Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Food security – South Africa – Swartland'

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this thesis was to determine whether or not examples exist of commercial grain farmers in the Swartland region of South Africa moving away from high-external-input agricultural production systems towards production systems based on ecologically restorative partnerships with soils and other natural systems. The research also sought to understand why these farmers were changing their approach to farming, as well as investigating the specific technologies and practices they were implementing in order to achieve these changes. In addition, the thesis also considered the theoretical implications of these changes on food security in the Western Cape. Three research approaches were employed: qualitative case studies of seven progressive farmers in the region; a literature review; and an analysis of secondary data. Throughout these three approaches, Swilling and Annecke’s conceptualisation of a multifaceted global polycrisis was used as a conceptual reference point. This was done with the intention of providing an agricultural analysis which looks beyond the farm gate and takes cognisance of the broader socio-ecological issues which affect and are affected by agriculture. The research identified seven farmers who are shifting towards lower-external-input production methods, which focus on enhancing beneficial partnerships with natural systems. The on-site interviews and observations revealed that the degree to which these seven farmers were altering their practices varied significantly. However, four key technologies and practices were identified as being common to all seven farmers: the use of legume rotations, reduced tillage, new styles of planters and increasing farm size. With regard to food security, the research suggested that current changes in these farmers’ agricultural practices could assist in keeping food prices and food production levels more stable in future, compared to production using high-external-input practices previously employed by the farmers. The potential improvement in production stability was shown to result mainly from improvements in soil health, as these improvements give crops increased resilience to unfavourable weather conditions, greater disease-resistance and improved vitality. The potential improvement in price stability stemmed predominantly from increased input-use efficiency and the utilisation of natural fertility and pest-management practices which were less susceptible to monopolistic input sales structures, international shortages and the increasing cost of fossil fuels. Due to the small size of the case study sample and the fact that this research focussed specifically on farmers who were considered progressive, the findings presented in this thesis cannot be viewed as representative of the larger agricultural region. The intention was rather to establish the positive changes currently underway, in order to provide useful pointers for similarly beneficial changes to be implemented elsewhere.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie tesis was om vas te stel of voorbeelde bestaan van kommersiële graanboere in die Swartlandgebied van Suid Afrika wat wegbeweeg van hoë-eksterne-inset produksie sisteme na sisteme wat gebasseer is op vennootskappe met grond en ander natuurlike sisteme. Die doel van dié vennootskappe isom ekologiese herstellingte bewerkstellig. Die navorsing het ook gepoog om te verstaan hoekom hierdie boere hulle boerderytegniekeverander; spesifieke tegnologieë en praktyke wat gebruik word om verandering mee te bringis ondersoek. Daarenbowe oorweeg hierdie tesis ook die teoretiese implikasies van die veranderings op voedselsekuriteit in die Wes-Kaap. Drie navorsings benaderings is te werk gestel: kwalitatiewe gevallestudies van sewe vooruitstrewende boere in die area; ‘n literatuurstudie; en ‘n analise van sekondêre data. Swilling en Annecke se konsepsualisering van die veelvoudig-gefasetteerde globale polikrisis is deurlopend gebruik as ‘n konsepsuele verwysingspunt. Dit is gedoen om‘n boerdery analise daar te stel wat verby die plaashek kyk na wyer maatskaplike en ekologiese kwessies wat ‘n wederkerige verhouding met boerdery het. Die navorsing het sewe boere geidentifiseer wat na laer-eksterne-inset produksie metodes beweeg. Hierdie metodes fokus daarop om voordelige verhoudings met natuurlike sisteme te versterk. Onderhoude en waarnemings op die plase het vasgestel dat die graad van praktykverandering merkwaardig tussen die sewe boere verskil. Nietemin, vier gemeenskaplike sleuteltegnologieëenpraktyke is geidentifiseer: die rotasie van peulgewasse, verminderde grondbewerking, nuwe plantermodelle en die vergroting van plaasgroottes. Met betrekking tot voedselsekuriteit vind die navorsing dat huidige veranderings in die wyse waarop geboer word, in vergelyking met die voorafgaande hoe-eksterne-inset produksie praktyke, kospryse en produksievlakke kan stabiliseer. Die navorsing wys daarop dat ‘npotensiële verbetering in produksie stabiliteit ‘n uitkoms van gesonder grond is. Gesonder grond verhoog gewasse se vermoëom effektief op ongunstige weerkondisies te reageer, bevorder hulle pes-afweringvermoë en verbeter die lewenskragtigheid van gewasse. Die potensiele verbetering in die stabiliteit van pryse is ‘n nagevolg van meer effektiewe gebruik van insette en die gebruik van natuurlike vrugbaarheid en pesbestuurpraktyke wat minder vatbaar is vir monopolistiese inset-verkoopstrukture, internasionale tekorte en die prysverhoging van fossielbrandstowwe. Na aanleiding van die klein skaal van die gevallestudies en die feit dat die navorsing spesifiek gefokus het op vooruitstrewende boere, verteenwoordig die bevindings in hierdie tesis nie die omliggende landbou area nie. Die veronderstelling was eerder om die positiewe veranderings wat tans onderweg is vas te stel om sodoende bruikbare advies aan soortgelyke voordelige veranderings wat elders geimplementeer kan word te verskaf.

How should the impact of HIV and AIDS on rural livelihoods be factored into efforts to monitor and stabilise household food security? With both HIV and AIDS and food security at the top of the global development agenda, this is a question posed by many scholars, practitioners, donor agencies and government departments. However, while there is an excess of discourse outlining the theoretical bases for how HIV and AIDS can, and is, radically transforming household food acquisition; there is a lack of empirical evidence from the South African context that demonstrates if, and how, HIV and AIDS changes household-level strategies of food acquisition and intake. This thesis explores the association of household-level mortality, chronic illness and additional child-dependent fostering with household experience of food security and food acquisition strategies, in three rural villages in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces of South Africa. Qualitative and quantitative methods of data-collection were applied to 307 households in the three sites. For twelve months, both HIV and AIDS-afflicted and non-afflicted households were repeatedly visited at 3-month intervals, in order to be assessed for levels of food security, dietary intake and method of food procurement (purchased, cultivated, wild or donated). Overall, HIV and AIDS-afflicted households showed a significantly higher experience of food insecurity, probably attributable to shortages in food quantity. Dietary composition and overall diversity, however, was not significantly different. Although households with chronic illness and recent mortality showed a heightened investment in cultivation sources, the success of these strategies were to a great extent mediated by household income, and the level of medical treatment received by those who were chronically ill. Chronic illness was also associated with more donations, but these required considerable investments in social capital networks. Finally, use of wild leafy vegetables was not associated with household HIV and AIDS status, despite the financial, nutritional and labour-saving properties of these foods. Overall, the study suggests that there was little evidence of long-term planning and strategy in household food security responses. There was no evidence for shifts to labour-saving crops or foods and, in some instances, child labour was being used to ameliorate prime-adult labour deficits. Moreover, given that the vast majority (89.2%) of food groups were sourced through purchase, it is questionable whether investing in diverse food acquisition strategies would be advisable. Unless supported by medical treatment and steady earned household income, policies to promote intensified household agricultural subsistence production in the wake of HIV and AIDS are unlikely to provide households with anything more than short-term safety-nets, rather than long-term, sustainable food security solutions.

Many households in South Africa are exposed to extreme food insecurity that threatens their livelihoods. Authorities in the local sphere of government have employed food security strategies to curb the trail of food insecurity that prevails in many rural households. However, high levels of food insecurity in many households in across the country, especially those living in rural areas like Qamata Village, are noteworthy. Contributing factors to this problem are attributed to local government’s inability to successfully stimulate agricultural production in the face of climate change. The research aimed at assessing the impact of Qamata Irrigation Scheme intervention programmes or strategies in Qamata Village. It was discovered that livelihoods of many households in Qamata Village rely heavily on agricultural production to access food. Limited government support, poor planning and failure to invest on climate change adaptation strategies were identified as serious impediments in the implementation of food security strategies. Due to the enormity of the problem and extensive nature of local government, this study focussed on the Qamata Irrigation Scheme, in the Qamata Village within Chris Hani District Municipality. For the purposes of this study, qualitative research methods were used to gather an in-depth understanding and verification of the problem. Research tools used were mainly semi structured interviews and focus group discussions. Interviews were conducted with farmers in the Qamata Irrigation Scheme and focus group discussion were held with dry land farming households in the Qamata Village and representatives from the CHDM. Findings of the study revealed that the decline in agricultural production due to climate changes has not only fuelled food insecurity for dry land farming households but put these households in an economically disadvantaged position. This was a major concern for this research especially with agricultural production being identified as a livelihood strategy for many households in the Qamata Village.

The public health landscape in South Africa today is characterised by a double-burden of nutritional challenges. Under-nutrition is prevalent, as is evident from the high levels of childhood stunting that are reported. Deficiencies of micro-nutrients such as vitamin A and iron continue to be prevalent in children, females and vulnerable groups. Simultaneously overweight and obesity among adults and children together with an associated increase in the occurrence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease are increasing steadily to epidemic levels. With approximately 40% of the population living under the International Poverty Line and approximately a quarter of the population not able to obtain enough food to fulfil their daily energy needs, poverty and food insecurity are harsh realities in many South African households. The ability of a household to make healthy food choices is, among other factors, affected by food affordability. Food affordability is determined by household income relative to the cost of purchased food items. In recent years, food affordability in South Africa has been under increased pressure due to the following factors: household income-growth barely keeping track with inflation, rising unemployment, as well as high and ever increasing food prices. The pressure on lower income households is particularly profound, forcing such households to use about a third of total expenditure for food purchases. In this study, a multi-disciplinary approach was used (including principles of nutrition, economics and consumer behaviour sciences) to develop models to measure the cost and affordability of healthy eating in South Africa at a national level and on a socio-economically disaggregated basis. The healthy food basket model was primarily based on the South African Food-based Dietary Guidelines, typical food consumption patterns, household demographics and official urban retail food prices monitored by Statistics South Africa. Food affordability is a major challenge, with 60% of the population unable to afford the Moderate-cost Food Basket which provides greater nutritional diversity. The more economical Thrifty Healthy Food Basket (approximately 30% less expensive) is only affordable to approximately half of the South African population. A four member household earning two minimum wages has to spend a third of total expenditure on food to be able to afford this basket, while the typical food expenditure share of such households is usually lower (approximately 24%), thus confirming the pressure on households to afford healthy eating. In future the models of healthy eating also present possibilities for further expansion (e.g. these models can be refined to study different geographical areas or different household structure typologies). Compared to national nutritional recommendations, the study found that the intakes of whole-grain starch-rich foods, lean meat, fish, eggs, dairy, fruit, vegetables and legumes were low. Inadequate intake was generally more severe among lower income households. Less-affluent households spend a large proportion of their food budget on starch-rich staples, fats / oils and sugar-rich foods, but allocate insufficient resources to animal-source foods, legumes, fruit and vegetables. This study also identified that excessive intakes of refined and processed starch-rich food options, sugar-rich foods and fats / oils were common across all income groups and increased with socio-economic status. These findings confirm the reality of the nutrition transition in South Africa. The contribution of this research to estimate the socio-economically disaggregated consumption of animal-source foods (meat, fish and eggs) and starch-rich foods (maize meal, bread, rice and potatoes), provides valuable insights into differences in food intake across the socio-economic spectrum of South Africa. A complex combination of interventions is required to promote healthy eating patterns in South Africa. In addition to legislative measures (e.g. salt and sugar reduction legislation), consumer education (across the socio-economic spectrum) should focus on science-based practical solutions and provide advice on making healthy and budget-conscious food choices. In addition, it is also important to design and implement policy actions to improve the affordability and availability of healthy food options for the various socio-economic groups, in diverse geographic locations in South Africa. The improvement of food affordability is a key component in moving closer to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal of the United Nations “to end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture”. Furthermore, improving household food and nutrition security (including addressing issues pertaining to healthy food consumption and affordability), through public and private sector actions, is one of the enabling milestones in the National Development Plan 2030. The monthly costing of the food basket models which were developed in this study and analyses thereof should be used as policy analysis tools to act as a practical, scientific basis for the food security debate in South Africa. These tools are, in fact, already published on a quarterly basis in the public domain. In future the models of healthy eating also present possibilities for further expansion (e.g. these models can be refined to study different geographical areas or different household structure typologies).
Thesis (PhD) - University of Pretoria. 2020.
Financial support received from: * The Bureau for Food and Agricultural Policy (BFAP) * The Department of Science and Technology (DST)/National Research Foundation (NRF) Centre of Excellence (CoE) in Food Security * Agbiz * Red Meat Research and Development South Africa (RMRD SA) * DST/NRF South African Research Chairs Initiative (SARChl) in the National Development Plan Priority Area of Nutrition and Food Security (Unique number: SARCI170808259212) * University of Pretoria
Animal and Wildlife Sciences
PhD Nutrition
Unrestricted

