbesoedeling te beheer

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2004.
Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains xi, 91 p.; also includes graphics (some col.) Includes bibliographical references (p. 88-91). Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center

This research investigated the development of a balanced scorecard for a frozen vegetable processing plant. The balanced scorecard can be utilised as a strategic management and performance measurement system. First, an overview of the balanced scorecard concept was presented. Its four perspectives, namely financial, customer, internal business process, and learning and growth were explained. Thereafter, the process of developing a balanced scorecard was outlined and the translation of a firm’s vision into measurable objectives and targets was discussed. Finally, the literature study evaluated the development of balanced scorecards by means of selected case studies. This included an analysis of the successes and failures of balanced scorecards in practice. The research methodology consisted of: (a) A literature study to determine a framework for developing a balanced scorecard. (b) Interviews and workshops to gather the primary data required to develop a balanced scorecard. The development of a balanced scorecard for a frozen vegetable processing plant using the findings from (a) and (b) above. The following recommendations were made: · Targets and action plans should be developed for the outstanding strategic objectives of the plant, and all key performance measurements should be formalised on key performance area documents. All role players should be involved in this process. · All employees must be exposed to, and understand the plant’s vision, mission statement and the purpose of the balanced scorecard. · All employees need to understand how their actions impact on other employees and the well-being of the plant. They must have set objectives and targets that can be measured. · To increase the chance of a successful scorecard implementation, regular feedback must be provided to all employees, and managers must hold people accountable for using the system.

The purpose of this research project was to establish a formula optimization computer program to be used for quality control in the meat processing industry. In contrast to linear programming, such a program would search for the best quality formulations that meet predetermined product specifications within allowable cost ranges. Since quality as a function of the ingredients has been found to be explained better by nonlinear equations, the program had to be able to handle nonlinear equations as objective functions as well as constraints to make it an effective formula optimization method. The first part of the study established the IBM BASIC formula optimization computer program (FORPLEX). The FORPLEX is based on the modified version of the Complex method of Box. The FORPLEX was found to be effective in the optimization of nonlinear objective function problems that were linearly constrained, making it suitable for formula optimization purposes. The second part of this study involved the development of statistically significant quality prediction equations for a 3-ingredient model frankfurter formulation. The three ingredients were: pork fat, mechanically deboned poultry meat and beef meat. Ingredient-quality equations were generated through mixture experimentation. Specific quality parameters were evaluated at observation points given by an extreme vertices design. Scheffe's canonical special cubic model for three components was fitted to the experimental data using multiple regression analysis. The statistical validity of the equations for prediction purposes was assessed by analysis of variance, adjusted multiple coefficient of determination, standard error of the estimate and analysis of residuals. Fourteen of 17 regression models developed were considered adequate to be used for prediction purposes. In order to have a better understanding of the relationship between ingredient proportions and the quality parameters, three different techniques were used: (a) response surface contour analysis, (b) correlation analysis and (c) scatterplot matrices analysis. The third part of this study consisted of the computational optimization of frankfurter formulations using the FORPLEX program. Several frankfurter formulation optimization trials were performed. In each trial, different combinations of quality parameters were considered measures of the formulations' quality. Target quality values were either selected based on a target formulation or were individually selected. In both cases the FORPLEX was able to find best quality formulations that met the constraints imposed on them. Differences between predicted and target quality values existed in all the computed optimum formulations when the target values were individually selected. Differences existed because it was difficult for the formulations to meet all the target quality values. Target quality values should be selected carefully since failure to obtain formulations that meet the target quality as closely as possible lay not with the performance of the FORPLEX but with the selection of the target quality values. Five optimum formulations found by FORPLEX were compared with seven least-cost formulations which were found by increasing the lower limit of the fat binding constraint. The predicted quality of each FORPLEX optimum formulation was close to its respective target quality. The least-cost formulations showed, in general, considerable departure from the target quality values set in the FORPLEX formulations. The adequacy of the models for predicting the quality of frankfurter formulations could not be evaluated since the meat ingredients had been stored frozen for 6 months. The models did not account for the effect of extended frozen storage on the quality of the formulations. Results of this study indicated that formula optimization based on the Complex method (FORPLEX) is the more suitable technique for food formulation. The FORPLEX may be able to replace linear programming computer programs currently being used in the processed meat industry.
Land and Food Systems, Faculty of
Graduate

