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Journal articles on the topic "Food substitutes – Physiological effect"
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Daly, Charles, and Ruth Davis. "The biotechnology of lactic acid bacteria with emphasis on applications in food safety and human health." Agricultural and Food Science 7, no. 2 (January 1, 1998): 251–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.23986/afsci.72862.
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Fermentation of various foodstuffs by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is one of the oldest forms of biopreservation practised by mankind. In recent years, significant advances have been made in elucidating the genetic and physiological basis of key LAB traits involved in these industrially significant processes. One important attribute of many LAB is their ability to produce antimicrobial compounds called bacteriocins. Interest in these compounds has grown substantially due to their potential usefulness as natural substitutes for chemical food preservatives in the production of foods with enhanced shelflife and/or safety. There is growing consumer awareness of the link between diet and health. Recent scientific evidence supports the role of probiotic LAB in mediating many positive health effects. In addition, some LAB are currently being assessed for their ability to act as live delivery vectors in the development of new oral vaccines.
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Gugołek, Andrzej, Jerzy Juśkiewicz, Dorota Kowalska, Cezary Zwoliński, Przemysław Sobiech, and Janusz Strychalski. "Physiological responses of rabbits fed with diets containing rapeseed meal, white lupine and pea seeds as soybean meal substitutes." Ciência e Agrotecnologia 42, no. 3 (June 2018): 297–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1413-70542018423003318.
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ABSTRACT In recent years, a trend has emerged to eliminate soybean meal (SBM) from rabbit diets. It was hypothesized that a dietary mixture composed of rapeseed meal (RSM), white lupine seeds (WLS) and pea seeds (PS) could be a substitute for SBM in diets for growing rabbits without compromising their growth and physiological parameters. To verify this hypothesis, selected parameters describing the growth rate of rabbits, their blood and slaughter parameters and caecum function were analyzed. The experiment was performed on ninety HYPLUS rabbits. Control group (C) animals were fed a diet containing 15% SBM. The diet administered to the first experimental group (E1) contained 7.5% SBM, 5.0% RSM, 4.0% WLS and 3.0% PS. In the diet fed to the second experimental group (E2), SBM was completely replaced with RSM, WLS and PS. The substitution did not exert a significant negative effect on the growth rate of rabbits, selected morphological and biochemical blood parameters or carcass characteristics. The comparable growth parameters of control group rabbits and rabbits fed diets containing SBM substitutes could be partially attributed to beneficial changes in the enzymatic activity of caecal microbiota, which have a positive influence on fermentation processes in the lower gastrointestinal tract. The results of this study indicate that SBM can be completely replaced with a mixture of RSM, WLS and PS in growing rabbit diets.
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Riaz, Ayesha, Imran Pasha, Mian Kamran Sharif, and Sadaf Javaria. "Bisphenol A and its Analogues: Human Exposure and Biological Effects-A Review." Pakistan Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research Series A: Physical Sciences 64, no. 2 (July 6, 2021): 173–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.52763/pjsir.phys.sci.64.2.2021.173.190.
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The most prevalent exposure of bisphenol A (BPA) to biological systems has directed health organizations to reduce its safe dosage and the stringent regulation by developed countries that led to ban of BPA-based (Bisphenol analogues) baby bottles. This in turn has opened a new window for ongoing entry of bisphenol analogues into consumer market. Recently, there has been tremendous growth in both production and application of bisphenol analogues to achieve the "BPA-free" claim. Nevertheless, due to growing epidemiological evidence concerning the toxicological effects of these bisphenol analogues in both in vivo and in vitro systems, the debate regarding the safety concerns over bisphenols is back. Structural analogues of bisphenol A had been identified in food products, human and environment matrices. Present review is an attempt to recapitulate the presence of bisphenols in food and environment matrices as well as their concerning physiological effects in animal models and human groups. But, due to structural analogy of these substitutes, their endpoints on biological functions are comparable to original compound or in certain situations, more harmful than original compound. Unfortunately, other potentially harmful alternatives are emerging and it is therefore advised that the replacement of bisphenol A with other structural analogues must be executed with great care.