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study focuses on the gendered social relations that are attached to food, through an exploration of women’s management of food and food security in poor households in Paternoster, a small fishing community on the west coast of the Western Cape Province of South Africa. My study explores how women navigate the everyday provision, management and distribution of food within a context of limited resources, with food understood both in terms of sustenance and as implicated in processes whereby gender norms and larger concerns with ‘respectability’ (ordentlikheid) are established and maintained under difficult economic conditions. One of the important strategies employed to ensure food security within households in Paternoster is the establishment and maintenance by and among women of foodways in and between households. An exploration of foodways between households sheds light on the various social networks that exist in Paternoster and the important role of women within these networks. Paternoster is a space where the navigation of these issues is informed by the long history of subsistence fishing in the area and the symbolism attached to fish and fishing in the ways in which the local fishing community engages with the challenges of food security. Of particular interest is how women manage individual and/or household food security in Paternoster in the light of existing gender dynamics involved in the production, collection and consumption of food. The sharp division of labour historically has meant that women have traditionally been involved in the pre- and post-harvest sector, rather than in the actual catching of fish. This study is also driven by concerns around the impacts of the changing fishing environment on food security and social relations in this small village. One of the major consequences of these changes is the feeling of impending food insecurity experienced by many households. The increase in mechanization in marine resource use activities, drastic changes in fishing policies and the process of fisheries rights allocations as well as diminishing fish stocks are systematically impacting on the social systems and lived experiences of the people who were, and still are, heavily dependent on the fishing industry in Paternoster for their livelihoods.. Paternoster has seen the development of new sources of employment as a result of the growth of tourism, which has presented women in particular with new work opportunities, including working in guest houses and restaurants. However, this is on the low wage end. In this context the management of food security within the household and between households through maintaining foodways and established food networks is predominantly the responsibility of women.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie fokus op sosiale verhoudings van gender wat verband hou met voedsel, deur‘n verkenning van vroue se bestuur van voedsel en voedselsekerheid in arm huishoudings in Paternoster, ‘n klein vissersgemeenskap aan die weskus van die Wes-Kaap Provinsie van Suid-Afrika. My studie verken hoe vroue die daaglikse voorsiening, bestuur en verspreiding van voedsel navigeer in ‘n konteks van beperkte hulpbronne, met ‘n begrip van voedsel as lewensmiddele sowel as geïmpliseer in prosesse waarin gender-norme en ‘n gerigtheid op 'ordentlikheid' onder moeilike ekonomiese omstandighede gevestig en onderhou word. Een van die belangrike strategieë wat deur en tussen vroue in huishoudings in Paternoster onderneem word om voedselsekerheid te verseker is die vestiging en onderhouding van voedselnetwerke (foodways) in en tussen huishoudings. ‘n Verkenning van voedselnetwerke tussen huishoudings werp lig op die verskeidenheid sosiale netwerke wat in Paternoster bestaan en die belangrike rol van vroue in hierdie netwerke. Paternoster is ‘n plek waar die navigasie van hierdie kwessies ingelig word deur die lang geskiedenis van bestaansvissery in die gebied sowel as die simboliek wat aan vis en visvang geheg word in die wyses waarop die plaaslike gemeenskap met die uitdagings van voedselsekerheid handel. Wat van besondere belang is, is hoe vroue individuele en huishoudelike voedselsekerheid in Paternoster bestuur in die lig van die bestaande gender-dinamika met betrekking tot die produksie, versameling en gebruik van voedsel. Die skerp historiese geslagsverdeling van arbeid het beteken dat vroue tradisioneel betrokke was in die voor- en na-oes proses, eerder as in die werklike vang van vis. Hierdie studie word ook gemotiveer deur kommer oor die impak wat die veranderende vissery-omgewing op voedselsekerheid en sosiale verhoudings in hierdie dorpie het. Een van die belangrikste gevolge van hierdie veranderinge is die gevoel van dreigende voedselonsekerheid wat deur talle huishoudings ondervind word. Die toename in meganisering in die aktiwiteite rondom die gebruik van mariene hulpbronne, die drastiese veranderinge in visserybeleid en die toekenningsproses van visregte asook die afname in visbronne impakteer sistemies op die sosiale sisteme en ervaring van die mense wat sterk afhanklik was van die visindustrie in Paternoster vir hul leeftog afhanklik was en nog steeds is. Paternoster het die ontwikkeling van nuwe bronne van werk ervaar as gevolg van die groei van toerisme. Dit het aan vroue veral nuwe werksgeleenthede gebied, insluitend werk in gastehuise en restourante. Hierdie werk was egter op die lae loonvlak. In hierdie konteks is die bestuur van voedselsekerheid binne die huishouding en tussen huishoudings, deur die handhawing van foodways en gevestigde voedselnetwerke hoofsaaklik die verantwoordelikheid van vroue.

South Africa, the right to access to adequate food is entrenched in the Bill of Rights of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. The Government of South Africa has committed itself to promote and protect the right to access to adequate food, and to directly afford this right to people who are unable to enjoy it for reasons they cannot control. Access to adequate food is one of the pillars of food security, interrelated with food availability, food utilisation and stability of food supply. The approval of the National Policy on Food and Nutrition Security and the Household Food and Nutrition Security Strategy in 2013 by Cabinet indicates a commitment by government to promote the eradication of hunger and the achievement of food security. There is, however, fragmentation in the current and proposed institutional arrangements applicable to food security in the above-mentioned policy and the strategy. This thesis advocates for a coordinated approach in the implementation of the National Policy on Food and Nutrition Security, as the guiding framework for maximising synergy between government departments and civil society. The study investigates the extent to which the current policy context for food security in South Africa promotes multisectoral coordination, through an assessment of the relationship between the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, the Department of Basic Education, the Department of Trade and Industry and the Department of Social Development as lead departments for food security in the Integrated Food Security Strategy, 2002. The study follows a qualitative research approach, through the use of interviews, documents and archival records, in order to identify the challenges to multisectoral coordination in policy and programme implementation. The key findings of the study are that there is recognition by government of the multisectoral nature of food security, which necessitates collaboration between multiple role-players in all three spheres of government. The challenge, however, lies in the formulation of the National Policy on Food and Nutrition Security, as well as the implementation thereof. The lack of clearly defined indicators for monitoring and evaluation of the multiple pillars of food security present a challenge in policy formulation, implementation and evaluation. The assignment of a convening role for multisectoral platforms to a sector department is identified as a limitation to effective multisectoral coordination. The study identifies international benchmarks using Brazil and Ethiopia as case studies from which South Africa can learn, with regard to the implementation of the National Policy on Food and Nutrition Security. The research proposes a multisectoral public policy framework for food security in South Africa, in order to promote the coordination and collaboration of the various government departments that are responsible for implementing programmes applicable to food security. The framework highlights the importance of the participation of civil society, the private sector and non-governmental organisations in the implementation of a policy that aims to address the four pillars of food security.
Thesis (DAdmin)--University of Pretoria, 2016.
School of Public Management and Administration (SPMA)
DAdmin
Unrestricted

The purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of rural development projects on food insecurity and malnutrition at Siyazama food garden project in Sakhisizwe Municipality. The study followed a qualitative approach which included in-depth interviews of twenty-six (26) Siyazama food garden project members and four (4) municipal officials. The process of collecting data also made use of observations. Data was analyzed qualitatively, using thematic analysis of the content of the data, which employed an interpretative approach, resulting in a presentation of data, which is textual rather than statistical. The study found that the level of food insecurity and malnutrition in the studied area is still regarded as being high as most of the participants reported that they still have a problem in accessing all the vital nutritional elements which constitute a balanced diet. Also, the study also found that although most of the rural development projects like the Siyazama food gardening project have a profound effect in tackling food insecurity and malnutrition on household level, in South Africa there is a debate about the sustainability or such projects in solving this issue. The study found a number of challenges facing the Siyazama Food gardening project which include: theft, poor management, lack of support, lack of agricultural expertise and conflict amongst members. The study concluded by making some recommendations with to view of resolving the above mentioned challenges.

Food insecurity affects as significant proportion of the world's population and hence it typically receives priority attention in global policies associated with poverty, equity and sustainable development. For example, it is the first of the Millennium Development Goals and the second of their successor, the Sustainable Development Goals. Access to sufficient and nutritious food is deemed a basic human right. The latest FAO analysis of the “State of Food Insecurity in the World 2014” reports that 805 million people (approximately 11-12% of the world's population) are chronically undernourished (i.e. do not have sufficient energy intake over a period of at least one year). In sub-Saharan Africa the prevalence remains stubbornly high at 24%, the highest in the world. Whilst most interpret food insecurity to mean an insufficient quantity of food (as measured by the number of calories consumed), the widely accepted FAO definition considers four dimensions of food security, namely quantity, quality or diversity, access and use. Provision of enough calories on a daily basis is not sufficient if the diet lacks diversity and appropriate balance to provide the full range of minerals and vitamins necessary for proper health, or if the food available is culturally unacceptable. Thus, there is a pressing need for more nuanced analyses of food security against all four of the dimensions embedded in the concept. Additionally, it is important that these be measured at more local or regional levels because national statistics can mask alarming regional discrepancies in food security, or amongst particular sectors of society, such as recent migrants, refugees, female- or child-headed households, those vulnerable to HIV/AIDS or the landless, to mention just a few. For example, at a national level South Africa is considered a food secure nation with respect to staple requirements, and access to sufficient food is enshrined in the Constitution (Section 27, subsection 1b), but nationally one in twenty (i.e. approx. 2.5 million people) go to bed hungry most nights, and 23% of children below the age of 15 are physically stunted, severely stunted or wasted, due to the long-term ill effects of insufficient food or of inadequate diversity and quality. At a subnational level, there are marked differences between rural and urban populations and even between geographic areas (for example, the prevalence of stunting amongst boys less than 15 years old is 23% in the Eastern Cape, compared to 12% in Gauteng). Once again, despite being a food secure nation, nationally 40% of the population have a dietary diversity score of four or less, which is a cut-off point signifying poor dietary diversity which makes people more vulnerable to malnutrition and ill health, and in Limpopo and Northwest provinces it is as high as 66% and 61%, respectively.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2011.
Africa is the continent where home sapiens was born and with its worn out soils, fitful rain and rising population could very well provide a glimpse of our species’ future. The trends that are behind the current deterioration in food security go far beyond agriculture itself. South Africa is food secure at a national level and has been meeting its food needs from domestic sources in the past twenty years. However, in spite of its food secure status, 35% or 14.3 million South Africans are vulnerable to food insecurity. Food security challenges appear to be considerable against a backdrop of a South Africa being a net importer of wheat together with local cereal production that can fluctuate by up to 36% between years. It is unknown to what extend the true impact of climate change might affect this and other agricultural activity; a declining indigenous population as the HIV/AIDS pandemic takes effect; a population poorly endowed with an entitlement to gain access to sufficient food and nutrition; a dependency on oil for energy resulting in an outflow of foreign exchange, expensive agriculture and agricultural crops changed into fuel crops and markets that allocates the limited resources, but not feeding the needy poor. Considering the above, the determinants of food security for South Africa were grouped under the following headings: - Entitlement - Demography - Agriculture - Energy - Climate change - Markets. Nobody who has money to pay for food is starving therefore, given the pervasiveness of malnutrition, the money made by merchants in the food trade does seem an affront to common notions of economic justice. The economic and political point is missed when merchants are blamed for conditions that promoted huge food imports and malnutrition. Merchants are not interested in famine but in commercial markets. These merchants thrive upon a system that excludes the hungry. Recent protectionist behaviour by food export countries and the structural shift in the demand of food require South Africa to evaluate its food security determinants. South Africa requires accurate policies to guide its food security efforts towards 2030.

Thesis (MDev.) -- University of Limpopo, 2014
Smallholder subsistence agriculture is regarded as an approach that can be adopted by poor rural households to meet their food and nutritional requirements. The practice of smallholder subsistence agriculture is a basis upon which poor households can enhance their household food security through increased incomes and food supply, ultimately generating extra income for other household needs. The present study discusses and analyses the importance of smallholder subsistence agriculture as an effective method easily available to households residing in rural areas to access food and incomes for household purposes. Hence, the study seeks to explore and analyses the role of smallholder subsistence agriculture in contributing to household food security in rural areas. Both primary and secondary data have been used to analyze the factors for the purpose of the study. The primary data were collected through a designed survey questionnaire administered to sampled smallholder subsistence farmers in the study area. This study used purposive sampling technique, through a transect walk, to draw households involved in smallholder subsistence agriculture in Maroteng Village. From the total population in the study area, only 100 households were selected for the purposes of the study. Both descriptive and qualitative techniques were used to analyze salient variables of the practice in order to give an insight of the important role the sector can play in addressing poverty, enhancing incomes and creating employment, consequently contributing to household food security in rural areas. The study shows that the participation on smallholder subsistence farming by households in rural areas could have positive impact on food security situations.

People living in rural areas are continually losing their value, dignity, ubuntu and rural nature of livelihood. Agriculture in these areas characterises the nature of rural livelihood. Traditionally, people living in rural areas were highly dependent on their production from gardens for food, income (barter exchange), and other social activities. Nowadays, that motive and interest is no longer operating at its full potential, so to revive that history and nature, household (homestead) production, certain programmes were introduced to greatly improved the standard of living of the poor, and it has proved to have an impact as it has generated income, and created food stability and employment through the project. Home gardens are there and can be used as the method and the strategy toward improvement and development of the people around the world, more especial to developing countries. Certain programmes that are initiated for acting against the challenges faced by rural people have failed to materialise and operate on their fully potential. The Siyazondla homestead food production programme is the one of the programmes practiced by the government of South Africa to act against such challenges, affecting especially poor people. This study was aimed at assessing the role of Siyazondla homestead food production programme in food security and poverty alleviation in selected communities of Nkonkobe local municipality of the Eastern Cape. It took the form of a case study in Msobomvu, Ngcothoyi and Binfield locations. The Nkonkobe local municipality is demarcated into five major areas: Middledrift, Alice, Seymour, Fort Beaufort and Balfour. The study sample was collected from beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of the Siyazondla programme. The sample size was 90 respondents, from which in one area, a 15 beneficiaries and anticipated non- beneficiaries were targeted. The target sample from each village was collected from 15 beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. Many farmers from the study area benefited from the programme, though a limited number was targeted. Therefore, a probability sampling was applied and employed, where there were more than required number of beneficiaries of the programme and anticipated beneficiaries of the programme. The study was effectively and efficiently carried out and achieved with the use of personal interviewing of the recipients by use of questionnaires. The study was analysed by a computerised programme of analyses called SPSS v.2.1 and excel. The objectives of the study based on food security, poverty alleviation and reduction, and also improving nutritious status. The finding of the research clearly indicates the outcome of the programme on livelihood basis of the beneficiaries. Some of the objectives of the programme were achieved, such as food security and nutritious levels, whilst other objectives had shortcomings. The finding of the study also shows that programme, though had original benefits but also there are the anticipated and probable benefits of the programme Siyazondla, such as income, skill of farming, improving social status, and there are some possibilities when the programme is properly implemented. Though the majority of people are concentrated in rural areas, the programme on its own had shortcoming to meet needs of the whole population, as food insecurity, unemployment and poverty are taking its course. The programme on its own had shortcoming such as lack of adequate resource and as results, very few people benefited from the programme. Another shortcoming of the programme is the effectiveness of agricultural extension personnel to certain aspect such as marketing of farmers produce and proper monitoring and evaluation of the programme. Therefore, in the long run programmes of this nature are promising, there will be some development and improvement toward growth and better standards of livelihood. It is through this study that had to assess the structure, procedure, strategies implemented of the programme and impact of the programme to both beneficiaries and anticipated beneficiaries of the programme.