The cyclic nature of the beef industry is dependent on the supply and demand transaction initiated by consumers’ acceptability of quality meat products. When purchasing beef at the grocery store, consumers are dependent on USDA grades and visual appraisal; consumers expect consistency in products. Upon this appraisal, quality is determined by the color, marbling content, and texture of a particular retail cut, as well as cooked characteristics of tenderness, flavor, and juiciness. Variability in meat tenderness is a major quality defect of beef (Morgan et al., 1991b; Smith et al., 1992). A common practice used by beef processors to extend the shelf life and improve tenderness of beef products is “enhancing”. Even though enhancing products is effective for water and color retention and improved tenderness, these additives can negatively impact flavor by giving a bitter, salty or metallic taste. This experiment was conducted to determine the effect of enhancement on the eating quality of USDA Select strip loin steaks. After a training session, six students in the agriculture department at Western Kentucky University were selected to serve on a sensory panel. The panel members evaluated tenderness, juiciness, flavor, off-flavor, overall acceptability, and saltiness. The USDA Select strip loin steaks were enhanced with a 12% solution of sodium and potassium phosphate and USDA Choice strip loin steaks were non-enhanced. Results indicated the enhanced product was inferior for all palatability measures (P<.05). Enhanced USDA Select strip loin steaks were rated as being lower for tenderness, juiciness, flavor, overall acceptability, and more salty. Also, the enhanced strip loin steaks received significantly higher evaluations for off-flavor (P<.01). These data suggested that a 12% solution of sodium and potassium phosphates administered to USDA Select strip loin steaks lowered consumer satisfaction.

This study was undertaken to achieve three major objectives: 1. to estimate an econometric structure-profitability model for Canadian food, beverages and tobacco processing industries; 2. to estimate a structure-price model of the sector to compare with the profit model; and 3. to make inferences about the performance of the sector, with reference to market power and industry efficiency. The above objectives were accomplished by comparing empirical regression results of the two models by using the following approach. First, the statistical significance of the estimated coefficients was used to determine which factors should be considered of importance in explaining performance. Secondly, the signs on the estimated coefficients were used to determine the direction of the influence of market structure on performance. Lastly, a comparison of the size and statistical significance of the difference in the respective coefficients was used to determine which of the two performance indexes (profitability and prices) is most affected by market structure. From the study four broad conclusions were arrived at. Seller concentration and advertising do have an increasing effect on profitability, but this influence does not derive from market power (price increases). Instead, increases in these factors appear to promote price competition. However, tariff protection has an increasing effect on both profitability and prices. Furthermore, the net effect of tariffs is significantly larger on prices than on profitability. Industry growth and market isolation factors have an increasing effect on profitabilty. But they have no significant influence on relative prices. Exports have a decreasing effect on profitability and prices. Increases in input prices may lead to increases in ouput prices. Two broad implications can be drawn from the above results. First, price competition and industry efficiency can be enhanced by (either condoning or encouraging) high market shares, advertising, exports and industry growth. Secondly, although tariffs can increase industry profitability, they may also lead to relatively larger increases in domestic output prices. Similarly, changes in input prices may lead to increases in output prices. Therefore, high tariffs and input prices may serve as barriers to competition, and allow inefficiency to persist in an industry.
Land and Food Systems, Faculty of
Graduate

High pressure (HP) kinetics of the microbial destruction and changes in the physicochemical characteristics of milk and pork were studied. Raw milk samples containing indigenous microflora of approximately 106 CFU/mL were heat sealed in dual peel sterilization pouches and subjected to HP treatment from 150--400 MPa with holding times ranging 5--120 min. The kinetic parameters (rate constant, k and decimal reduction time, D) for the microorganisms, alkaline phosphatase, color and viscosity were evaluated, based on first order kinetics and the pressure dependence of kinetic parameters was evaluated using pressure destruction time (PDT) and Arrhenius models. Kinetic data was well described by the first order model (R 2 > 0.90).
The application of pressure pulse was explored for pressure destruction of microorganisms as well as changes in physical-chemical characteristics of pork chops. Pork chops (2 days post-rigor) were subjected to HP treatment from 200--350 MPa for 0--120 min. Results showed that pressure changes of pork variables followed a dual effect consisting of an instantaneous pressure kill (IPK) with the application of pressure pulse (no holding) and a subsequent first order rate of destruction during the pressure hold time. The IPK values were pressure dependent and increased with pressure level. Parameters k and D indicated a higher rate of pressure destruction of microorganisms compared to quality attributes.
Kinetics of pressure destruction of Listeria monocytogenes Scott A were studied in relation to those of indigenous microorganism of milk and pork. The IPK was more pronounced with L. monocytogenes than with indigenous microflora. However, the kinetic parameters (k and D values) indicated a larger pressure resistance for L. monoctyogenes. HP processes were developed based on the standard plate count (SPC) kinetic data for indigenous microflora of milk as well as L. monocytogenes in milk and pork. The results showed that SPC kinetics permitted good estimation of microbial destruction in low pressure-lethality processes of milk and pork but its application at higher pressure-lethality levels were inaccurate. On the other hand, processes established based an destruction of L. monocytogenes were more predictable. Pressure pulse application to microbial lethality was also well predicted.
The shelf-life of milk and pork increased with the level of applied pressure lethality, but Q10 values suggested that low storage temperature was nevertheless required to control microbial growth and maintain quality. Storage of HP treated park offered some improvement in the texture but resulted in large color changes and drip losses. L. monocytogenes were not detected in any of the stored milk samples HP treated to achieve a lethality ≥10D.