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Janusz, Prusinski. "White lupin (Lupinus albus L.) – nutritional and health values in human nutrition – a review." Czech Journal of Food Sciences 35, No. 2 (April 29, 2017): 95–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/114/2016-cjfs.
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White lupin seeds have been used in human nutrition and treatment for several thousand years. Nowadays the use of white lupin seeds is limited by a small scale of their production. However, in the last 20 years quite new properties of white lupin have been discovered for the application in the production of different kinds of functional food. Unique traits of protein, fatty acids with a desirable ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 acids, and fibre as well as other specific components, for example oligosaccharides and antioxidants or non-starch carbohydrates, make white lupin an excellent component in many healthy diets. The effects of white lupin components concern the physiological condition of the human body, including diabetes, hypertension, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, lipid concentration, glycaemia, appetite, insulin resistance, and colorectal cancer. Seeds are used among others for the production of gluten-free flour, bacterial and fungal fermented products, noodle and pasta products, as substitutes of meat, egg protein and sausages, also are cooked, roasted and ground and mixed with cereal flour in the production of bread, crisps and pasta, crisps and dietary dishes.
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Shirokova, N. V., A. M. Emel'yanov, and D. D. Ovchinnikov. "RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF MEAT LOAF PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY." Scientific Life 15, no. 4 (April 30, 2020): 544–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.35679/1991-9476-2020-15-4-544-550.
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The article explores the possibility of using inulin and lamb in meat loaf technology. Physicochemical and organoleptic characteristics of meat loaf were studied, and the positive effect of inulin on the finished product was proved. Inulin is a plant-derived carbohydrate that has unique nutritional and technological benefits. Inulin reduces the risk of colon cancer, atherosclerosis, osteoporosis, diabetes and obesity, maintains low levels of triglycerides and cholesterol in the blood serum, stimulates the immune system, improves the water-holding ability and stability of the emulsion, and also changes the texture and viscosity of food products. As a functional food ingredient, it can be used in various foods as a substitute for fat. The inclusion of inulin in meat products seems to be useful in the production of low-fat products with the desired texture and sensory properties. Currently, the use of inulin in the technology of preparing meat loaf based on lamb is practically not studied. When developing and optimizing the formulations of meat products, an important point is the qualitative composition of food ingredients, which provides physiological needs of the human body for energy and necessary nutrients, taking into account age and existing medical and biological recommendations. Basing on the studies, a formulation and a technological scheme for the production of a meat product were developed. Thus, there was obtained a functional product of good quality, with increased nutritional and biological value, that meets all the requirements of the consumer.
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Nedashkivskyi, V. M. "The effectiveness of using glucose-fructose syrup for feeding bees in under cover conditions." Scientific Messenger of LNU of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnologies 22, no. 93 (September 21, 2020): 10–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.32718/nvlvet-a9302.
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The beekeeping practice provides for using stimulating feeding of the bee colonies in order to accelerate their growth and development. Sugar syrup is usually used to feeding bees. Despite the obvious benefits, sugar syrup use as a feed additive which has a number of disadvantages. This is due to the different origin of such syrup (beet, sugarcane, corn, fructose syrup, etc.) and, accordingly, different effects on the physiological and metabolic processes of the body and the life of bees and their colonies as a whole. In recent years, scientific research has intensified in many countries of the world to find new substitutes for sugar syrup to feed bee colonies. One of the artificial substitutes for carbohydrate feed to bees is glucose-fructose syrup content of reducing sugars close to honey and exceed to invert syrup. Glucose-fructose syrup is produced mainly from high-quality corn starch by enzymatic hydrolysis to glucose, followed by isomerization part of glucose into fructose and subsequent purification through coal core and ion exchange resins. It contains all the essential amino acids, trace elements, B vitamins, and does not require the release of a large amount of enzyme by bees, as is in the case of sugar syrup. Its use as a feed additive increases the bees life span does not lead them to expired, preserves the activity of their hypopharyngeal glands and allows to put food directly into the cells. The article presents results of the research on the effectiveness of stimulating the development of bee colonies and pollination of cucumbers in under cover conditions for using glucose-fructose syrup. It has found that for stimulating feeding of the bee colonies are used glucose-fructose syrup at the rate of 200 g per day in under cover conditions, against the background of the presence sufficient feed honey and bee bread in the nests, contributes to an increase the amount of brood grown by 13.5 % (P < 0.01) and the amount of pollen brought by them by 20.1 %.