Although food insecurity is said to have decreased in South Africa in the past years particularly at the national level, however, at household level a substantial proportion of households remains at risk of food insecurity and are experiencing hunger particularly in the Eastern Cape Province were poverty is rife. Food insecurity in the Eastern Cape Province is attributed to the fact that agriculture, the mainstay of the rural economy is no longer given the value that it should carry, does not help the situation. Despite much research on food (in) security in South Africa, the link between poverty and household food security is not at all clear. This study seeks to fill this gap specifically by looking at the linkages in the main between food security and poverty especially in the community level. Amidst the various programmes and initiatives that are in place in South Africa, there is continual prevalence of food insecurity facing the majority of South African households. The major aim of this study was therefore to examine the impact of one of these programmes, the Zanyokwe irrigation scheme in enhancing food security not only for the farmers but also for the surrounding communities. This study adopted a qualitative approach to research. The study unearthed that even though Zanyokwe irrigation scheme has played an indispensable role in enhancing food security for the smallholder farmers and the community at large challenges such as market challenges, road infrastructural issues, land tenure issues, lack of proper coordination amongst the farmers as well as farmer empowerment are a major limitation to the growth of the irrigation scheme and the farmers. Thus, the study recommended that farmer support services, training, agriculture subsidies, improved infrastructure as well as addressing market related challenges will go a long way in reducing the plight of the Zanyokwe farmers as well as enhancing food security

Thesis (MTech (Business Administration in Project Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the failure of critical Food Security Community Gardens as poverty alleviation projects in Cape Town. Community garden projects have been used as poverty alleviation many years ago and as it are today. Community garden projects provide food like, fresh vegetables, fruits, grain, and other natural products such as wood, flowers and herbs for poor communities. The unemployment rate in South Africa is an ongoing issue; however this has made the South African government to an emphasis on community garden projects. Although there has been a commitment by South African government to promote use of community garden projects to address food insecurity, however food security still remain a major developing problem in this country. The objectives of this study were to identify aspects that may contribute to failure of critical Food Security Community Gardens as poverty alleviation projects. To identify critical success factors related to community garden projects. To address the issue of food insecurity cape flats residents in Cape Town. To find a solution to failure of critical Food Security Community Gardens as poverty alleviation. A questionnaire was developed and used as a tool to acquire inputs to satisfy the research questions. This study was based on material that was collected from school, churches, clinics, and community residents. The findings were: identification of the project risk, horticultural skills, project leadership, and land tenure and water accessibility is critical for project success. Households sometimes spend a day without eating any vegetable. The households are not always got their vegetable from community garden projects. There is a lack of project leadership skills and effective communication. Community members are educated on garden skills, Opportunity are given to children to apply gardening skills, Community parks and gardens are used to share knowledge. The analysed data has led to recommendations that it is most important to identify critical success factors that are specifically to community garden projects in order to succeed. The results from the study could enable community members, professionals and assist government officials who are involved in addressing food insecurity in order to alleviate poverty.

South Africa is food secure at the national level; however widespread food insecurity persists at the household level. To understand the dynamics of micro-level food insecurity this dissertation investigates how two different aspects of 'food access' - diet quality and diet quantity - affect two outcomes of 'food utilisation' - hunger and nutrition. Diet quantity is captured by food expenditure in Wave 1 of the National Income Dynamics Study (NIDS). To capture diet quality I use dietary diversity, which is not directly available in NIDS. I build and test a food group dietary diversity score and a food variety dietary diversity score using NIDS Wave 1. Both dietary diversity indicators are found to usefully summarise information about food security in South Africa by using methods found in the dietary diversity literature. The dissertation then turns to testing whether the theoretical differences between diet quality and quantity play out empirically in the case of nutrition (adult BMI) and hunger (self-reported household hunger). The results reveal that food variety and food quantity are complementary in explaining the chance of household hunger, with food quantity having a slightly more important effect. The pathways to BMI differ by gender. Dietary diversity and food expenditure are substitutes in the case of male BMI; however, food variety and food expenditure are complementary to explaining female BMI when food expenditure enters into the model as a quadratic. Overall, food variety proved to be a stronger and more significant correlate of both outcomes than the food group dietary diversity score.

Magister Legum - LLM
The aim of this study is to examine laws and policies relating to food safety in South Africa, specifically with regard to labelling requirements in the food industry. It is hoped that this research will serve as a pointer for policy and legislative reforms in a bid to identify weak areas as well as encourage accountability and strengthen government’s response to the realisation of the right to safe food as a human right imperative.
National Research Foundation (NRF)

Food insecurity in South Africa is framed by historically and spatially entrenched socioeconomic inequality, and driven by shocks and stresses from a globally integrated food system. Although the government has introduced an array of social protection measures on a scale unique among developing countries, and unparalleled in Sub-Saharan Africa, food insecurity and malnutrition are widespread and persistent, manifesting as concurrent underweight and obesity. Over the years, efforts to better characterise and understand South Africa’s food security situation have generated data and information that quantify problems and reveal broad patterns of deprivation. However, these studies offer few insights into local food environments or the interactions of people with the food system. Policy processes have been neither inclusive nor consultative, stalling progress towards the fulfilment of the constitutional right to food. The purpose of this research is to explore current policies and policymaking processes with reference to South Africa’s poorest rural communities using a food democracy-informed approach. The study is informed by a review of multidisciplinary literature on food security and nutrition policy, social history and current global food politics. Field research and community consultations investigated three specific objectives. The first specific objective set out to explore the potential for structural transformation in policy and the role of food insecure citizens in food security policy processes, using a narrative analysis of the 2014 Household Food and Nutrition Security Strategy for South Africa. The second specific objective explored the food consumption patterns of rural households in four of the poorest communities in South Africa. The study drew on a formal survey as part of a larger commissioned team project and extended the insight from this quantitative data through fieldwork to gather qualitative data. The second objective involved further analysis of the data using a framework of food citizenship to understand the agency of rural poor people in shaping local food systems. For the third objective, the project data were then subject to participatory validation and interpretation with the communities to explore the potential of knowledge co-creation with food security policy stakeholders. Together, the findings of these three components of the study demonstrated why research and policymaking should be more inclusive and representative of the most food insecure. The policy review revealed that, although the state recognises the need for structural changes, the parameters are constrained and processes are unclear, while citizens are viewed not as stakeholders but instead as welfare beneficiaries, charity recipients, and passive consumers. Analysis in the second objective showed that, in spite of many obstacles and challenges, poor rural people are active agents in shaping local food systems. For the third objective, the fieldwork and participatory data validation and interpretation showed the potential of co-creation of knowledge with communities to enrich understandings of food insecurity, while potentially also contributing to solutions to rural food security and nutrition problems. The study concluded that prevailing policy approaches miss opportunities to create transformation through more inclusive processes, which would help the country progress towards the fulfilment of the right to food. Relying solely on quantitative data limits the transformative potential of engagement. Even multidisciplinary food security and nutrition data can be further enriched through knowledge co-creation with communities. As multifaceted stakeholders with multiple roles as food producers, consumers, workers and entrepreneurs and social protection beneficiaries, community members have the capacity to actively negotiate local food environments and shifting social and economic situations. Rural people are both entitled to, and necessary to inclusive policy making, research and problem-solving. Food democracy has an important role in food security policy and research and should be informing approaches to both.
Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2018.
Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development
PhD
Unrestricted

Irrigation Schemes were introduce to be hub for food production and provision of job opportunities for rural communities. The idea also focused on provision of water in most dry areas but with potential soil for production. The introduction of government food security program came as means to achieve these objectives by subsidizing farmers with inputs and mechanical operations so as to reduce cost of production. This paper analyses the social and economic impact of massive food program in changing the lives of communities at Qamata Irrigation scheme. The data were collected from households who were beneficiaries of massive food program at Qamata Irrigation scheme and analysed using a descriptive statistics. The results show that socio-economic factors which include storage facilities, access to markets channels, land acquisition and size, change in income limit the ability of farmers to produce and sell productively, since they cannot store their produce for better market prices and are also limited in terms of available market. They are forced to sell at local village level on credit or have their produce loss in poor storage facilities. Qamata irrigation scheme had limited access to formal markets and market information.

Climate change continues to present a major challenge to food security around the world. The potential impact of climate change of rural livelihoods is especially significant as rural communities often rely heavily on natural resources to sustain their livelihoods and, hence, food security. This is applicable to the rural town of Hamburg, on the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa. The Sustainable Rural Livelihoods framework analyses livelihoods in terms of the context, available capitals and institutional framework that determines the livelihood strategies and outcomes for rural households. In terms of livelihood outcomes for Hamburg, it was found that the households have a heavy reliance on state grants in their livelihood portfolios. Natural resources, in the form of agriculture and harvesting of marine organisms, played only a supplementary role in livelihood strategies. Thus, given that climate change would impact negatively on the estuarine resources and the impact on agriculture is unknown as the climate becomes wetter and hotter, the impact on livelihoods and food security would not be significant. However, the sustainability of current livelihood strategies is questionable as grants, by their very nature, or unsustainable and therefore can result in vulnerability and food insecurity in the long-run for households. It is recommended that grants should be issued within the community, instead of in the distant town of Peddie, to help develop the local economy and reduce leakages. This would allow for diversification of livelihood strategies in Hamburg. In addition, government support through extension officers should be extended to Hamburg to assist in developing the local agriculture sector