The purpose of this study was to develop a Point Of Sale system which helps owners to cut restaurant losses, improve customer service, reduce employee mistakes, and increase profitability. mOrder-Servers is touch screen oprerated at the point of sale, It has an easy to follow screen layout, and the simplicity of a windows based interface.

The risk of poor food safety is a major focus for managers in the food manufacturing industry. Despite industry-led and regulatory efforts to improve the overall food safety of US packaged consumer foods, product recalls and market withdrawals are increasing. This is especially true for the most frequent cause for food recall: the undeclared allergen. With industry trends leaning toward adoption of third-party food safety management certifications, a popular food safety code from the Safe Quality Foods Institute is evaluated using Systems Analysis. Three changes to the food safety code are proposed to address three of the top causes for an allergen-related recall in the United States. In practice, the SQF code should make better use of control theory to reduce delays in production monitoring activities, should make better use of purposeful action in the implementation of a HACCP plan to ensure continuing validity of the plan, and SQFI needs to consider adding an organizational assessment for food safety culture.

Nanotechnology, the scientific study of manipulating matter on an atomic scale (1 to 100 nanometers) that provides new properties in materials and devices had received considerable research attention and public funding support during the last decade in the US. This emerging technology promises to improve the competitiveness of most of the US industrial sectors. Malerba (2004) an innovation system researcher has developed the theoretical framework "Sectoral System of Innovation (SSI)" to study the process by which new technologies and knowledge are produced and transferred to industrial sectors, where actors interact based on an institutional framework to generate innovation processes. In this dissertation I studied the agriculture and food processing sector, which is a key sector of the US economy that has provided with enough food for the US population, but in an unsustainable way that has harmed the environment, natural resources and human health. The US agrifood sector is facing new challenges of increasing food demand, which need to be addressed in a more sustainable way that takes consideration on economic, environment, and social aspects. The main questions that this dissertation research focuses on studying how much attention the public nanotechnology agrifood research agenda has paid to sustainability issues during the last decade in the US and what role has played the system's actors in influencing this research agenda. The analysis of the policy process in which system's actors try to influence the research agenda is framed in the Advocacy Coalition Framework (Sabatier 1993) that complemented the Sectoral System of Innovation approach in studying the formation of advocacy groups to achieve their coalition's policy goals. Three data sources were utilized to achieve my research goals, the CNS-ASU nanotechnology publications dataset 2000-2010(Porter A, Youtie J et al. 2007; De Bellis 2009)which was used to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the agrifood nanotechnology research publications in the US, semi-structured interviews with key actors and their interaction in advocacy coalition groups, and a literature review of several official documents and public hearing with respect to the US nanotechnology system to evaluate the influence of advocacy groups in the policy process. Utilizing Vantage point data mining and Nvivo qualitative analysis software I conducted the data analysis of my research. The results show increasing research attention toward environmental research and food safety issues that can indirectly impact positively on sustainability development, as well as increasing research attention in studying environmental, health and safety issues (EHS) that can reduce potential risks. The analysis of actors' interaction to influence the policy process, two advocacy coalitions was identified. On one side, a coalition that advocate for more research funding oriented to applied research to achieve the potential that this coalition members believe this technology has to revolutionize the way food is produced giving more competitiveness to the US agrifood sector, this coalition is composed by researchers, federal agency managers and industry representatives. On the other side, a rival coalition that raise concerns respect to potential risks associated to this technology that required to be addressed by the public research agenda. This coalition mainly composed by environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other social actors claim for a regulatory framework that guarantee a nanotechnology development environmental friendly that benefit the society. The influence of these two coalitions have succeed in allocating more federal funding resources to research nanotechnology in the agrifood sector, with particular emphasis in EHS research that show the right path to a sustainable development that guarantee enough resources for the future generations.

This research investigates the problem of constrained sequencing of a set of jobs on a conveyor system with the objective of minimizing setup cost. A setup cost is associated with extra material, labor, or energy required due to the change of attributes in consecutive jobs at processing stations. A finite set of attributes is considered in this research. Sequencing is constrained by the availability of two elements ??orage buffers and conveyor junctions. The problem is motivated by the paint purge reduction problem at a major U.S. automotive manufacturer. First, a diverging junction with a sequence-independent setup cost and predefined attributes is modeled as an assignment problem and this model is extended by relaxing the initial assumptions in various ways. We also model the constrained sequencing problem with an off-line buffer and develop heuristics for efficiently getting a good quality solution by exploiting the special problem structure. Finally, we conduct sensitivity analysis using numerical experiments, explain the case study, and discuss the use of the simulation model as a supplementary tool for analyzing the constrained sequencing problem.