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Ritz, Ulrike, Marc Eberhardt, Anja Klein, Petra Frank, Hermann Götz, Alexander Hofmann, Pol Rommens, and Ulrich Jonas. "Photocrosslinked Dextran-Based Hydrogels as Carrier System for the Cells and Cytokines Induce Bone Regeneration in Critical Size Defects in Mice." Gels 4, no. 3 (July 20, 2018): 63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/gels4030063.
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Modified biomaterials have for years been the focus of research into establishing new bone substitutes. In our preceding in vitro study employing different cell cultures, we developed chemically and mechanically characterized hydrogels based on photocrosslinkable dextran derivatives and demonstrated their cytocompatibility and their beneficial effects on the proliferation of osteoblasts and endothelial cells. In the present in vivo study, we investigate photocrosslinked dextran-based hydrogels in critical size defects in mice to evaluate their potential as carrier systems for cells or for a specific angiogenesis enhancing cytokine to induce bone formation. We could demonstrate that, with optimized laboratory practice, the endotoxin content of hydrogels could be reduced below the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-limit. Dextran-based hydrogels were either loaded with a monoculture of endothelial cells or a co-culture of human osteoblasts with endothelial cells, or with stromal-derived-growth factor (SDF-1). Scaffolds were implanted into a calvarial defect of critical size in mice and their impact on bone formation was assessed by µCt-analyses, histology and immunohistology. Our study demonstrates that promotion of angiogenesis either by SDF-1 or a monoculture of endothelial cells induces bone regeneration at a physiological level. These in vivo results indicate the potential of dextran-based hydrogel composites in bone regeneration to deliver cells and cytokines to the defect site.
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Fujita, Kasumi, Toshio Norikura, Isao Matsui-Yuasa, Shigenori Kumazawa, Sari Honda, Takumi Sonoda, and Akiko Kojima-Yuasa. "Carob pod polyphenols suppress the differentiation of adipocytes through posttranscriptional regulation of C/EBPβ." PLOS ONE 16, no. 3 (March 8, 2021): e0248073. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248073.
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Obesity is a major risk factor for various chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer; hence, there is an urgent need for an effective strategy to prevent this disorder. Currently, the anti-obesity effects of food ingredients are drawing attention. Therefore, we focused on carob, which has high antioxidant capacity and various physiological effects, and examined its anti-obesity effect. Carob is cultivated in the Mediterranean region, and its roasted powder is used as a substitute for cocoa powder. We investigated the effect of carob pod polyphenols (CPPs) on suppressing increases in adipose tissue weight and adipocyte hypertrophy in high fat diet-induced obesity model mice, and the mechanism by which CPPs inhibit the differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes in vitro. In an in vivo experimental system, we revealed that CPPs significantly suppressed the increase in adipose tissue weight and adipocyte hypertrophy. Moreover, in an in vitro experimental system, CPPs acted at the early stage of differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and suppressed cell proliferation because of differentiation induction. They also suppressed the expression of transcription factors involved in adipocyte differentiation, thereby reducing triacylglycerol synthesis ability and triglycerol (TG) accumulation. Notably, CPPs regulated CCAAT/enhancer binding protein (C/EBP)β, which is expressed at the early stage of differentiation, at the posttranscriptional level. These results demonstrate that CPPs suppress the differentiation of adipocytes through the posttranscriptional regulation of C/EBPβ and may serve as an effective anti-obesity compound.
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Plaisance, Eric P., Tara M. Henagan, Haley Echlin, Anik Boudreau, Kasey L. Hill, Natalie R. Lenard, Barbara E. Hasek, Norman Orentreich, and Thomas W. Gettys. "Role of β-adrenergic receptors in the hyperphagic and hypermetabolic responses to dietary methionine restriction." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 299, no. 3 (September 2010): R740—R750. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00838.2009.