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa is rich in biodiversity among which are semi-domesticated vegetable species which are known as wild or indigenous vegetables. These wild indigenous vegetables have been reported to be good in nutritional qualities such as macro and micronutrients. However, there is still a high prevalence of malnutrition; especially micronutrient deficiencies among low or marginal income bracket of the population. The use of indigenous vegetables has been proposed as part of the solutions to the problems of micronutrient malnutrition among these populations. Indigenous vegetables are an important source of food in the maize based subsistence farming sector of rural South Africa. Their main role is as relish as they are used as an accompaniment for staple cereal based diets. They are also generally reported to be rich in micronutrients. Although they may be consumed in small quantities, they influence the intake of cereal staples, manage hunger and play a central role in household food security for the poorer rural groups. Mixing several indigenous vegetables species in one meal contributes to dietary diversity in terms of more vegetable types as well as in terms of choice of relish. For some very poor families indigenous vegetables are substitutes for some food crops. The seasonal occurrence of these vegetables leaves many families without a food source during the off-season. Indigenous vegetables increase agro-biodiversity at the household level. This agro-biodiversity helps in buffering against the accumulation and multiplication of pests and diseases and provides important cover for the soil. Further research on agronomic, social and economic dimensions is required to understand the roles of IV in subsistence farming systems in South Africa. The survey study revealed that indigenous vegetables were important in the diets of most rural people in the study area. They were consumed as relish although they were not being cultivated. Their method of acquisition was gathering from homesteads and the wild. These vegetables were also believed to be medicinal. The local naming of wild vegetables varied among villages in the same district such that a vegetable in one village was assigned to a different species of vegetable in another village. They were reportedly abundant during summer and there was a decrease in availability off-season leaving vulnerable people who rely on them with a food shortage. The utilisation of wild vegetables among South Africans is reported to be declining due to over reliance on introduced temperate species. Efforts to domesticate and cultivate wild vegetables could be hampered by several factors including seed dormancy and premature flowering. In this present study dormancy was observed in C. olitorius. The response of wild genotypes of C. olitorius with different seed sizes to various dry heat and hot water treatments was evaluated. Steeping seeds in boiling water (95oC) for ten seconds and soaking seeds in a hot water bath at 80oC for ten minutes resulted in the highest response to germination in this species. The study also recorded significant interactions between heat treatment and seed sizes. We concluded that C. olitorius seeds of different sizes require diverse durations of exposure to heat treatment methods to break dormancy caused by an impermeable seed coat. Cleome gynandra is another species that is consumed as a vegetable in various parts of the world including Africa. The plant is also used as a medicinal herb for the treatment of various human diseases. Among the wild vegetables, C. gynandra has been reported to flower prematurely, a phenomenon known as bolting and common in many vegetable crops. Premature flowering (bolting) can be as a response to temperature extremes and photoperiod and affects many other leafy vegetables such as lettuce (Lactuca sativa), spinach (Spinacea oleracea) and mustard rape (Brassica juncea). Bolting leads to production losses in leaf vegetable crops as they flower before they have produced an economic yield. The removal of flowers and nitrogen application resulted in significant increases in the fresh and dry weight of cleome leaves. Removal of flowers resulted in a 46% increase in fresh weight of leaves. The observed positive response of leaf yield to removal of flowers offers a possible way to deal with the problem of bolting. The continuous removal of the flowers leads to increased utilisable leaf yield. The application of incremental amounts of nitrogen top dressing results in increased leaf yield in C. gynandra. The response of selected indigenous vegetables (Corchorus olitorius and Amaranthus cruentus) to micronutrients added to the soil was compared with the response of a reference crop; Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris var. cicla). For all the levels of micronutrients applied, Swiss chard accumulated Cu, Zn and Mn in the leaves at significantly (p<0.01) higher concentrations than the wild vegetables. Variations between the vegetables in the micronutrients were greater for Zn (72–363 ppm) and Mn (97.9–285.9 ppm) for Cu (8.8–14 ppm). C. olitorius had the least capacity to concentrate Mn and Zn in the leaf, which suggested that this vegetable is a less attractive candidate for agronomic bio-fortification of these elements. However, C. olitorius accumulated Fe at a significantly higher concentration (327 ppm) in the leaves than did Amaranthus (222 ppm) or Swiss chard (295 ppm). Sulphur as a macronutrient varied little in the plant species tested. The mean S concentration in the leaves ranged from 0.26% in C. olitorius to 0.34% in Amaranthus cruentus and Swiss chard. We concluded that the different vegetables have different abilities to take up Cu and Zn in the order Swiss chard > Amaranthus > Corchorus, and that they responded to micronutrients added to the soil but only up to certain limits of supplementation. The results from this current study seem to contradict the belief that wild vegetables have the inherent ability to concentrate mineral micronutrients in their tissue. Factors such as environment, anti-nutrients, dietary diversity, plant parts, plant age, and varieties result in differences in reported nutritional composition of indigenous vegetables. Post-harvest handling, storage, cooking and preservation also alter the composition. The need to optimise protocols for each vegetable type and for different laboratories makes analysis expensive. Equipment and methods of analysis are varied and may not be comparable, making it difficult to generalise on the composition of these vegetables. The Agricultural Research Council of South Africa and other stake holders are conducting studies on some aspects of these vegetables. There are still many information gaps regarding many aspects of these vegetables which require research attention. These include; the selection and improvement of genotypes, seed biology and germination studies, agronomic (population, fertiliser, crop mixtures) studies and phyto-chemical evaluation of these important species in order to encourage the overall use of these important indigenous resources. Finally, there is need to promote their increased utilisation.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid- Afrika is ryk aan biodiversiteit waaronder half-mak groente spesies, wat as wilde of inheemse groente bekend is, voorkom. Hierdie wilde inheemse groente is aangedui om goed in voedingswaarde te wees met voldoende makro-en mikrovoedingstowwe. Daar is egter nogsteeds 'n hoë voorkoms van wanvoeding, veral tekorte aan mikronutriënte onder die lae of marginale inkomstegroep van die bevolking. Die gebruik van inheemse groente word voorgestel as deel van die oplossing van die probleem van wanvoeding onder hierdie bevolkings. Inheemse groente is 'n belangrike bron van voedsel in die mielie gebaseerde bestaansboerdery sektor van landelike Suid-Afrika. Hul vernaamste rol is as smoor waar dit gebruik word tesame met stapelvoedsel in ʼn graan-gebaseerde dieet. Hierdie groentes was oor die algemeen ook aangedui om ryk te wees in mikrovoedingstowwe. Hoewel hulle verteer kan word in klein hoeveelhede, beïnvloed hulle die inname van graan stapelvoedsel, en speel 'n sentrale rol in huishoudelike voedselsekuriteit vir die armer landelike groepe. Vermenging van verskeie inheemse groente spesies in een maaltyd dra by tot die dieet diversiteit in terme van meer groentesoorte sowel as in terme van die keuse van smaak. Vir 'n paar baie arm gesinne is inheemse groentes die plaasvervanger vir gewone groente gewasse. Die seisoenale voorkoms van hierdie groente laat baie gesinne sonder 'n bron van voedsel gedurende die af-seisoen. Inheemse groente verhoog landbou-biodiversiteit op ʼn huishoudelike vlak . Hierdie landbou-biodiversiteit help buffer teen die opbou en vermeerdering van peste en siektes en bied belangrike dekking vir die grond. Verdere navorsing op akkerbou-, maatskaplike en ekonomiese aspekte is nodig om die rolle van inheemse groentes in bestaansboerdery in Suid-Afrika te verstaan. Die studie opname het getoon dat inheemse groente belangrik was in die dieet van die meeste mense van die platteland in die studie area. Hierdie groentes was gebruik as smoor hoewel hulle nie gekweek word nie. Hul metode van verkryging is deur dit te versamel van huise en die natuur. Die groentes word ook as medisinaal beskou. Die plaaslike benaming van wilde groente het gewissel tussen dorpe in dieselfde distrik, tot so 'n mate dat die benaming van groente tussen dorpe verskil. Hulle was na bewering volop in die somer, en daar was 'n afname in die beskikbaarheid af-seisoen, wat kwesbare mense, wat staatmaak op hul voorkoms, met 'n tekort aan kos laat. Die benutting van wilde groente onder Suid-Afrikaners daal as gevolg van die afhanklikheid in nuwe spsies. Pogings om te mak en wilde groente te kweek, kan belemmer word deur verskeie faktore, insluitend saaddormansie en voortydige blom. In hierdie studie was dormansie waargeneem in C. olitorius. Die reaksie van wilde genotipes van C. olitorius met verskillende saad groottes op verskeie droë hitte en warm water behandelings, was geëvalueer. Sade was geweek in kookwater ( 95oC ) vir tien sekondes en ander in 'n warm water bad by 80oC vir tien minute, en het gelei tot die hoogste reaksie op ontkieming in hierdie spesie. Die studie het ook belangrike interaksies tussen hitte behandeling en saad groottes getoon. Ons het tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat C. olitorius sade van verskillende groottes diverse duur van blootstelling vereis en ook so m.b.t. die ondeurdringbare saadhuid. Cleome gynandra is nog 'n spesie wat as 'n groente in verskeie dele van die wêreld, insluitend Afrika verbruik word. Die plant word ook gebruik as 'n medisinale plant vir die behandeling van verskeie siektes van die mens. Onder die wilde groente, was C. gynandra aangedui om vroeg te blom, 'n verskynsel wat bekend staan as “bolting” en is algemeen in baie groente gewasse. Voortydige blom (vas) kan wees as 'n reaksie op die temperatuur uiterstes en fotoperiode en raak ook baie ander groen groente soos blaarslaai (Lactuca sativa) , spinasie (Spinacea oleracea) en mosterd (Brassica juncea ) . “Bolting” lei ook tot produksie verliese in blaar groentegewasse as hulle blom voordat hulle 'n ekonomiese opbrengs opgelewer het. Die verwydering van blomme en stikstof toediening het gelei tot 'n aansienlike toename in die vars en droë gewig van Cleome blare. Verwydering van blomme het gelei tot 'n toename van 46% in vars gewig van die blare. Die waargenome positiewe reaksie van die blaar opbrengs deur verwydering van blomme bied 'n moontlike manier om die “bolting” probleem te hanteer. Die voortdurende verwydering van die blomme lei tot verhoogde bruikbare blaar opbrengs. Die toepassing van toenemende stikstof topbemesting het verhoogde blaar opbrengs in C. gynandra tot gevolg. Die reaksie van geselekteerde inheemse groente (Corchorus olitorius en Amaranthus spp ) met mikrovoedingstowwe toegevoeg tot die grond, is in vergelyk met die reaksie van 'n verwysings gewas; spinasiebeet (Beta vulgaris var cicla . ). Vir al die vlakke van mikronutriente toegepas, was die spinasiebeet opgehoopte Cu , Zn en Mn in die blare, in beduidend (p <0.01 ) hoër konsentrasies as die wilde groente.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2001.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of the study was to develop the content of a programme to increase the awareness of women in Duncan Village of I) the potential role of food micro-enterprises in the improvement of food security; 2) the consumer demand concerning the operations of food micro-enterprises; and 3) appropriate microenterprise training programmes available in the greater East-London area. This was based on an identified need for the inclusion of a module on food security in a comprehensive programme to prevent growth failure in 0 to 24-month-old children attending local government clinics in Duncan Village by improving the capacity of mothers or primary caregivers to care for their children. Food security is defined as access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life. The potential role of food micro-enterprises in the improvement of food security was established through a literature review. It was established that street foods contribute to individual food security by providing food where people work or congregate at cheap prices, thus increasing availability. It also helps in meeting energy and nutritional needs if safe, nutritious food is provided. The main method by which it increases an individual's access to food is by supplying an income to food micro-enterprise owners if they sell street foods. The consumer demand concerning the operations (including the products) of food micro-enterprises was determined through personal interviews with the customers and non-customers of food micro-enterprises in Duncan Village, using a structured questionnaire. One hundred and twenty-nine customers and 129 non-customers were selected using a combination of cluster and convenience sampling. Food microenterprises operating at the schools and on pavements in Duncan Village and at the taxi rank in East London were included. The results of this particular survey indicate that the consumer behaviour is influenced by the trade area where the customers purchase their food, the age and gender of the customers as well as the friendliness of the vendor. The product choice of consumers was mostly determined by taste, price and how filling the food is. There was general satisfaction with the operating times of, and the products sold by, food micro-enterprises. Street food consumers were least satisfied with the locations where the enterprises were situated. The dusty environment was given as a reason for dissatisfaction. Further, cleanliness of the food, the vendor and the environment were the main problems cited, especially by the non-customers. The appropriateness of micro-enterprise training programmes available in the greater East London area for current and prospective food micro-enterprise owners in Duncan Village was determined by compiling a profile of food micro-enterprises, their owners and their business operations in Duncan Village; identifying the features of the ideal training programme for current and prospective food microenterprise owners in Duncan Village; investigating the supply of micro-enterprise training in the greater East London area; and evaluating the appropriateness of the identified training programmes. The profile of food micro-enterprises in Duncan Village owned by women, included a profile of the owners, the enterprise itself as well as the business operations thereof. The data were gathered by means ofa personal interview (using a structured questionnaire) with the owners of food micro-enterprises. The enterprises included in the study were operated by women producing and trading processed foods from non-permanent structures at schools and on pavements in Duncan Village, as well as at the taxi ranks in East London. Systematic sampling techniques were used to select food micro-enterprises at the schools while all the enterprises at the pavements and at the taxi rank were included. This resulted in the inclusion of 41 food micro-enterprises. The results indicated that the profiles of these owners do not differ significantly from micro-enterprise owners operating in the informal sector elsewhere in South Africa. Furthermore, they indicated a clear need for training in all aspects regarding their business operations. The identification of the features of the ideal micro-enterprise training programme for the training of current and prospective female food micro-enterprise owners operating in Duncan Village was based on the profiles of street food consumers and food micro-enterprise owners, discussions with experts and on the literature. The identified features were used for the development of a framework to evaluate the appropriateness of micro-enterprise training in the greater East London area for current and prospective food micro-enterprise owners in Duncan Village. The supply of micro-enterprise training in the greater East London area for food micro-enterprise owners was investigated using a structured questionnaire, completed during a personal interview with the training managers of the organisations. All governmental and non-governmental organisations in the area offering training programmes with the objective to motivate and enable persons to establish a microenterprise in the informal sector; or with the objective to enable established micro-enterprises to operate more efficiently within the informal sector, were included in the study population. These organisations were identified through snowball sampling and resulted in ten organisations and 17 programmes being included. Subsequently, the appropriateness of micro-enterprise training programmes available in the greater East London area for current and prospective food micro-enterprise owners in Duncan Village was evaluated using the Evaluation Framework. The results indicate that only one programme, combining business management and cooking skills, could be rated as appropriate for current and prospective food microenterprise owners in Duncan Village. Five other programmes could be rated as moderately appropriate for particular groups. These programmes, with the exception of one, included business management skills and no cooking skills. The remaining programmes were rated as either not very appropriate or inappropriate for current and prospective food micro-enterprise owners in Duncan Village. It is concluded that a need for the mentioned awareness-creating programme exists. Furthermore, it is recommended that the programme developed in this research, be used as basis for the household food security module of the comprehensive programme.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van die studie was die ontwikkeling van 'n program om die bewustheid van vroue in Duncan Village ten opsigte van 1) die bydrae wat voedsel mikro-ondernemings tot die verbetering van voedsel sekuriteit kan lewer; 2) verbruikers se behoeftes betreffende die bedrywighede van voedsel mikroondernemings; en 3) toepaslike mikro-onderneming opleidingprogramme in die groter Oos Londen area te verhoog. Die behoefte om 'n module oor voedselsekuriteit in 'n omvattende intervensie program in te sluit, is reeds geïdentifiseer. Hierdie intervensie program het ten doeI om groeivertraging in 0 tot 24 maande oue kinders, wat munisipale klinieke in Duncan Village besoek, te voorkom deur die versorgingkapasiteit van hul moeders of primêre versorgers te verhoog. Voedselsekuriteit word gedefinieer as toegang deur alle mense, ten alle tye, tot genoegsame voedsel vir 'n aktiewe, gesonde lewe. Die potensiële rol wat voedsel mikro-ondernemings in die verbetering van voedselsekuriteit kan speel, is deur middel van 'n literatuuroorsig vasgestel. Daar is vasgestel dat die voedsel wat deur hierdie ondernemings verkoop word tot individuele voedselsekuriteit bydra deurdat dit goedkoop voedsel beskikbaar stel by plekke waar mense werk of andersins bymekaar kom. Indien veilige en voedsame voedsel voorsien word, kan dit help om energie- en voedingbehoeftes te bevredig. Die belangrikste metode waardeur dit 'n individu se toegang tot voedsel verhoog, is deur 'n inkomste aan die eienaars van voedsel mikro-ondernemings te verskaf. Verbruikers se behoeftes betreffende die bedrywighede, insluitend produkte, van voedsel mikroondernemings is met behulp van gestruktureerde vraelyste tydens persoonlike onderhoude met die kopers en nie-kopers van voedsel van hierdie ondernemings, bepaal. Eenhonderd nege-en-twintig kopers en niekopers is onderskeidelik geselekteer deur 'n kombinasie van bondel- en geriefssteekproefneming te gebruik. Die voedsel mikro-ondernemings wat handel gedryf het by skole en op sypaadjies in Duncan Village, asook dié by die taxi staanplek in Oos Londen, is in hierdie steekproef ingesluit. Die resultate van hierdie opname toon aan dat verbruikergedrag bepaal word deur die gebied waar verbruikers hul kos koop, die geslag en ouderdom van die verbruiker, en die vriendelikheid van die verkoper. Verbruikers se produkkeuse word grootliks bepaal deur die smaak, koste en die vullingsvermoë van die voedsel. Verbruikers was oor die algemeen tevrede met die bedryfsure en die produkte van voedsel mikroondernemings. Hulle was egter die minste tevrede met die area waar die ondernemings bedryf word, hoofsaaklik vanweë die stowwerigheid van die omgewing. Nie-kopers in die besonder het die higiëne van die voedsel, die verkoper en die omgewing as hul grootste bronne van kommer bestempel. Die toepaslikheid van beskikbare mikro-onderneming opleidingprogramme in die groter Oos Londen omgewing vir huidige en voornemende eienaars van voedsel mikro-ondernemings in Duncan Village is geëvalueer deur die volgende stappe uit te voer: 'n Profiel van voedsel mikro-ondernemings, met inbegrip van die eienaars en die besigheidsaktiwiteite, is saamgestel. Die eienskappe van die ideale opleidingprogram vir huidige en voornemende eienaars van voedsel mikro-ondernemings in Duncan Village is geïdentifiseer, die beskikbaarheid van mikro-onderneming opleiding in die groter Oos Londen omgewing is ondersoek en die toepaslikheid van die geïdentifiseerde programme is geëvalueer. Die profiel van voedsel mikro-ondernemings in Duncan Village, het 'n profiel van die eienaars, die onderneming self en die besigheidbedrywighede ingesluit. Die data is ingesamel deur gestruktureerde vraelyste gedurende 'n persoonlike onderhoud met die eienaars van voedsel mikro-ondernemings te voltooi. Die ondernemings wat in die studie ingesluit is, is bestuur deur vroue wat voedsel vervaardig en verkoop vanaf nie-permanente strukture by die skole en op die sypaadjies in Duncan Village, asook die taxi staanplek in Oos Londen. Sistematiese steekproefnemingmetodes is gebruik om die voedsel mikroondernemings by die skole te selekteer. Al die ondernemings wat vanaf die sypaadjies in Duncan Village en die taxi staanplek in Oos Londen bedryf is, is ingesluit. Een-en-veertig voedsel mikroondernemings is in die studie populasie ingesluit. Die resultate het aangedui dat die profiel van die eienaars nie wesentlik verskil het van dié van algemene mikro-onderneming eienaars in die informele sektor elders in Suid Afrika nie. Bykans alle eienaars het aangedui dat daar by hulle 'n behoefte bestaan vir opleiding in alle aspekte rondom die bestuur van hulle besighede. Die eienskappe van die ideale mikro-onderneming opleidingprogram vir huidige en potensiële eienaars (vroulik) van voedsel mikro-ondernemings in Duncan Village, is gebaseer op die profiele van die verbruikers en eienaars van voedsel mikro-ondernemings, besprekings met kundiges op die gebied en relevante literatuur. Die geïdentifiseerde eienskappe is gebruik vir die ontwikkeling van 'n raamwerk om die toepaslikheid van mikro-onderneming opleidingprogramme in die groter Oos Londen area te evalueer. Die beskikbaarheid van mikro-onderneming opleiding programme in die groter Oos Londen omgewing, vir voedsel mikro-onderneming eienaars, is met behulp van 'n gestruktureerde vraelys wat tydens 'n persoonlike onderhoud met die opleidingbestuurders van die organisasies voltooi is, ondersoek. Alle regerings- en nie-regerings organisasies in die omgewing wat opleidingprogramme met die doel om persone te motiveer en in staat te stel om 'n voedsel mikro-onderneming in die informele sektor te vestig, of om 'n gevestigde voedsel mikro-onderneming meer effektief te bedryf, aanbied, is in die studie populasie ingesluit. Tien organisasies en 17 programme is deur middel van sneeubal steekproefneming geïdentifiseer en ingesluit. Die toepaslikheid van beskikbare mikro-onderneming opleidingprogramme in die groter Oos Londen omgewing is deur middel van die Evaluering Raamwerk geëvalueer. Die resultate het aangedui dat slegs een program wat ondernemingsbestuur- en voedsel voorbereidingsvaardighede gekombineer het, as toepaslik vir huidige en voornemende voedsel mikro-onderneming eienaars beskou kon word. Vyf ander programme kan as redelik toepaslik vir sekere groepe gesien word. Almal behalwe een van hierdie programme het ondernemingsbestuurvaardighede ingesluit, maar geen voedsel voorbereidingsvaardighede nie. Die oorblywende programme is as nie baie toepaslik of geensins toepaslik vir huidige en voornemende eienaars van voedsel mikro-ondernemings in Duncan Village geëvalueer. Daar is tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat daar 'n behoefte bestaan vir die bogenoemde bewusmakingprogram. Daar word verder aanbeveel dat die program wat in hierdie navorsing ontwikkel is, as 'n basis vir die huishoudelike voedselsekuriteit module in die omvattende intervensie program gebruik word.