In the sea trade, the traditional paper-based bill of lading has played an important role across the globe for centuries, but with the advent of advanced commercial modes of transportation and communication, the central position of this document is under threat. The importance of the bill of lading still prevails as does the need of the functions that this document served in the past, although in a changed format. In the recent past, the world has witnessed a lot of debate about replacing this traditional paper-based document with an electronic equivalent that exhibits all of its functions and characteristics, both commercial and legal. More specifically, unlike many rival travel documents, such as the Sea Waybill, a bill of lading has two prominent features, that is to say, its negotiability and its acceptability as a document of title in certain legal jurisdictions that are required to be retained in an electronic bill of lading so as to also retain the prominence of this document in the future landscape. This thesis is, however, more concerned about the legal aspects of adopting the electronic bill of lading as a traditional paper-based legal document as well as an effective legal document in the present age. However, the scope of this debate remains primarily focused on the USA and UK jurisdictions. In the course of this thesis, it is observed that, in the past, the bill of lading has been subject to a variety of international regimes, such as The Hague Rules and The Hague-Visby Rules, and presently efforts are being made to arrive at a universal agreement under the umbrella of The Rotterdam Rules, but such an agreement is yet to arrive among the comity of nations. On the other hand, efforts made by the business community to introduce an electronic bill of lading are much louder and more evident. The private efforts, such as the SeaDocs System, CMI Rules, and the BOLERO Project, etc., were, however, received by the fellow business community with both applause as well as suspicion. At the same time, there are a number of concerns voiced by the international business community on the legislative adoptability in national and international jurisdictions and the courts’ approach in adjudicating cases involving electronic transactions and these are making the task of adoption of electronic bill of lading in the sea-based transactions a difficult task. Therefore, in the absence of any formal legal backing from national and international legislations, these attempts could not achieve the desired results. In this thesis, the present situation of the acceptability of electronic transactions in general, and of the electronic bill of lading specifically, has also been discussed with reference to certain national jurisdictions, such as Australia, India, South Korea and China, in order to present comparative perspectives on the preparedness of these nations. On the regional level, the efforts made by the European Union have also been discussed to promote electronic transactions within its jurisdiction. All the discussion, however, leads to the situation where the level of acceptability of electronic bill of lading in the near future is found to be dependent upon the official efforts from the national governments and putting these efforts towards arriving at an agreement on Rotterdam Rules as early as possible. The other area of importance revealed in this thesis is the need for change in juristic approach by the courts while interpreting and adjudicating upon cases involving electronic transactions. On the whole, this thesis has provided a cohesive and systematic review, synthesis and analysis of the history of the bill of lading, its importance as a document of title, and attempts to incorporate its important functions within the fast-paced electronic shipping commerce of today. In such a way it has provided a valuable contribution to the literature by providing a comprehensive resource for jurists, policy-makers and the business community alike, as they work towards adapting the bill of lading so that it might be successfully applied in electronic form.

A multistage production system consists of a number of production stages that are interrelated, that is the output from one stage forms input to the next stage. There are constraints associated with each stage as well as constraints imposed by the overall system. Besides, there are multiple objectives that need to be satisfied, and in numerous cases, these objectives conflict with each other. What is required is an efficient technique to allocate and schedule resources so as to provide a balance between the conflicting objectives within the system constraints. This study is concerned with the problem of scheduling multistage production systems in food processing industry. The system and products have complex structure and relationships. This makes the system difficult to be solved analytically. Therefore, the problem is solved by developing a heuristic algorithm that considers most of the constraints. The output generated by the algorithm includes a production schedule which specifies the starting and completion times of the products in each stage and the machines where the products are to be processed. In addition, a summary of system performances including throughput times, resources' utilizations, and tardy products is reported.
Graduation date: 1992