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Dietary methionine restriction (MR) limits fat deposition and decreases plasma leptin, while increasing food consumption, total energy expenditure (EE), plasma adiponectin, and expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) in brown and white adipose tissue (BAT and WAT). β-adrenergic receptors (β-AR) serve as conduits for sympathetic input to adipose tissue, but their role in mediating the effects of MR on energy homeostasis is unclear. Energy intake, weight, and adiposity were modestly higher in β3-AR−/− mice on the Control diet compared with wild-type (WT) mice, but the hyperphagic response to the MR diet and the reduction in fat deposition did not differ between the genotypes. The absence of β3-ARs also did not diminish the ability of MR to increase total EE and plasma adiponectin or decrease leptin mRNA, but it did block the MR-dependent increase in UCP1 mRNA in BAT but not WAT. In a further study, propranolol was used to antagonize remaining β-adrenergic input (β1- and β2-ARs) in β3-AR−/− mice, and this treatment blocked >50% of the MR-induced increase in total EE and UCP1 induction in both BAT and WAT. We conclude that signaling through β-adrenergic receptors is a component of the mechanism used by dietary MR to increase EE, and that β1- and β2-ARs are able to substitute for β3-ARs in mediating the effect of dietary MR on EE. These findings are consistent with the involvement of both UCP1-dependent and -independent mechanisms in the physiological responses affecting energy balance that are produced by dietary MR.
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Daly, Anne, Sharon Evans, Alex Pinto, Catherine Ashmore, and Anita MacDonald. "Protein Substitutes in PKU; Their Historical Evolution." Nutrients 13, no. 2 (February 2, 2021): 484. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu13020484.
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Protein substitutes developed for phenylketonuria (PKU) are a synthetic source of protein commonly based on L-amino acids. They are essential in the treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU) and other amino acid disorders, allowing the antagonistic amino acid to be removed but with the safe provision of all other amino acids necessary for maintaining normal physiological function. They were first formulated by a chemist and used experimentally on a 2-year-old girl with PKU and their nutritional formulations and design have improved over time. Since 2008, a bioactive macropeptide has been used as a base for protein substitutes in PKU, with potential benefits of improved bone and gut health, nitrogen retention, and blood phenylalanine control. In 2018, animal studies showed that physiomimic technology coating the amino acids with a polymer allows a slow release of amino acids with an improved physiological profile. History has shown that in PKU, the protein substitute’s efficacy is determined by its nutritional profile, amino acid composition, dose, timing, distribution, and an adequate energy intake. Protein substitutes are often given little importance, yet their pharmacological actions and clinical benefit are pivotal when managing PKU.
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Food substitutes – Physiological effect"
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Ali, Haroon. "Protein-phenolic interactions in food." Thesis, McGill University, 2002. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=32748.
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Our objective was to investigate the mode of interaction between selected food proteins and phenolic compounds. Bovine serum albumin (BSA), bovine beta-lactoglobulin, and soybean glycinin were used with the following phenolic compounds; 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoic acid (gallic acid), 3,4-dihydroxy cinnamic acid (caffeic acid), p -hydroxycinnamic acid (courmaric acid), and 5,7-dihydroxy 4-methoxy isoflavone (biochanin A). The interaction was investigated using incubation temperatures of 35°, 45° and 55°C at pH 5, 7 and 9. Native and SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy were used to identify protein-phenol interactions. Certain phenolic compounds combined with BSA and prevented protein aggregation. In general, the thermal stability of the proteins increased as a result of interaction with phenolic compounds; the most pronounced effect was observed with beta-lactoglobulin in the presence of gallic acid at pH 7. The interaction of the phenols with the proteins resulted in changes in protein secondary structure. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)
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Matni, Gisèle. "Speciation of selenium in food supplements." Thesis, McGill University, 1996. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=40393.