The problem that is researched relates to the tendency of rural people to abandon agriculture in favour of wage employment and non-agricultural informal activities, and the existence of large areas of underutilized arable land in rural communities. This study explored the specific role of agriculture in the rural communities. The need to improve the quality of life of rural households through the promotion of agriculture and industry gave rise to the implementation of the Siyazondla Homestead Food Production Programme. In this strategy it is envisaged that vibrant, equitable and sustainable rural communities and food security for all will be achieved. The main research question underpinning this study relates to the role of rural agriculture in Nkwalini-Bafazi in meeting the set objectives of the project; such as improving household food security; equipping farmers with necessary skills in order to promote agricultural productivity. The research question can further be captured in these two queries: i) other than the reasons already known for the decline of agriculture in rural areas of South Africa (e.g poor extension services, poor soils, lack of market and so forth); what other fundamental reasons may be there for the poor performance of agricultural production in the communal areas? ii) What role, positive or negative has the government and its agencies played in respect to agricultural development in communal areas. The study, through qualitative methodology, sampled households in Nkwalini-Bafazi who are part of the Siyazondla Food Production Programme. The study investigated the role of agriculture in improving the livelihoods of rural people; and what strategies are required to promote agriculture so as to make contributions for future policy directions. Although this programme has been successfully initiated, from the findings of the study it is evident that beneficiaries are facing many challenges. It is crucial for the South African government to implement mechanisms to ensure that farmers will obtain incentives for farming activities, promotion of food security and rural local economic development, in order to redress the imbalances of the former apartheid regime.

Wild foods are an integral component of the household food basket, yet their quantified contribution to food security relative to other sources in the context of HIV/AIDS, climate change and variability remains underexplored. This study was carried out in Willowvale and Lesseyton which are rural communities in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Willowvale is a relatively remote, medium-rainfall coastal community, while Lesseyton is a peri-urban low rainfall inland community. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect data from 78 HIV/AIDS afflicted households with 329 individuals and 87 non-afflicted households with 365 individuals in the two study sites. Households were visited quarterly over 12 months to assess food acquisition methods, dietary intake and quality, and levels of food security, and to determine strategies employed by households to cope with droughts. The wild foods investigated were wild meat, wild birds, wild fish, wild mushrooms, wild leafy vegetables and wild fruits. Diets were moderately well-balanced and limited in variety, with cereal items contributing 52 % to total calorie intake. Mid-upper arm circumference measurements showed that all respondents were adequately nourished. The bulk of the food consumed by households was purchased, with supplementation from own production, wild vegetables and wild fruits. In Willowvale, wild vegetables comprised 46 % of overall vegetable consumption for afflicted households and 32 % for non-afflicted households, while own fruit production comprised 100 % of fruit consumption. In Lesseyton, wild vegetables comprised only 6 % and 4 % of vegetable consumption for afflicted and non-afflicted households, while wild fruit comprised 63 % and 41 % for afflicted and non-afflicted households. More than 80 % of respondents from both afflicted and non-afflicted households had sufficient daily kilocalories, although the majority of afflicted households felt they were food insecure and sometimes collected wild foods as one of their multiple coping strategies. Hunting and gathering of wild foods was associated with site, household affliction status, gender, age and season. More than 80 % of respondents ate wild vegetables and said they were more drought tolerant than conventional vegetables, making them the most consumed wild food and approximately 16 % of respondents ate wild birds, making them the least consumed wild food. Approximately 14 % of respondents from afflicted households in Willowvale sold wild fish, whilst 34 % of respondents from afflicted households and 7 % from non-afflicted households sold wild fruits in Lesseyton. Strategies adopted by households to cope with droughts were different between the two study sites, and households in Willowvale used a wider range of strategies. Given the devastating effects of HIV/AIDS coupled with the drawbacks of climate change and variability on food security, wild foods represent a free and easy way for vulnerable households to obtain food.

Magister Public Health - MPH
Background: Waste picking is not a new phenomenon in South Africa and is becoming increasingly prevalent, with rising numbers of waste pickers operating on landfills and on the streets. Although waste pickers are recognised as making an important contribution to waste management systems in South Africa, they remain at the lowest level of the waste collection and disposal hierarchy. Operating on the fringes of the formal economy with low and generally erratic income, they have limited access to safe and nutritious food. Many waste pickers are therefore prone to micronutrient malnutrition and macronutrient malnutrition. Food insecurity is a constant threat. Few studies have been conducted on this vulnerable group of people, with relatively little known about their eating habits and the impact thereof on their health. The aim of this study was to assess the dietary intake, food (in)security and nutritional status of waste pickers in South Africa, with a specific focus on landfill waste pickers. Study population and design: This constitutes a secondary study which builds on an earlier (primary) study conducted among 409 landfill waste pickers on nine landfill sites in four provinces in South Africa. Data was obtained from a cross-sectional quantitative survey conducted during the primary study which assessed the food (in)security, anthropometric status and dietary intake of waste pickers. In this study, group discussions were also conducted with waste pickers to gain more insight into activities and conditions on the landfill sites.

The contribution of own food production to the nutrition of households in two neighbouring, rural, semi-arid settlements was investigated. A survey of a 10% probability sample (n=131) of households in Sekuruwe and Ga-Molekane in the Mokgalakwena Local Municipality, Waterberg District Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa, conducted in 2001, provided data on household composition, income (cash and kind), poverty status, expenditure and agriculture, including a detailed account of the types and quantities of food that were purchased during the month preceding the date of the interview. For each household the food obtained from the different types of agriculture they practised was quantified. Protein, iron and Vitamins A and C were selected as indicators to assess the contribution of purchased and own produced food to the food intake of households. Food composition tables were used to estimate the nutrient content of the different foods. To assess the contribution of irrigated home gardening to food intake of households, Drum & Drip micro-irrigation systems which enabled irrigated vegetable production on an area of 36 m2 were installed on the residential sites of 10 volunteer households in the study area. The results confirmed that income is the most important determinant of household food security in rural South Africa. However, food obtained from various types of dry-land agriculture contributed significantly to household nutrition and without farming the food security of households would be reduced, especially among the ultra-poor. Small-scale irrigated vegetable production was shown to have the potential to substantially raise the amount of the Vitamins A and C available to households but did not address the lack of protein in the diet of ultra-poor households and the lack of iron in the diet of all households.

The contribution of own food production to the nutrition of households in two neighbouring, rural, semi-arid settlements was investigated. A survey of a 10% probability sample (n=131) of households in Sekuruwe and Ga-Molekane in the Mokgalakwena Local Municipality, Waterberg District Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa, conducted in 2001, provided data on household composition, income (cash and kind), poverty status, expenditure and agriculture, including a detailed account of the types and quantities of food that were purchased during the month preceding the date of the interview. For each household the food obtained from the different types of agriculture they practised was quantified. Protein, iron and Vitamins A and C were selected as indicators to assess the contribution of purchased and own produced food to the food intake of households. Food composition tables were used to estimate the nutrient content of the different foods. To assess the contribution of irrigated home gardening to food intake of households, Drum & Drip micro-irrigation systems which enabled irrigated vegetable production on an area of 36 m2 were installed on the residential sites of 10 volunteer households in the study area. The results confirmed that income is the most important determinant of household food security in rural South Africa. However, food obtained from various types of dry-land agriculture contributed significantly to household nutrition and without farming the food security of households would be reduced, especially among the ultra-poor. Small-scale irrigated vegetable production was shown to have the potential to substantially raise the amount of the Vitamins A and C available to households but did not address the lack of protein in the diet of ultra-poor households and the lack of iron in the diet of all households.

This dissertation has attempted to investigate the involvement of women in rural areas ofthe Mbashe local municipality. This was investigated to find out if the government foodse curity programs in rural areas have been designed to address the issue of women empowerment in irrigated farming, how involved women are in terms of farm decision making and management. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information on demographic parameters, Irrigation and water use information, production information and market and marketing information. A total of 69 structured questionnaires were administered to identify gender roles in irrigated farming with special emphasis to the roles played by women in farm decision making and management in Ngxakaxha Administrative Area of Mbashe local municipality of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Own food production has been found to be the main food acquisition strategy in rural areas; people involved in it farm for their own consumption and then sell the remaining produce. About 80 % of the farmers practise irrigated agriculture with or without the use of a formal irrigation system provided and managed by government departments. Descriptive statistics were generated using the Statistical Package for Social sciences (SPSS). Subsequently, the data were subjected to inferential analysis using the binomial logistic regression model. The perceptions influencing the predictor variable were defined and tested using the binomial logistic regression model. The statistically significant independent variables, at the level 5% significant level are as follows; area and the number of years in farming. At the 10% significant level; the total number of bags sold and the total amount received (revenue). Basically the area is negatively correlated with irrigation and own production in rural areas. The household head is the one that determines household own production. The number of years involvement in farming determine their experience in farming and the amount of yield he / she will get. Major constraints to sustainable irrigation, as revealed by the analysis, were lack of funding for the projects in terms of an rrigation system, lack of a source of water, lack of new information and workshops. Women were found to be fully involved in irrigated farming nowadays, but training is needed for both men and women in rural areas for their production and irrigation to be sustainable over time. It has been concluded that there are programmes which have been designed and are driven by the women and a number of these programmes are also addressing the issues of gender equality in rural areas.

Background: Food insecurity is a major public health concern in most settings where the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is prevalent, and it affects women disproportionately. However, the prevalence of food insecurity and associated risk factors for women who are living with HIV (WLH) in South Africa is under researched. Methods: The researcher conducted a secondary, cross-sectional analysis of 346 HIV-infected women aged between 18 and 45, in Gugulethu, Cape Town. All participants were 12 months postpartum and enrolled into the MCH-ART study, a large implementation science study of antiretroviral use in pregnancy. For this study, women completed a 10-item household food security questionnaire that categorised food security status into household-level food insecurity, individual level food insecurity and children hunger. Using this tool, the level of food insecurity was categorised as food insecurity (“yes” to up to four questions), experiencing food insecurity (“yes” to five questions or more) and free from food insecurity (“no” to all questions). Results: Overall, the mean age was 29 years (SD: 5.46); 25 % of the women completed high school; 61 % were unemployed; nearly 66 % were free from food insecurity; and 25 % experienced food insecurity. Women who were employed were less likely to experience food insecurity when compared to those who were not employed (OR=0.54; 95 % CI: 0.32-0.90; p= 0.01). Those who completed high school were associated with food security than the ones who did not complete high school (OR= 0.5; 95 % CI: 0.28-0.97; p= 0.04). After adjusting for maternal age, marital and cohabiting status, education attainment, and parity, employment remained a significant predictor of experiencing food security (AOR= 0.55; 95 % CI: 0.32- 0.95 p=0.03) and educational attainment was no longer associated with food insecurity. Conclusions: The prevalence of food insecurity was relatively low in the urban-based sample of HIV-infected women. However, most of these HIV-infected women were obese and overweight. Thus, there is a clear need for more research to explore issues of food insecurity and nutrition in HIV-infected South African women.