In this study, the rates of technological change in food processing sectors of U.S. and Mexico are compared through econometric estimation of both the unrestricted (long-run) and restricted (short-run) profit functions with first order autocorrelation correction. Then, the dual rate of productivity growth is computed and decomposed into its sources. The impact of environmental regulations on productivity growth is also analyzed through incorporation of a pollution abatement variable into empirical models. The hypothesis testing results on the existence of short-run equilibrium in capital markets indicated that the restricted profit function framework is the valid specification for the underlying production technologies of U.S. and Mexican food sectors during the sample period, and hence, our conclusions are based on restricted profit function models. Our results suggest that, in U.S., the average annual dual rate of technological change dropped from 0.76% during 1963-73 to 0.67% during 1974-88, increased to 0.72% between 1988-1990, and declined to 0.65% during 1990-93. In Mexico, the dual rate of technological change was sharply declining during most of the years of sample period, and the average annual rate dropped from 1.30% during 1971-74 to 0.01% between 1989-93. The dual rate of technological change was lower in U.S. than in Mexico during 1971-81 period, but the difference (dual technological change gap) was sharply declining. Starting from 1982, the dual rate of technological change became greater in U.S. than in Mexico and the difference was continuously increasing. Moreover, the decomposition of dual productivity growth into its sources reveals that technological change was the main source of productivity growth in both countries, although in Mexico, the effects of changes in output price on productivity growth outweighed the contributions of technological change during several years between 1982-94. The impact of capacity utilization had a minor impact on productivity growth in both countries. The estimated elasticities of input demand and output supply indicated that labor demand is price inelastic, while material demand and output supply are price elastic in both countries. The own price elasticity of material and output was higher in Mexico than in U.S. In both countries, input demands are affected most significantly by output prices, while output supply is most significantly affected by its own price. The estimates for elasticity of substitution between labor and material imply that labor and material are complement of each other in both countries, with the degree of substitution between them is higher in Mexico than in U.S. Finally, the estimated parameters corresponding to pollution abatement variable suggested that pollution abatement costs had no significant impact on the U.S. dual rate of technological change, and in turn, productivity growth rate, and this appears to be consistent with the fact that the share of pollution abatement costs is quite small in U.S. food processing sector. For the Mexico, the estimated parameters were individually significant, implying that one unit increase in pollution abatement variable reduced the dual rate of technological change by around 0.11% points during 1982-94 period.
Graduation date: 1999

M.B.A.
The food processing in industry is extremely important for the health and the welfare of the South African nation by feeding and nourishing the citizens. The food processing industry is one of South Africa's largest. Many South Africans directly participate in this industry as investors, employees, or entrepreneurs. This industry also generates the SA nation much-needed foreign exchange via export activities. The long-term success of the South African food industry will contribute to the gross national product, employment opportunities, stability, and reduce health related costs. A literature review was conducted. The main purpose of this review was to give a background, and foundation to the research project. It gave an overview of the topic of food safety and quality. The main stakeholders involved with food quality and safety were identified. This review also outlined the importance of quality systems in regard to food born diseases. The consequences of food born diseases in both human and economic terms were also covered. Questionnaires were designed, and then distributed to relevant organisations, such as business organisations, consumer organisations, governmental organisations, industrial organisations, and international organisations. Respondents were asked to complete the questionnaires. These questionnaires contained both open and closed questions. The answers to the questions gave insight to facts and opinions into what. is happening in this industry. Data obtained from the questionnaires was summarised and analysed. One important finding was that South African business organisations could, when necessary fulfil the requirements of global quality standards. Also due to the fact that the SA food industry is now participating in the evolving and demanding global economy means that all South African stakeholders will have to become more dynamic in order to keep up with future trends and scenarios.

No
This article reports on the union recognition dispute that took place at the MacDonald's food-processing plant in Moscow. It examines this dispute in the context of McDonald's employment practices worldwide, the interventions made by international and local unions, and Russian government bodies. Despite these interventions it became impossible to either organise the workforce or establish a collective agreement. The case illustrates the difficulties facing both local unions and global union federations when confronted by intransigent multinational companies, especially in low-skilled sectors in transitional economies.

This study focuses on the development of effective Staff Training Programs to meet ISO Food Factory standards. It is set in the context of significant changes required to meet these standards in order to improve international business opportunities in the food industry in Thailand. The study is based on a needs assessment within the proactive form of evaluation as categorised by Owen, with Rogers (1999) and Owen (2006). The research was conducted in four phases: a needs assessment, an expert review, a determination of best practice, and the formulation of a staff training policy. The purely qualitative methodology involved focus group and semi-structured interviews, a SWOT analysis, inductive data reduction, and policy development using Dror’s (1973) Optimal Method of policymaking. The findings of this study were validated by means of triangulation involving the outcomes of the needs assessment, the semistructured interviews with the QMRs of two registered ISO certificated food factories, and the testing of the draft policy against the perceptions of the Chief Executive Officers of two registered ISO certificated food factories.