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Selective isolation protocols of selenium (Se) species integrated to Se specific atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) detection were developed and optimized for Se speciation in food supplements, including selenized yeasts. By ultrafiltration, 69.18% of Se in the extract was found as a low molecular weight soluble form, the remaining 30.82% was bound to high molecular weight components. After a cation-exchange chromatography of the ultrafiltrate, 3.77% of the Se in the extract was found in the aqueous washings of the column indicating the presence of free inorganic anions of Se; the 65.41% of Se retained on the column corresponded to the free organic Se cations. The limit of detection for the HPLC-THG-AAS system was 1.85 ng of Se. Se was shown to be widely distributed over all the proteins with one sharp peak corresponding to the free forms of Se. Four major peaks were found at MW $>$ 250 000 Da (15.97% of Se recovered), between 102 330 and 117 490 Da (7.06%), between 48 977 and 53 703 Da (12.71%) and close to the dye migration band (17.25%).Selective isolation and HPLC-AAS protocols were also developed and optimized for the determination of free organic forms e.g. selenomethionine (SeMet), selenocystine (SeCystine) and inorganic forms of selenium in aqueous solutions, and in complex matrices such as nutritional supplements and mixtures of free amino acids. The selenoamino acid in alkaline solution was first derivatized with 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene. After removal of excess of reagent by partitioning with diethyl ether, the N-dinitrophenyl (DNP)-derivatized selenoamino acid was acidified and extracted with diethyl ether. Inorganic Se(IV) was extracted from the acidic aqueous phases by complexation with 1,2-phenylenediamine, forming a piazselenol. Se derivatives were determined selectively by HPLC-THG-AAS. A selective chromatographic mechanism based on $ pi$-electron interactions was optimized using a silica stationary phase derivatized with p-nitrophenyl moieties. Co-injections of DNP-SeMet, DNP-SeCystine and piazselenol save retention times of 3.7, 4.0 and 4.9 min, respectively, using a methanolic mobile phase containing 1.5% triethylamine and 0.013M acetic acid. Primary analytical validation parameters including stability, linearity and limits of detection were obtained using purified DNP-SeMet, DNP-SeCystine and piazselenol standards which were characterized by $ sp1$H-, $ sp{13}$C- and $ sp{77}$Se-NMR analysis and/or fast atom bombardment MS techniques. The calibration graphs for sequential dilutions of these Se standards were linear and the limits of detection from the resultant calibration graphs were 17 ng, 0.21 ng and 18.53 ng of Se, respectively. The purified DNP-SeMet and DNP-SeCystine were found to be photosensitive. The recovery of SeMet, SeCystine and inorganic Se from the stock solutions and/or nutritional supplements was virtually quantitative. In the presence of a 500-fold excess of other amino acids, the recovery of SeMet and SeCystine (96.1 $ pm$ 3.9% and 98.08 $ pm$ 4.2%, respec
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Oguine, Adaora. "The effect of food access schedule and diet composition on the rhythmicity of serum melatonin and pineal N-acetyltransferase activity in rats /." Thesis, McGill University, 2002. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=33816.
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Melatonin is a hormone secreted by the pineal gland, which is known to modulate biological rhythms in mammals. This study investigated the effect of food access schedule and dietary composition on serum melatonin and pineal NAT activity in adult male Wistar rats. These rats were maintained on a 12:12 h light:dark schedule with lights on at 0800h. The rats were randomly assigned to two dietary groups. A group was simultaneously fed a protein-rich and carbohydrate-rich granulated diet and the other group fed granulated rat chow. Each dietary group was further divided based on dietary feeding schedules. Animals were fed between 0800--1600 h or fed ad libitum. The study revealed that protein intake of rats fed the dietary choice was lower with the restricted access than in the free access. In rats fed dietary choice, the nocturnal melatonin levels and pineal NAT activity were significantly lower under the restricted access feeding when compared to the ad libitum feeding schedule. This was not observed in rats fed single chow diet. In conclusion our data demonstrate that food composition does affect the nocturnal synthesis of melatonin as well as the activity of the enzyme NAT. This could be via dietary intake of tryptophan, which is a precursor melatonin synthesis in the pineal gland.