Thesis (MA (Political Science))--Stellenbosch University, 2008.
The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is conclusive that climate change will lead to scarcity of the basic resources that sustain life for people around the world – fresh water supplies, food production and land for habitation and cultivation. It is argued that environmental scarcity leads to migration which in turn results in conflict in the receiving area as competition over resources develops. Based on the main theories relating to resource scarcity and conflict, the purpose of this study is to examine the link between climate change and human security. The relevance of this research is the fact that the Stern Review concludes that climate change poses a serious threat to the world and that Africa will be one of the hardest hit continents. Africa is already vulnerable to climate variability and has the least capacity to respond, and this study aims to establish the impacts of resource scarcity on human security in South Africa. The theoretical approach addresses the much debated concept of ‘human security’ as it has developed since the end of the Cold War and the analysis is based on the main conflict theories that maintain that competition over access to scarce resources is one of the root causes of violent conflict. The research design for this study is of an empirical nature with the units of analysis being states, physical events and processes and the resulting human actions. It is a descriptive analysis, interpreting the impact of climate change on scarce resources and the resulting propensity for conflict. Much of the violence against migrants has been the result of varying degrees of xenophobia amongst all racial groups in South Africa. This study proposes the hypothesis that migration results in increased competition over scarce resources in receiving areas, which as a result of xenophobia leads to conflict. Based on the theoretical arguments put forward, the paper aims to determine what policy options for adaptation, mitigation and governance would be most likely to reduce the harmful impacts of climate change on vulnerable regions and groups of people in South Africa and neighbouring countries in order to contain migration and lessen the likelihood of violent conflict. Having identified xenophobia as a spark that could ignite violent inter-group conflict it would be useful to gain some theoretical insight into reducing group prejudice and attaining group cooperation through inter-group contact. It is apparent that there is no single theoretical approach that can be applied to gain a better insight into the complex link between resource scarcity and conflict. The different theories are mutually compatible and each theoretical perspective contributes a partial elaboration to and additional insights into the climate change/conflict hypothesis. There is possibly room for a new theoretical approach to gain a better understanding of the complexity and the uncertainties that are inherent in the study of a mechanism as complex as climate change. South Africa has the responsibility to use its global political influence to promote a shared understanding of responsible behaviour across all societies. Active participation will enable South Africa to guide global negotiations towards outcomes that will lessen the impact of climate change on the most vulnerable countries and populations. In conclusion, possible policies and actions are identified that could support these objectives. Without urgent, appropriate intervention climate change will undermine any efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, and a crippled African continent will be a threat to world security.

Achieving food security under climate change is one of the biggest challenges of the 21st century. The challenge becomes even greater when contextualised within our current limited understanding of how the food system functions as a complex, adaptive socio-ecological system, with food security as one of its outcomes. Adding climate change into this already complex and uncertain mix creates a ‘wicked problem’ that must be solved through the development of adaptive food governance. The thesis has 4 key aims:

• 1. To move beyond an understanding of food security that is dependent solely on agricultural production, and therefore the reliance of future food security predictions on production data based on climate model inputs.
• 2. To ground the theoretical aspects of complex adaptive systems with empirical data from multi-level case studies.
• 3. To investigate the potential role of the private sector in food system futures.
• 4. To analyse food system dynamics across scales and levels.

In order to realise these aims, a complex adaptive system (CAS) approach within the GECAFS food system framework is employed to multilevel case studies in South Africa and Brazil. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of the private sector and how these vital actors, comprising a powerful component of the global food system, can be mobilized towards building adaptive capacity for a more resilient food system. Critically, the private sector is often left out of academic discussions on adaptation, which tend to focus more on civil society and governmental capacity to adapt. This thesis provides novel insight into how the power of the private sector can be harnessed to build adaptive capacity. The findings of the thesis showed that applying CAS to issues of governance has three important implications: The first is that in a complex system, it is critical to maintain diversity. This can translate into appreciating a multiplicity of viewpoints in order to reflect a range of decision-making options. This finding makes the case for closer synergy between the public and private sectors around areas like product development and distribution that includes an emphasis on enhancing food security under climate change. In the developing country context, the inclusion of smallholders and local entrepreneurs is also vital for building adaptive capacity. In this sense, it is possible for business to help achieve development goals by developing the capacity of those most vulnerable to socio-economic and environmental shocks. Secondly, adapting to climate change and other environmental and economic pressures will require a shift in mind-set that embraces the uncertainty of the future: ‘managing for uncertainty rather than against it’. This entails a shift in governance mindset away from linear thinking to a decision-making paradigm that is more flexible to deal with unexpected shocks. The third implication for governance is the need to understand the complex interplay of multiple interlinking processes and drivers that function across many levels and sometimes have exponential positive feedbacks in the food system. Adaptive governance is an iterative process, but as more is learnt and information is retained in the system, the ideal is that the beneficial processes that lower inequality and increase food security will start to be reinforced over those that entrench the current inequality in the food system.

The aim of this investigation was to assess the impact of the In-Field Rainwater Harvesting technology on household food security in the study area. The study was conducted in Nkonkobe Local Municipality of the Amathole District Municipality in central Eastern Cape Province. The areas under investigation are Guquka and Khayaletu villages of the Thyume Valley, which is located about 30 kilometres north of Alice. The method used to assess the impact of the IRWH on household food security was a pair wise comparison method. During September 2009, there were 60 (34 in Guquka and 26 in Khayaletu) households who adopted the technology in home gardens. In order to get a clear picture of the impact of the technology on food security, a decision was taken to assess both the project members and non-project members, hence the pairwise comparison method. The non-project members (also 60 households) were selected randomly from those who were interviewed during the situation analysis in 2004. Five indicators were used to assess household food security. These were household income, expenditure on food, diet diversity, energy-protein intakes, and micro-nutrient intakes (Vitamin A, C and Iron). The income and expenditure data were collected from the 120 households. However, the detailed food data were collected from selected cases from both groups at different times (seasons) of the year. A case study approach was employed in data collection. A total of 12 cases (six households per village) were selected for this investigation. These were selected mainly according to the degree of poverty. The total of six households from each village comprised three project members and three non-members i.e. one from each poverty class (non- poor, poor and ultra-poor) in both categories. The data on the kinds of food products consumed by households was gathered using the food account method (FAM). The food consumed was then analysed for nutrient adequacy. The main findings of this investigation show the IRWH technology to have a positive impact on food security and nutrition of the project members. The technology made significant contributions to the amount of energy and vitamins A and C consumed by households especially during wet seasons. Substantial contributions of garden produce were noted among the project members. However, these contributions were not enough to ensure household food security. The results indicate that there are nutritional problems in the study area. Firstly, there is protein- v energy malnutrition mainly affecting the poor and the ultra-poor households. Secondly, there is hidden hunger affecting all poverty categories, even the non-poor households. This is mainly demonstrated by poor diet quality i.e. diet that lacks essential nutrients identified

Since the end of Apartheid, the South African government has invested substantially in smallholder irrigation schemes, particularly in the former homeland areas. One of the primary goals for establishment of these schemes was to solve food security problems. Sadly, these efforts have not produced the desired results, and poverty has deepened. The question that can be asked is: What is it that makes South African smallholder agricultural sector seemingly impervious to the interventions that government has made in targeting smallholder farmers since the dawn of democracy in 1994? In order to address such a question, a set of structured questionnaires was used to interview 100 smallholder irrigators and 100 non-irrigators using multistage stratified random sampling technique in the Amatole, Chris Hani and OR Tambo District municipalities. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of smallholder irrigators and non-irrigators around Qamata, Pendu, Tyhefu, Merelles and Ntshongweni irrigation schemes were measured using descriptive statistics. Profitability between the two groups was measured using gross margin analysis (GM). The Probit model was used to determine the factors that affect smallholder farmer‘s choice of participation in irrigation schemes. The impact of irrigation participation on yields, crop sales and food security was estimated using the propensity score matching (PSM) technique. The impact of irrigation participation of smallholder farmer‘s choice of livelihood strategy was estimated using the multinomial regression model. The results showed that male respondents were dominant with a representation of 63 percent and average mean household size of 4 persons with the household head having spent at least 7 years at school. Farming was found to be the major (64 percent) occupation in the study area with an average income of R2 944.52 per cropping season. Both irrigating and non-irrigating smallholder farmers in the study area used improved, fertilizer and tractor for production. Overall, smallholder farmers spent 30.9 percent of their household income on food with irrigators‘food spending lower than those of non-irrigators. The gross margin analysis suggests that the irrigated farmers were in a better position to afford enough food in order to satisfy their household requirement. Findings from the Probit regression and Propensity Score Matching are consistent across the methods, indicating that irrigation participation has a positive influence on crop yields, income and consumption expenditure. Probit regression further showed that age, quality of land, access to credit, access to market, distance to the scheme and membership of another society/association have a positive impact on access and use of irrigation and are significant at p < 0.05 percent level. The Propensity Score Matching using Nearest Neighbour and Kernel Matching Methods of the outcome variables, total farm income and food consumption patterns, shows a positive and statistically significant result at p < 0.05 percent level. The nearest neighbour matching method shows that irrigators received higher farm income R2044.01 than non-irrigating farmers R622.12. The Average Treatment Effect on total food expenditure was negative both in the case of NNM and KM algorithms, indicating that participation in irrigation can decrease the expenditure levels on food from R933.30 to R926.70. This could be due to the fact that irrigating farmers produced enough for home consumption than non-irrigators. The multinomial regression model shows that irrigation participation influences smallholder farmers choice of livelihood strategy and these variables were statistically significant at p < 0.05 percent level. These results provide insights to address the question as to the appropriate development path for transition from homestead to irrigation. Continued support to smallholder farmers in the forms of funding, extension services and improved technologies is certainly needed to enhance food security.

The world is becoming more complex due to the increasing occurrence of social-ecological change. This is particularly evident in the developing world, especially on the African continent, where existing vulnerabilities (i.e. endemic poverty, weak governance, overpopulation and HIV/AIDS) are being exacerbated by the impact of climate change. Climate change poses a very real threat to millions of Africans, especially those who rely on the natural world for their livelihoods. The increasing variability of climate and rainfall patterns are said to have dire consequences on agricultural production which is the main livelihood activity of rural dwellers across the continent. The impacts of such change and variability include, changes in the frequency and intensity of droughts, flooding and heavy storms, leading to worsening soil conditions, desertification as well as disease and pest out-breaks which will likely result in reduced crop and livestock yields. A reduction in agricultural production will likely have a negative effect on the food security of millions of people. This study was conducted in the Eastern Cape of South Africa, in two rural villages, Fairbairn and Ntloko located in the former Ciskei homeland, with the purpose of exploring the nexus between climate change, cultivation and food security. This study combined social-ecological thinking with that of political ecology to create a robust lens, in which to analyse the complex interactions between humans and the environment. A mixed methods approach was used to gather the data which consisted of a household survey, using a structured questionnaire as well as semi-structured interviews with various respondents. Quantitative data were analysed using Excel and Statistica 13, whilst coding was used for qualitative data. The main aim of the study was to explore the extent and characteristics of cultivation in the two study sites, the role of household food production in food security as well as the challenges that local cultivator’s face with regards to climate change. In recent decades, there has been a decline in rural agricultural production with many fields that were previously cultivated, lying vacant and unused. However, as this study found, cultivation is still important as over 50% of sampled households cultivated a small area within the homestead. This was mainly done to supplement household food expenditure in order to save cash incomes. The results also found that although participants had perceived negative changes in climate and rainfall (amount, onset, duration), it was not considered the most important challenge for own production. Rather, lack of fencing and capital were seen as major hindrances to efficient own production. Understanding the complexity of own production and food security under a changing climate can help form better and more resilient policies and strategies for rural development, in addition to strengthening future livelihoods of rural people in an ever changing world.

The aim of this study was to explore the relationship that exists between education, income, standard of living and food security amongst Mhlontlo local municipality citizens. For this purpose, data was collected from citizens of the Mhlontlo municipality in the Eastern Cape. A sample of 101municipality citizens was drawn from the population. Results of the study indicated that the study variables are significantly negatively correlated with one another. The findings of this study are helpful in providing support to policy makers and social security agencies to have a better understanding of food security and indicate one important avenue to reduce food insecurity in Mhlontlo municipality and the Eastern Cape at large.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS)
In recent times, debates on the connection between migration and development surfaced as essential discourses in contemporary development issues. Consequently, this led to the birth of what is currently popularly acknowledged or coined as the migration-development nexus. In addition, there has been an evolution of the food security topic in various developmental discussions. Nevertheless, little attention has been given to the relationship between international migration and food security in the context of development. Moreover, missing in the literature is the conversation on migration and food security with particular attention to youths who constitute a vulnerable yet economically active group. Furthermore, there has been an ongoing engaging debate on the impact of remittances, on one side macro-economists argue that remittances are important for the economies of migrant sending and receiving countries and view the use of remittances at the household level as destruction to growth and development. On the other, microeconomists are skeptical about the naïve view of the macroeconomists; on the contrary, they argue that the use of remittances at the household level is very vital for the livelihood of the poor and vulnerable societies. This thesis empirically investigated the link between youth migration and food security in the setting of Zimbabwean youths in Cape Town, South Africa, in the perspective of south-south migration, the New Economics of Labour Migration and Livelihood Approaches, consequently introducing what the researcher identifies as the youth migration-food security nexus. The thesis focused on three key themes: 1) reasons for youth migration in connection to food security 2) the importance of remittances on food security in the place of origin 3) levels of food insecurity of Zimbabwean youths in Cape Town. A combination of quantitative and qualitative research approach was applied in this study, where STATA version 12 statistical software was used for quantitative data analysis. The findings of this thesis reveal that there is an assenting link between youth migration and food security. Firstly, results point out that food insecurity or food shortage is one of the main causes of youth migration. Secondly, migration decision making is a collective and cooperative livelihood strategy used by many households or families. Thirdly, remittances from youths are vital for the livelihood of the people left in the place of origin and are primarily sent and used for food consumption. Lastly, although food security levels were still low there was an improvement of food security for youth migrants in Cape Town. Moreover, this research recognized a number of challenges that face migrant youths in their need for food security, which include (a) lack of reliable income to buy food, (b) poor utilization of food or consumption of unbalanced diet, and (c) limited research on migration and food security issues. In contextualizing these challenges, the study concludes with remarks and recommendations for policy makers, governments and nongovernmental establishments among other organizations.

The challenges of food insecurity and the manner in which it can be addressed is a global concern. Governments throughout the world have strived for means to address global food security either through development of Millennium Development Goals or United Nations protocols. It is a major concern that the South African Government has made it its centre focus to address the challenge of food security. In the Eastern Cape, the Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform has embarked on numerous food production programmes in an attempt to address this challenge. It is however noticeable that these attempts somehow did not manage to address their intended purpose. A study of literature with the aim of identifying critical success factors was done. The critical success factors identified and explored were, project management, establishing a clear mission and project objectives, addressing challenges and opportunities of social, environmental and economical sustainability, addressing physiological needs of the beneficiaries, involving the youth and community, role of extension services, training and capacity development, create local partnership and on-going monitoring and evaluation. The factors were then explored through a study of projects from the food production programme in Amahlathi Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province. A multiple case study wherein a purposive selection of four food security projects selected from two food security programmes was conducted. A structured questionnaire was used to source the information from all members of the selected projects to evaluate the existence of the critical factors. The main aim was to test whether these factors, if they existed in these projects, contributed to their existence. The findings reveal that none of the identified factors existed in the selected projects and though not proven, the non-existence of these factors has resulted in these projects being in survival mode instead of a sustainable state. A recommendation is made of a further study focusing on a bigger sample wherein these factors could be tested. The study could assist in developing a formal model for the running of these projects successfully.