This study focuses on the development of effective Staff Training Programs to meet ISO Food Factory standards. It is set in the context of significant changes required to meet these standards in order to improve international business opportunities in the food industry in Thailand. The study is based on a needs assessment within the proactive form of evaluation as categorised by Owen, with Rogers (1999) and Owen (2006). The research was conducted in four phases: a needs assessment, an expert review, a determination of best practice, and the formulation of a staff training policy. The purely qualitative methodology involved focus group and semi-structured interviews, a SWOT analysis, inductive data reduction, and policy development using Dror’s (1973) Optimal Method of policymaking. The findings of this study were validated by means of triangulation involving the outcomes of the needs assessment, the semistructured interviews with the QMRs of two registered ISO certificated food factories, and the testing of the draft policy against the perceptions of the Chief Executive Officers of two registered ISO certificated food factories.

The objective of the study was to explore and to describe the extent to which the SIDO/UNIDO WED Programme had empowered participating women microentrepreneurs in the food-processing sector in Tanzania. The research question was: To what extent have SIDO/UNIDO WED Programme-supported women microentrepreneurs in the food-processing sector been empowered? The justification for the study was that most studies on women's empowerment have been on micro credit-based microenterprises and almost none on entrepreneurship-based ones. Furthermore, there is a very scanty coverage of Africa in women's empowerment research. Theoretical perspectives in gender and gender relations in accordance with the feminist empowerment paradigm as it is influenced by the international women's movement and empowerment guided the study. The study used a cross-sectional and causal-comparative research design. The sample comprised 78 women microentrepreneurs: 39 programme-supported and 39 others constituted a control group. Participation in the SIDO/UNIDO WED Programme was the independent variable. Women's empowerment was the outcome of interest with the following indicators as dependent variables: freedom to use own income; contribution to household income; ownership of assets; involvement in business associations; participation in trade fairs; freedom of movement and awareness of injustice. Measurement of women's empowerment was on three dimensions: economic, socio-cultural and psychological in two arenas: individual/household and community. Qualitative and quantitative primary data were collected using in-depth interviews and questionnaires. A constant comparative approach in qualitative data analysis and discussion was adopted. At first level of quantitative data analysis, descriptive statistical procedures involving cross tabulations and frequency distributions were used.Then chi-square tests and bivariate correlation analysis were performed. The findings indicated that WED Programme-supported women had become empowered in almost all indicators. However, they lacked control over their assets like their counterparts in the control group. The findings on women's freedom of movement show that it is an area where traditional ideologies, as structural factors, are resistant to changes normally influenced by women's income. The majority of interviewees from both categories were of the view that husbands and wives should have equal say in decision making and division of labour between husbands and wives should also be equal.
Development Studies
D. Litt et Phil. (Development Studies)