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Akita, Emmanuel E. "Lipophilization of beta-lactoglobulin : effect on hydrophobicity, surface functional properties, digestibility and allergenicity." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1988. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/27789.
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In this research, beta-lactoglobulin was chemically modified by attaching different levels of stearic acid to the protein. The effect of this modification on hydrophobic!ty, emulsifying and foam properties, digestibility and allergenicity of the protein was investigated.
It was found that the effect of fatty acid attachment or lipophilization depended on the amount of fatty acids attached to the protein. Incorporation of the hydrophobic ligands led to increased hydrophobic interactions, resulting in a decreasing solubility with extent of incorporation. Furthermore, the surface hydrophobicity measurements showed that the two fluorescence probes 8-anilinonaphthalene-l-sulfonate (ANS) and cis-parinaric acid (CPA) used for the surface hydrophobicity measurements were not equivalent This may support the. observation by earlier workers that ANS measures aromatic hydrophobicity and CPA aliphatic hydrophobicity.
The studies on surface functional properties i.e. emulsifying and foaming properties, indicated that there was some improvement in these functional properties at low and medium levels of incorporation which decreased as the extent of fatty acid attachment further increased. The improvement, of these functional properties could be attributed to improved amphiphilicity of the proteins at these levels of incorporation. This research also showed that both high solubility and high ANS surface hydrophobicity is needed for the best emulsifying properties.
In vitro digestibility studies showed a decrease in digestibility of the modified proteins with increased lipophilization.
From the passive cutaneous anaphylaxis experiments, it was found that the level of fatty acid attachment to the protein had a significant effect on its ability to elicit IgE antibodies. Increased ability to elicit IgE antibodies was observed at a low level of fatty acid. When a medium level of fatty acid was attached the ability to elicit antibodies was reduced and almost completely destroyed when a higher level of fatty acid was incorporated.
The above observations could be explained by the fact that the low level incorporation of fatty acid led to changes in the protein structure which exposed more allergenic sites. The almost complete destruction of the allergenicity could be attributed to denaturation of the protein which reduced or destroyed available allergenic sites.
The antigenicity or binding of the modified proteins to the IgG antibodies raised against the native protein was studied by both direct and competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. It was found that at low and medium levels of incorporation, the proteins demonstrated increased binding ability compared to the native protein. This was attributed to the increased exposure of antigenic sites on the protein with fatty acid incorporation. However, the protein with high level of incorporated fatty acid showed decreased binding ability.Land and Food Systems, Faculty of
Graduate
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Yake, Melissa L. "The effect of stress on eating practices among university faculty." Virtual Press, 2006. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/1339600.
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The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between comfort food preferences of college faculty when under normal (non-stressful) and stressful conditions. Thirty-four percent (n=63) of the participants were males and 66 percent (n=121) were females. Sixty-seven percent (n=123) experienced a change in appetite when stressed, with 69 percent (n=85) experiencing an increase and 31 percent (n=38) experiencing a decrease in appetite. Participants chose a significantly wider variety of foods when under stressful conditions for both sweet (p=<.001) and salty/crunchy food categories (p=.004). High restrained eaters chose significantly more types of sweet foods (p=.031) and beverages (p=.020) than low restrained eaters when comparing stressful and normal conditions. These findings suggest the majority of adults may experience changes in appetite with stress, specifically an increased appetite, and may choose more types of sweet and salty/crunchy foods. An individual's restraint level, gender, and age may also play a role in comfort food choice.Department of Family and Consumer Sciences
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Xu, Yvette Yi-Wei. "Effect of acute and chronic cocaine administration on food intake, body weight gain and energy substrate homeostasis in rats." Scholarly Commons, 1990. https://scholarlycommons.pacific.edu/uop_etds/2203.
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In light of the limited and conflicting experimental data on food intake, body weight change and body energy metabolism following single-dose or long-term cocaine administration, the purpose of the present study was to further evaluate the dose-dependent acute and chronic (27 day) effects of two dose levels of cocaine on the following questions: i) Does chronic cocaine administration decrease food consumption and weight gain?; ii) To what extent does acute or chronic cocaine administration alter body carbohydrate stores (liver and skeletal muscle glycogen content)?; and iii). To what extent does acute or chronic cocaine administration affect plasma glucose and free fatty acid levels and thus hepatic glycogenolysis and adipose tissue lipolysis?