Magister Legum - LLM
This study explores the nexus between gender inequality and food security through the lens of female students at tertiary institutions in South Africa. It aims to highlight the gendered dimensions of the political, socio-economic and cultural structures contributing to South Africa’s national food crisis. In so doing, it argues that legislation on the right to food with specific gender considerations is essential for ensuring food security for female students on campuses in particular and women in general.

This dissertation explored adaptation mechanisms and adaptation options employed by rural small-scale farmers at Dzindi Irrigation Scheme to achieve food security in the midst of climate change as well as reflecting on the role of the state in building capacity of rural small-scale farmers to adapt to climate change. The study employed qualitative research techniques and data was obtained through semi-structured interviews with 40 small-scale farmers at Dzindi smallholder irrigation scheme.Irrigation control, high yielding crop varieties (HYVs), drought resistant crop varieties, drip irrigation are among a host of adaptation strategies successfully employed by farmers at Dzindi. These strategies have been effective in giving the farmers a lifeline in terms of household food supply and income.However, lack of funding, modern infrastructure and equipment has hampered adaptation efforts at the scheme. This has been compounded by lack of support from the Government. Government seemingly has not done enough to capacitate and assist famers to adapt to climate change.

Due to the particular nature of accelerated soil erosion, its impact on food security is usually very intense. The impact starts first on the farmer, and then to his/ her environment. This is why soil erosion, when unchecked, is very devastating. Therefore this study was set to evaluate the perceived impact of soil erosion on food security in the Upper and Lower Areas of Didimana, Eastern Cape of South Africa, and the role farmers’ adoption behaviours play in the interaction. Three specific objectives were put forward by the study, vis-à-vis: (1) to establish farmers’ perceptions on the impact of soil erosion on food security of the study area; (2) to establish farmers’ innovation adoption behaviour with respect to soil erosion control in the study area; and (3) to establish farmers’ perceptions on the impact of extension activities with respect to soil erosion-control in the study area. The central argument of discussion is that soil erosion like every other agricultural problem, is the result of farmers’ non-adoption or inappropriate adoption of improved and recommended soil management technologies in the study area. The survey method of research was adopted for the study, where data were collected, using a well structured questionnaire, from a total of 60 farmers in the study area, through a simple random sampling process. Farmers’ perception suggested that the impact of soil erosion in their area is severe. This severity is demonstrated firstly in the form of climate change, as the time of rain in their area is gradually changing, and thus changing their time of cropping. Similarly the livelihoods of farmers are being negatively affected, as farmers’ crops, livestock, and even household feeding are being affected. More so, findings indicate that most farmers now plant fewer crops and there is an estimation of crop loss by most farmers of well between 21-60 percent of crops every year. Farmers’ perception further revealed that due to soil erosion, over 50 percent of farmers are unsustainable and a total of 71.7 percent of farmers’ population admitted that the amount of food available for their households is being severely affected. In virtually every sphere of human endeavours improved technologies have been developed to solve human problems, but the main reason problems like soil erosion is still very evident is the fact of farmers’ non-adoption or inappropriate adoption of specific recommended technologies. In the study area, the role of farmers’ adoption behaviour in the interaction of the impact of soil erosion on food security was very prominent. Findings indicate that despite the presence of certain recommended soil management technologies in the study area, majority of farmers do not use them neither extension advices. Moreover their satisfaction with those technologies was found to be low, which could be an explanation why they do not use them. For innovation to be adopted, rejected or utilized inappropriately, the effectiveness and performance of agricultural extension, as well as farmers’ perception play a great role. Thus in the study area, farmers’ perception on extension effectiveness indicates that extension hardly talk about soil erosion and its control during times of their visit. Similarly, farmers’ rating for extension services and advices was as well very low (23.4 percent). In fact, a comparison of farmers’ traditional methods of soil erosion control with extension recommendations (53.4 percent) indicated that farmers perceive their local methods of more importance than extension methods. In the same vein, majority of farmers in the area indicated that extension officers are inadequate in their jobs. Reasons offered range from issues of unreliability, lack of regular visits, communication problems, less attention for crop farming, and other reasons such as extension being unconcerned for subsistence farmers, as well as the fact that they focus more on cooperatives. In all, the findings of the descriptive statistics reveal that the impact of soil erosion on food security in the study area is very significant, and the results of the linear regression model of relationships in the study reveal that soil erosion relates positively with age of farmers, their product quality, and their sustainability. In a similar note, the innovation adoption behaviours of farmers was also found to be positively related to farm yield and food accessibility. Thus showing that innovation adoption behaviour of farmers in the interaction of soil erosion and food security in the study area is significant. Therefore, efforts should be geared toward improving factors that increases yield and accessibility of farmers to serve as boosters of farmers’ motivation towards the adoption of appropriate soil management technologies in their area.

This research study examines the food security strategies adopted in the face of environmental degradation in the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality (NMBM), South Africa. The NMBM is the only metropolitan municipality in the Eastern Cape Province. Over time, this area has experienced significant environmental degradation that has greatly affected food security. The municipality has responded by launching livelihood activities to promote food security and protect the environment. These include local food production projects and urban agricultural projects. This research study investigates whether or not the food security strategies adopted by the NMBM are sustainable and whether more needs to be done to enable the municipality to achieve its objectives. The study employed a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods, using interviews and questionnaires as the main tools for data collection. A sample of 20 participants was selected from the NMBM. The participants included municipal workers, private consultants, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and an engineering firm working in the field of environmental sustainability. Their inputs are analyzed and discussed in order to arrive at the findings. Critical amongst the findings is that the NMBM should improve education on environmental issues. This should be geared towards building resilience to climate change which is the greatest environmental threat to food security.

Magister Philosophiae (Land and Agrarian Studies) - MPhil(LAS)
This thesis presents findings from ethnographic research conducted over a period of 17 months in the Blouberg and Molemole local municipalities of Capricorn District in Limpopo province with the aim of exploring mobility patterns of Zimbabwean migrants into, within and out of the South African farm labour market, and understanding how these movements are linked to access to food and other livelihood opportunities. Limpopo serves both as a transit province for Zimbabweans who wish to proceed further south to other provinces of South Africa and a destination for irregular migrants who live and work on white-owned commercial farms. Although constrained mobility, which results from their illegality and remoteness of farms from public services, limit their access to sources of food, irregular Zimbabwean migrants in Blouberg-Molemole area perceive that moving into South African farm labour has improved their food security and livelihood statuses. The South Africa farm labour market provides opportunities to earn income, and enables them to make long term investments in their families back home above immediate individual food security needs. Horizontal and vertical social networks established among Zimbabwean migrants in the Blouberg-Molemole area do not only serve the purpose of facilitating information sharing, but are also forms of social capital on which individual members depend on for their food security and livelihood needs.

Community food gardens are regarded as a means through which rural households can improve their livelihoods. This study explores the contribution of community food gardens (CFG) to livelihoods in the Lepelle-Nkumpi local municipality in the Limpopo province. The objectives of this study are, firstly to explore the reason behind CFG participation and the reasons behind the participating possibility. Secondly, the study seeks to identify the socio-economic factors influencing the participation of households in CFG and lastly to determine the influence of CFG and other socio-economic variables on household food security status (HFSS). Descriptive statistical analysis was used to describe the socio-economic characteristics and the reasons behind CFG participation and the reasons behind the participating possibility. The binary logistic regression model was used to analyse the determinants of household participation in community food gardens as well as the contribution of CFG to HFSS on Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software version 21. Through a structured questionnaire, data was collected from a sample of 180 households which was obtained using multistage sampling. Descriptive results on the characteristics of sampled households revealed that there are high levels of food security in the area with 70% being food secure of which around 42.2% are CFG participants and 30% are food insecure. Furthermore the descriptive statistical analysis indicated that participation of households in CFG is mainly to obtain a source of food among the CFG participants and to generate income amongst the non-participants. On the basis of descriptive analysis, this study concludes that source of food and income generation respectively are the main reasons behind CFG participation and the possibilities of becoming a participant. Therefore the study accepts the research hypothesis stating that “There are social and economic reasons behind household participation and the possibilities of participating in CFG”. Binary results for the determinants of CFG participation revealed that socio-economic variables such as household size, farm income, household monthly income, land size, household perception, marital status, agricultural training and homestead gardening significantly influence household decisions to participate in CFG. This is an implication that socio-economic variables tested in this study are significantly influential to the household decision to participate in CFG, leading to the acceptance of the first hypothesis which states that “Socioeconomic factors determine the community food garden ownership or participation”. The results of the contribution made by CFG to HFSS showed that socioeconomic variables such as gender, age, household size, farm income, educational level, household monthly income, marital status, information access, formal employment status and CFG involvement significantly affect household food security status in the study area. The result indicates a positive contribution to HFSS and implies that socio-economic variables tested in this study have a significant influence on HFSS, leading to the acceptance of the second hypothesis which states that “Community food gardens have a positive effect on food security status of household in Lepelle-Nkumpi Local Municipality Limpopo province.” Therefore it is relevant to concluded that in the area of Lepelle-Nkumpi local municipality, social economic factors plays a vital role in the participation of households in CFG as well as improving the state household food security status.

This study used cross-sectional survey data to estimate farmers` perceptions of, and commonly cultivated ILVs, factors that influence the participation of smallholder famers in the production of Indigenous Leafy Vegetables and its contribution to household food security]. With regard to farmers` perceptions of ILVs, descriptive results reveal that a majority of the people from the study area share positive perceptions with respect to ILVs. Regression estimates for determinants of participation indicate that the production of ILVs is primarily conditioned by shared perceptions and institutional factors rather than the socio-economic attributes of farmers. Public policies that address the institutional framework (extension, credit, market and social networks) in favour of ILVs are more likely to promote production. Also, more research on the documentation and benefits of ILVs, supported by investments targeting educational campaigns towards promoting positive attitudes and dispelling fears and myths surrounding ILVs, will further promote production. With reference to the contribution of ILVs to food security, descriptive results indicate that participation in the production of ILVs leads to a higher HDDS and a lower HFIAS. Regression estimates further revealed that participation positively contributes to a higher HDDS and a lower HFIAS, suggesting that households who participate in the production of ILVs are more likely to be food secure than non-participants. Therefore, participation in the production of ILVs has significant potential to address household food security.

This study highlights the contribution of agricultural co-operatives in promoting food security in the Nkonkobe Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa.Although the dawn of democracy saw the government making efforts to address food insecurity and provide solutions to the challenges related to it a lot remains to be done. As a result, food insecurity remains a fundamental concern in South Africa in particular among villagers in the Nkonkobe Local Municipality. Consequently, the study focuses on the state of Agricultural Co-operatives in the Nkonkobe Municipality and their role in food security. Therefore, this dissertation therefore discusses problems plaguing Agricultural Co-operatives in Nkonkobe. This study highlights the contribution of agricultural co-operatives in promoting food security in the Nkonkobe Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa.Although the dawn of democracy saw the government making efforts to address food insecurity and provide solutions to the challenges related to it a lot remains to be done. As a result, food insecurity remains a fundamental concern in South Africa in particular among villagers in the Nkonkobe Local Municipality. Consequently, the study focuses on the state of Agricultural Co-operatives in the Nkonkobe Municipality and their role in food security. Therefore, this dissertation therefore discusses problems plaguing Agricultural Co-operatives in Nkonkobe. The qualitative methodology was used because it seeks to dig out in-depth information so as to understand the causes of food insecurity despite agricultural co-operatives and government assistance being in place. The food security situation was analysed using the sustainable livelihoods and basic needs approaches. The findings of the study reveal that agricultural co-operatives face a number of challenges. These include inadequate funds, poor market places, transport problems, shortage of farming equipment and insufficient water supply. In addition, the ability of agricultural co-operatives to make a worthy contribution to food security is being adversely hindered by poor implementation capacity and financial management. This in turn makes them unable to strengthen and expand their business operations. The study suggests that the government or the municipality should build sustainable water sources like dams as well as provide taps in the community to boost productivity all year round in the agricultural cooperatives hence guaranteeing food security in Nkonkobe Local Municipality,the Eastern Cape and South Africa at large.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters Of Arts in the Department of Anthropology and Development Studies at the University of Zululand, 2018
The main aim of this study was to establish an association between social grants and access to sufficient food within beneficiary households and how these households cope with food insecurity. A data set of 100 respondents from uMhlathuze city was used to determine the effectiveness of social grants. Firstly, the results of the regression analysis show the relationship between characteristics of the household caregiver such as gender, educational attainment, marital status and employment status, with food (in) security. The intention was to determine whether such features reduce or augment household access to adequate food, and it was discovered that most of these characteristics do not significantly affect food (in) security levels. Households running out of food, the skipping of meals and reasons for skipping meals were used as predictors of food insecurity. Also, other methods were utilised to comprehensively assess the significance of social grants, such as: reviewing how the households utilised the income from the grants, the percentage contribution of the grants to the general household income and what other sources of income the households had. It was evident that grant income was pooled amongst household members to support various household necessities other than food. When households received grants, they spent them on food, education, medical costs, clothes, payment of loans, water bills, starting a small business and building a home, and very few could afford to make savings or investments. The majority of households admitted that they would be incapable of surviving without the grants, as they were a necessary contribution towards food access. It had been fully established that households were food insecure and sometimes hungry; therefore, there was a necessity for assessing the types of adopted coping strategies. Unfortunately, many used mechanisms that were harmful to the households in the long run, such as taking loans, skipping meals and purchasing cheap food. To assess the importance of caregiver characteristics for food security, a simple correlation analysis was used. It was discovered that the progression of food insecurity does not subside or grow within the household on account of caregiver socio-demographic characteristics. They were ineffectual in sufficiently achieving food access. In conclusion, social grant beneficiary households at Umhlathuze are food insecure. This is an unfortunate state of affairs, as access to sufficient food is a basic human right, according to Section 27 of the South African Constitution.