Text in English
Supply chains incorporate “green” principles in their processes to promote environmental sustainability. Through an online survey, this study investigated green supply chain management (GSCM) implementation and employee awareness of GSCM initiatives in five starch and glucose processing companies in Gauteng. Eighty employees working in management and supervisory positions participated in the study by completing an online questionnaire. The research findings indicated that employees are aware of environmental goals and targets, environmental policies, legislation and standards, and green designing initiatives implemented. Employees perceive that collaboration with suppliers and contractors on environmental issues is in place, however, government partnerships are perceived as being insufficient. Benefits of green marketing campaigns and GSCM initiatives have not been identified. The study noted resistance to change, lack of adoption of technology advancement, insufficient communication and training, and cost implications as barriers hindering GSCM success. It is, therefore, recommended that appropriate support and communication regarding GSCM initiatives are strengthened.
College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences
M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Abstracts in English and Zulu
The main objective of this study was to investigate the impact of innovative marketing on the performance of Ghanaian food processing SMEs. The research study was carried out in response to the scholarly and managerial interest in the construct of innovative marketing as a novel competitive tool and its effect on performance in food processing SME organisations. This research study examined the effect of the six components of innovative marketing (i.e. marketing mix variables (MV), marketing modification (MM), integrated marketing (IM), customer focus (CF), market focus (MF) and value proposition (VP) on the four components of food processing SME performance i.e. financial performance (FP), customer performance (CP), internal business process performance (IBPP) and learning & growth performance (LGP). The research study was carried out on 225 food processing SMEs on the registered list of the National Board for Small Scale Industry (NBSSI) in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The study was quantitative in nature with the use of questionnaires distributed to 225 owners/managers of food processing SMEs in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Through an extensive literature review, a conceptual framework and empirical result from 225 food processing SMEs in Ghana, the research study employed exploratory factor analysis along with structural equation modelling – path analysis to evaluate the proposed model for understanding the relationships among the constructs. The collected data was analysed through descriptive statistics and multiple regression analysis using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) version 23 and STATA version 15.1. The reliability of innovative marketing and food processing performance factors were determined using Composite Reliability and Cronbach’s alpha and the validity of the factors of innovative marketing and food processing SMEs were also ascertained using convergent and discriminant validity methods. The research study established that SMEs in the food processing sector in Ghana exhibit high levels of five innovative marketing factors (i.e. market focus, value proposition, customer focus, integrated marketing and marketing mix variables) which impact on all four factors of food processing SME performance (i.e. financial performance, customer performance, internal business process performance and learning and growth performance) whereas marketing modification, a factor of innovative marketing, indicated insignificant association with food processing SME performance. The recommendation of the conducted research study made a clear statement that food processing SMEs in Ghana should maintain a positive attitude towards innovative marketing, and also negate the effect of innovative marketing challenges to achieve high performance. The conclusions that were drawn from the conducted research study indicated that the main research objective had been achieved. Hence, innovative marketing positively influences the performance of food processing SMEs in Ghana.
Inhloso enkulu yalolu cwaningo bekungukuphenya umthelela wokumaketha okusha ekusebenzeni kwama-SME wokucubungula ukudla waseGhana. Ucwaningo lwenziwe kuphendulwa intshisekelo yezifundiswa nezokuphatha ekwakheni ukumaketha okusha njengethuluzi lokuncintisana lenoveli nomphumela walo ekusebenzeni ezinhlanganweni zokucubungula ukudla kwama-SME. Lolu cwaningo lubheke umphumelela wezinto eziyisithupha zokumaketha okusha (isbokuguquguqukayo kokuhlanganiswa kokumaketha (MV), ukuguqulwa kokumaketha (MM), ukumaketha okuhlanganisiwe (IM), ukugxila kwamakhasimende (CF), ukugxila emakethe (MF), nokuphakanyiswa kwevelu (VP) ezingxenyeni ezine zokulungiswa kokudla ukusebenza kwe-SME okungukuthi, ukusebenza kwezezimali (FP), ukusebenza kwamakhasimende (CP), ukusebenza kwenqubo yebhizinisi yangaphakathi (IBPP), nokusebenza kokufunda nokukhula (LGP). Ucwaningo lwenziwe kuma-SME wokucubungula ukudla angama-225 ohlwini olubhalisiwe lweNational Board for Small Scale Industry (NBSSI) esifundeni esiseMpumalanga yeGhana. Lolu cwaningo belunobuningi ngokwendalo ngokusetshenziswa kwamaphepha emibuzo anikezwe abanikazi/abaphathi abangama-225 bokucubungula ukudla ama-SME esifundeni esiseMpumalanga yeGhana. Ngokubuyekezwa okubanzi kwezincwadi, uhlaka lomqondo kanye nomphumela wezobuciko kusuka kuma-SME wokucubungula ukudla angama-225 eGhana, ucwaningo lwasebenzisa ukuhlaziywa kwezici zokuhlola kanye nokuhlelwa kwesimo sokulinganisa - indlela yokuhlola imodeli ehlongozwayo yokuqonda ubudlelwano phakathi kokwakhiwa. Imininingwane eqoqiwe yahlaziywa ngezibalo ezichazayo kanye nasekuhlaziyweni okuningi kokuhlehla kusetshenziswa i-Statistical Package ye-Social Science (SPSS) inguqulo 23 kanye ne-STATA version 15.1. Ukuthembeka kokumaketha okusha kanye nokusebenza kokucubungula ukudla kunqunywe kusetshenziswa i-Composite. Ukuthembeka kanye ne-alpha kaCronbach nokuba semthethweni kwezici zokumaketha okusha nokuqhutshwa kokudla kwama-SME nakho kwaqinisekiswa kusetshenziswa izindlela zokuqinisekisa nezokunbandlulula. Ucwaningo luye lwaveza ukuthi ama-SME emkhakheni wokulungiswa kokudla eGhana akhombisa amazing aphezulu wezinto ezinhlanu ezintsha zokumaketha (okusho ukugxila emakethe, ukuphakanyiswa kwenani, ukugxila kwamakhasimende, ukumaketha okuhlanganisiwe kanye nokuxubana kokuxubana kokumaketha) okunomthelela kuzo zonke izici ezine zokulungiswa kokudla ukusebenza kwe-SME (okusho ukusebenza kwezezimali, ukusebenza kwamakhasimende, ukusebenza kwenqubo yebhizinisi yangaphakathi nokusebenza kokufunda nokukhula), kanti, ukuguqulwa kokumaketha, okuyisici sokumaketha okusha, kukhombisa ukuzihlanganisa okungabalulekile nokusebenza kokudla kwe-SME. Incomo yocwaningo olwenziwe yenze isitatimende esicacile sokuthi ama-SME okucubungula ukudla eGhana kufanele agcine isimo esihle mayelana nokukhangisa okusha, futhi angaphikisi nomphumela wezinselelo ezintsha zokumaketha ukuza kuzuzwe ukusebenza okuphezulu. Iziphetho ezithathwe ocwaningweni olwenziwe zikhombisile ukuthi inhloso enkulu yocwaningo seyifeziwe. Ngakho-ke, ukumaketha okusha kunomthelela omuhle ekusebenzeni kokulungiswa kokudla kwama-SME eGhana.
Business Management
D. Phil. (Management Studies (Marketing))

Subset Vector Autoregressive (SVAR) models are fitted to the International Listed Property Trust (LPT) market and the global oil market. A General-to-Specific (GetS) model selection algorithm and a Bootstrap model based resampling method are employed to determine the best fitting models from a set of candidate models. Section One presents one of the largest studies to date of the effect of crises on diversification opportunities in the listed property context, spanning 12 markets{u2091}. The analysis demonstrates an application of alternative superior modelling of market integration. Much early research on the diversification benefits of securitised real estate markets uses correlations and/or a simple mean variance framework. These static descriptive statistics, while informative, cannot adequately capture the dynamic behaviour present in the data or information on how the two variables are related on a lead/lag basis. Autocorrelation analysis can give some insight into temporal relationships between the response and the covariates now and into the past, but the more complex (SVAR) model allows us to capture the behaviour of the data series more flexibly and, in particular, model all markets of interest simultaneously. Such an approach captures not only internal dependence, but also complex dependence structures involving multiple markets. This study covers the Asian market crisis and the current global credit crisis. Critically this study includes modelling of the potential for currency effects to impact the diversification environment. Diversification benefits evaporate during the crisis in both hedged and unhedged cases, perhaps a surprising result given the magnitude of the currency effects experienced during the Asian crisis. Interestingly, although diversification benefits vanish during the crisis in both hedged and unhedged cases, the markets that are significant in the model differ between the two cases. While the analysis in Section One demonstrates that SVAR models can provide a superior insight into the diversification problem, model uncertainty was not addressed adequately. Financial market industry participants and researchers often fit statistical models to time series data without regard for the issues relating to purpose and model uncertainty. Often an inappropriate model is fitted, and even if an "appropriate" model is applied, the final model reported is treated as though there is no uncertainty with respect to size or significance of the coefficients, variables included or excluded. Section Two discusses model uncertainty. In Section Three, the question, "Can you trust your model?" is asked. By applying a resampling method called the bootstrap, model uncertainty is quantified. The global oil market is modelled using an implementation of Subset Vector Autoregression with Exogenous Variables (SVARX). When fitting large models such as those in Section One and Section Three, coefficient and standard error estimates have been traditionally determined by conditioning on a single best model. Estimates from a single model ignore model uncertainty and result in under-estimated standard errors and over-estimated coefficients. The results of this study find under-estimation of standard errors of up to164% and over-estimation of coefficients of up to 37%. The bootstrap provides improved estimation of coefficients and their standard errors, and allows better identification of the relative importance of predictors. Using the bootstrap, this study shows how traditional methods for selecting predictors result in false positives (inclusion of unimportant/noise variables) and exclusion of important variables. Using daily log return time series, this exploratory study suggests the following predictors as the most important drivers of the global oil market: US 10 Year Government Bond Yield (lags 0, 4 and 13) US Inflation Rate (lags 0 and 11) US Business Confidence (lags 8 and 11) Given the set of predictors above, confirmatory out-of-sample analysis where models of size two, three and four or more are fitted and analysed should be conducted. A multi-model averaging based approach should be implemented to account for model uncertainty if the models are to be used for predictive purposes. {u2091}Based on the work in Section One of this thesis, a journal article has been published. Ryan, L. (2011), Nowhere to hide: an analysis of investment opportunities in listed property markets during financial market crises, Journal of Property Research, Volume 28, Number 2, June 2011, pp. 97-131(35)

D. Tech. Industrial Engineering.
Discusses purpose of this study is to derive a new model capable of advanced diagnosis and analysis of energy usage to determine the possible energy efficiency potential through the following in a single model: Analysis of industrial historical data; Prediction of the industrial energy baseline; Computation of the industrial energy efficiency; and Optimization of the industrial energy consumption usage. In this context, the development of a new model involves: Carrying out literature survey; Carrying out Mathematical Analysis of the dynamics of energy efficiency in an industry; Critically analyzing and testing existing models; Evolve a new and novel model; Test the model using data from specific industry; Apply the model to eleven industrial sectors in South Africa. This thesis on energy efficiency potential will be a milestone for different stakeholders, policymakers and decision makers in the energy sector at national and international levels who are, or will be interested in reducing energy input and still produce the observed output levels, by becoming technically efficient. The approach adopted by the study is the integration of Index Decomposition Analysis (IDA), Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) into a single model.This methodology combines modeling, which is at the core of an energy-management technique, with a wider interpretation of activity growth, structure and efficiency changes which contribute to changes in energy consumption.