Doctor Legum - LLD
This research project proposes that the social-obligation norm of ownership should be adopted as the ethic on which land restitution is carried out in South Africa. While there exists a subtle and indirect appreciation of the social-obligation norm in South African constitutional property law, this is veiled by the respect given to the classical liberal conception of ownership which gives more regard to an owner's ius abutendi and subsequently, accepts that owners can do as they please with their property as long as they do not break any law. Of course, South Africa no longer adheres to such a classical liberalist approach to ownership. An adherence to classical liberalist views of ownership has arguably, led to the neglect of arable restituted land. To this effect, the Constitution as well as the Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994 (RLA) need to clearly and more positively express the social-obligation norm of ownership in order to promote productive and sustainable utilisation of cultivable restituted land. The thesis argues that the current failures of the land restitution programme are linked to the absence of a social-obligation norm in the RLA as well as the negatively framed Property Clause in the South African Constitution. Even the envisaged changes to the land restitution process as outlined in the 2011 Green Paper on Land Reform as well as in the Property Valuation Act, will not solve the current problems of wasteful neglect of land. The thesis therefore suggests that a positive expression and formulation of the social-obligation norm in the RLA as well as in the Property Clause will promote active, sustainable, productive, and optimal utilization of all cultivable land acquired through the country's land restitution process. This will assist with meeting the developmental aspirations for the rural economy as envisaged in chapter six of the National Development Plan 2030. Furthermore, utilising the land productively through the socialobligation norm is an expression of Ubuntu, a key constitutional theme in South Africa. The experiences of Brazil and Germany deserve special analysis. This is because the socialobligation norm occupies a prominent and positive place in the constitutional property law of both these countries. Further, both countries respect private ownership of property as long as the property is utilised in a manner that permits others to flourish and improve the quality of their life.

Infield rainwater harvesting (IRWH) technology has been used in arid and semi-arid parts of the world and promising results have been achieved in terms of increasing yield. The main aim of this study was to identify socio-economic factors determining the adoption of IRWH technology for enhancing household food security by smallholder farmers. The specific objectives were to assess the level of adoption of IRWH technology using descriptive statistics (mean, frequency and percentages). To determine socio-economic factors influencing adoption of IRWH technology, the binary logistic regression mode l was used. To determine whether adopters of IRWH technology are more food secure than non-adopters, the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) was used as a measure for household food security. For the same objective, to determine socio-economic factors that influence household food security, the binary logistic regression model was also used and adoption of IRWH technology became an independent variable. The study was conducted in Khayalethu, Guquka and Krwakrwa villages in Nkonkobe Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province (EC). The unit of analysis was the individual smallholder farmers practicing agriculture. The availability (accidental) and snowball sampling techniques were used to select 34, 23, 63 respondents from Khayalethu, Guquka and Krwakrwa villages respectively. Since they are non-random, these sampling methods are problematic because of sampling errors. Overall, a sample size of 120 smallholder farmers was targeted for the interviews. Primary and secondary data collected was coded and analysed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 21. Results were presented using graphs, pie charts and tables (including cross-tables). The descriptive results showed that adoption status of IRWH technology was low in these areas, with 79% not adopting the technology. Food insecurity was high amongst the non-adopters with 86%. On the basis of descriptive analysis it can be concluded that any change in each one of the significant variables can significantly influence the probability of adopting IRWH technology and household food security. The results from the logistic regression model for the incidence of adoption revealed that 6 out of 16 variables were significant, three at 1% (access to extension services, access to information and farmers’ perception towards the IRWH technology); one at 5% (access to market) and two at 10% (access to hired labour and farm income). For the incidence of household food security, out of 17 variables, 6 were significant, three at 1% (adoption of the IRWH technology, access to extension services and farmers’ perception towards the IRWH technology); two at 5% (access to hired labour and household income) and one at 10% (household size). The empirical findings of this study indicate that there are socio-economic factors influencing adoption of IRWH technology and household food security amongst smallholder farmers. This study recommends that the government should provide extension officers and research stations with the capacity, support and physical means to expose smallholder farmers to the IRWH technology through demonstrations and trainings. The government can also introduce agricultural finance institutions in rural areas to assist the rural smallholder farmers to increase their access to credit. Further, it is recommended that smallholder farmers can expand to the communal croplands in order to gain more land size and work as a co-operative or as an association to ease labour constraints.

Magister Legum - LLM
The unemployment rate in South Africa is alarmingly high. In the year 2018, the unemployment rate was recorded at 27.2%. Many people are forced to do desperate, and even dangerous things in order to sustain themselves. This includes people going into landfills to collect recyclable materials to sell and look for a meal. Collecting and retailing recyclable waste has become an informal source of income for thousands of people in South Africa. Waste pickers are individuals whose survival largely depends on collecting, sorting and selling recyclable waste. Waste pickers are defined as people who “collect, sort and sell reusable and recyclable materials”. They embark on waste picking as a means of survival. Given the fact that informal waste management is not regulated by the government, waste pickers are left vulnerable to exploitation and hazardous working environments. Waste pickers are denied access to landfills by either private companies, where municipalities have outsourced this function, or by municipalities themselves. Depending on the management of the landfill, waste pickers could also potentially be faced with crime on landfills with gangsters robbing them of their recyclables and/or hard earned money.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The current food system is failing to effectively serve the urban poor. The modernisation and globalisation of the food system solves one set of problems, regarding food security, but at the same time it results in the creation of other complex challenges. Technically the food system ensures adequate food availability on a macro scale, but the structure of the system contributes to the creation of food deserts. Food deserts are areas in which there is a lack of food retail outlets where affordable, nutritious food is available. Communities living in these areas usually struggle to obtain a nutritious diet and the residents are characterised as poverty-stricken and of a poor nutritional status. The aim of this research is to support local authorities in the management and strategic planning of community food security. The research was conducted in Avian Park, a low-income community in the Breede Valley of the Western Cape, South Africa. The food retail environment of Avian Park was investigated to determine the availability and accessibility of food in the community. Furthermore, a system dynamics model was developed to identify those areas in the food system which need attention, in order to achieve greater food security. In addition strategies are suggested to improve community food security; specifically for Avian Park. These research outcomes, however, also serve as a general guideline for managing food security in low-income communities more effectively.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die huidige voedsel sisteem slaag nie daarin om arm mense in stede effektief te dien nie. Die ontwikkeling en globalisering van die voedsel sisteem los een stel probleme rondom voedselsekerheid op, maar skep terselfdetyd ander komplekse uitdagings. Tegnies verseker die voedsel sisteem die beskikbaarheid van genoegsame voedsel op 'n makro skaal, maar die struktuur van die sisteem dra by tot die ontwikkeling van “food deserts.” “Food deserts” is areas waar daar „n tekort aan voedsel kleinhandel afsetpunte is waar daar bekostigbare, voedsame kos beskikbaar is. Gemeenskappe wat in hieride areas leef sukkel gewoonlik om „n voedsame dieet te bekom en die inwoners word geken aan armoede en 'n ongewenste voedingstatus. Die doel van hierdie navorsing is om plaaslike owerhede te ondersteun om gemeenskap voedselsekerheid meer efektief te bestuur. Die navorsing was in Avian Park, „n lae-inkomste gemeensakp in die Breede Vallei van die Wes-Kaap, Suid-Afrika uitgevoer. Die voedsel kleinhandel omgewing van Avian Park is ondersoek om die voedsel beskikbaarheid en toegangklikheid te bepaal. Verder is „n “system dynamics” model ontwikkel om die areas in die voeldsel sisteem wat aandag verg, ten einde voedselsekuriteit te bekom, te identifiseer. Ten slotte word daar strategieë voorgestel om gemeenskap voeldselsekuriteit in Avian Park te verbeter. Hierdie navorsingsuitkomste dien egter ook as algemene riglyne om lae inkomste gemeenskappe se voedselsekerheid meer effektief te bestuur.

This study examines the impact of children’s grants on household access to food, education and health care. In the face of increased poverty and socio-economic inequalities, social grants are a critical poverty alleviation intervention implemented by the government of South Africa. The children’s grants are offered as part of the social security system which is provided for in the Republic of South Africa Constitution of 1996 and the Social Assistance Act of 2004. The basic needs conceptual framework is the lens informing the focus of the study. Among other major findings, the study reveals that (a) childrens grants play a critical role in improvement of access to food, health care and education, (b) childrens grants are used as collateral, to access short term loans, and (c) social networks and home gardens play a significant role in aiding children’s grants to ensure household access to food, education and health care.

Thesis(MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2014
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis documents a Participatory Action Research (PAR) project conducted from 2011 to 2013 in a rural communal area in southern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The area is a microcosm of the global environmental and socio-economic polycrisis; with adult unemployment at 50 percent, 73 percent female-headed households, heavy dependence on government social grants and a food system reliant on purchased food. Eight, mainly female-headed households (the co-researchers), assisted by the student researcher, implemented and assessed a cropping system, designed on agroecological principles, on their abandoned garden plots. The objective was to grow culturally acceptable food crops to supplement their household diets and positively affect their food security. The student researcher provided the necessary infrastructure, including goat-proof plot fences, hand tools, a grain hammermill, seed, and fertiliser. The literature review, which also used early 1900’s photographs and contemporary isiZulu language as evidence, revealed the agroecological basis of pre-colonial agriculture. However, colonial and apartheid influences destroyed this knowledge base. The cropping system design utilized practices from this pre-colonial era combined with current agroecological techniques. The agroecological techniques employed on the plots included non-inversion tillage of planting pits using garden forks, precision placement of phosphate fertiliser and animal manures, open pollinated seeds, east-west orientated strip cropping, soil surface mulches, crop rotations including legumes and the use of chickens to control pests. Dryland crops included maize, beans, sweet potatoes, and butternuts, with small trial vegetable patches on some plots. The research identified a method to calculate the planting frequency of these vegetables to ensure a constant annual supply, however further research is needed. The dryland crops supplemented household diets between harvests. The formation of structured groups amongst the households proved vital to the success of the cropping system, providing mutual labour assistance, shared decision-making, building knowledge and moral support. The importance of dialogue and trust, reinforced by the student researcher’s ability to communicate in isiZulu with the co-researchers, formed the basis of both the PAR, and Focus Group Discussions(FGD), used to qualitative assess the cropping system. During these, the households reported a good understanding of the agroecological principles of the cropping system, a willingness to continue with it post research, and positive benefits, including better health, and money saved on food purchases, redirected to improve their asset base. The World Food Programme (2008) Food Consumption Score Analysis Method (FCS), modified to show the percentage contribution of homegrown food to the FCS, provided the quantitative assessment of the cropping system. The FCS scores rose during the research, with homegrown food contributing over a third of the FCS at times. The co-researchers suggested instituting group ‘stokvels’1to finance inputs and maintain infrastructure post research. The financial implications of these ‘stokvels’ was calculated. Due to the initial success of the PAR, the research recommends a method to extend the cropping system to more households, utilizing state finance to provide the infrastructure, and the co-researchers imparting technical knowledge through farmer-to-farmer extension.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie tesis word verslag gedoen van ’n deelnemende aksienavorsingsprojek wat van 2011 tot 2013 in ’n landelike dorpsgebied in die suide van KwaZulu-Natal, Suid-Afrika, uitgevoer is. Die gebied is ’n mikrokosmos van die wêreldwye omgewings- en sosio-ekonomiese polikrisis, met volwasse werkloosheid op 50%, 73% huishoudings met vroue aan die hoof, swaar afhanklikheid van die staat se maatskaplike toelae en ’n voedselstelsel wat van gekoopte kos afhanklik is. In die studie het agt huishoudings, wat hoofsaaklik vroue aan die hoof het (die medenavorsers), met behulp van die studentenavorser, ’n verbouingstelsel, wat op agro-ekologiese beginsels gegrond is, op hul verlate tuingrond geïmplementeer en geassesseer. Die doel was om kultureel aanvaarbare gewasse te verbou om hul huishoudelike dieet aan te vul en hul voedselsekerheid positief te beïnvloed. Die studentenavorser het die nodige infrastruktuur verskaf, met inbegrip van bokbestande omheining, handgereedskap, ’n graanhamermeul, saad en kunsmis. Die literatuurstudie, waarin foto’s uit die 1900’s en moderne Zoeloe as bewyse gebruik is, toon die agro-ekologiese grondslag van prekoloniale landbou. Koloniale en apartheidsinvloede het egter hierdie kennisbasis vernietig. Die verbouingstelselontwerp was gegrond op praktyke uit hierdie prekoloniale era gekombineer met moderne agro-ekologiese tegnieke. Hierdie tegnieke het ingesluit nie-inversie-grondbewerking van plantgate met gebruik van tuinvurke, presisieplasing van fosfaatkunsmis en dieremis, oop bestuifde sade, oos–wes-georiënteerde strookverbouing, grondoppervlak-deklae, wisselbou met onder andere peulgewasse en die gebruik van hoenders om peste te beheer. Droëland-gewasse het ingesluit mielies, bone, soetpatats en botterskorsies, met klein toetsgroenteakkers op sommige stukke grond. ’n Metode is in die navorsing geïdentifiseer om te bepaal hoe gereeld hierdie groente geplant moet word om ’n konstante jaarlikse voorraad te verseker. Verdere navorsing is egter nodig. Die droëland-gewasse het huishoudelike diëte tussen oeste aangevul. Die vorming van gestruktureerde groepe onder die huishoudings het noodsaaklik geblyk te wees vir die sukses van die verbouingstelsel, waardeur wedersydse hulp met arbeid, gedeelde besluitneming, die bou van kennis en morele ondersteuning gebied is. Die belangrikheid van dialoog en vertroue, wat versterk is deur die studentenavorser se vermoë om in Zoeloe met die medenavorsers te kommunikeer, het die grondslag gevorm van die deelnemende aksienavorsingsprojek asook die fokusgroeponderhoude, wat gebruik is om die verbouingstelsel kwalitatief te assesseer. In hierdie onderhoude het die huishoudings verslag gedoen van hul grondige begrip van die agro-ekologiese beginsels van die verbouingstelsel, hul gewilligheid om ná die navorsing daarmee voort te gaan, asook die voordele wat dit bied, soos beter gesondheid en geld wat op voedselaankope gespaar is, wat heraangewend is om hul batebasis te verbeter. Die Wêreldvoedingsprogram (2008) se Food Consumption Score- (FCS-)ontledingsmetode, wat aangepas is om die persentasie bydrae van selfgekweekte voedsel tot die FCS aan te toon, is gebruik vir die kwantitatiewe assessering van die verbouingstelsel. Die FCS-tellings het tydens die navorsing toegeneem, met selfgekweekte voedsel wat by tye tot meer as ’n derde tot die FCS bygedra het. Die medenavorsers het voorstel dat ’n stokvel gestig word om insette te finansier en die infrastruktuur ná die navorsing in stand te hou. Die finansiële implikasies van hierdie stokvel is bereken. Op grond van die aanvanklike sukses van die deelnemende aksienavorsingsprojek stel die navorser ’n metode voor om die verbouingstelsel na meer huishoudings uit te brei met behulp van staatsfinansiering om die infrastruktuur te verskaf asook die oordrag van die medenavorsers se tegniese kennis na ander boere.