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Jia, Xue Jing. "Physicochemical properties and pharmacological activities of polysaccharides from Rhynchosia minima root." Thesis, University of Macau, 2018. http://umaclib3.umac.mo/record=b3952494.
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Wendt, Ellen B. "Comparison of fat free and regular potato chips : taste acceptability and gastrointestinal symptoms in 18-21 year-old female college students." Virtual Press, 2000. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/1178356.
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Effertz, Cary Marshall. "A Reference Price Model of Sugar Consumption with Implications on Obesity." Thesis, North Dakota State University, 2007. https://hdl.handle.net/10365/29853.
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Obesity has increased dramatically in the past 25 years. The consumption of added sugar has increased significantly during the same time period. Previous research indicates a direct correlation between the consumption of added sugar and the prevalence of obesity. Sugar has been identified in multiple studies as having addictive or opiate-like qualities. Unquestionably, added sugar consumption has contributed to the current obesity epidemic. Here, we apply a reference price economic model to attempt to describe sugar consumption. Using consumption and price data from the Economic Research Service of the United
States Department of Agriculture, we made a reference price estimation of domestic refined sugar (sucrose) consumption. Using time-series econometric techniques, we tested the effects of internal and external reference prices, in the form of first differenced own price and price of other nutrient classes, respectively, on sugar demand. Results indicate that internal and, particularly, external reference prices do indeed play a role in consumption decisions. However, the model lacks socioeconomic variables that may help to provide a more complete consumption picture.
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Courant, Geneviève Thérèse. "The effect of exercise during pregnancy and lactation on maternal food intake, body weight and body composition, and on lactation performance in rats." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1986. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/26193.
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During pregnancy, body fat stores increase in part to subsidize the high energy cost of lactation. One effect of exercise, on the other hand, is to lower percent body fat. The effect of exercise during pregnancy and lactation on body fat, and on body composition in general, is not well documented. There is also a paucity of data on the effect of exercise during these physiological states on food intake and body weight. If exercise during pregnancy decreases body fat stores, would lactation performance subsequently be compromised? This study was designed to determine the effect of moderately strenuous aerobic exercise, during rat pregnancy and lactation, on food intake, body weight, body composition and lactation performance. Virgin female Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into exercised (n=40) and sedentary (n=40) groups. Exercising
rats were trained over three weeks to run on a treadmill at 30 m/min, 2 hours/day, 5 days/week. Within each group, two subgroups were then mated and three subgroups remained as virgin age controls (n=8 per subgroup).
Of the mated subgroups, one was terminated within 24 hours of parturition and the other on day 14 of lactation. Subgroups of virgin sedentary and exercising
controls were terminated at times corresponding to each of mating, parturition and day 14 of lactation of mated animals. Carcasses were assayed for fat, water, ash and protein. Ad libitum food intake and body weight were monitored throughout the study, as was the weight gain of pups of lactating dams.
MANOVA showed the effect of activity to be significant
on food intake at week three of training and during the pregnancy period (p<0.00l) and at week one (p<0.0l) and two (p<0.05) of lactation. The effect of activity was highly significant (p<0.00l) on body weight from week three of training and throughout the pregnancy and lactation periods, as well as on the percent fat, water and ash of the rat carcasses. Post hoc multimean comparisons
(Scheffe) at the p<0.05 level revealed that exercise resulted in a significant increase in the food intake of virgin rats, and nonsignificant increases in the food intake of pregnant and lactating rats. Body weights of virgin, pregnant and lactating exercising rats were significantly greater than their respective sedentary controls. Despite their heavier body weights and greater food intake, the estimated carcass energy content of exercising animals was lower than that of sedentary animals. This finding was reflected in the carcass composition whereby exercising rats, whether virgin, pregnant or lactating, contained consistently less fat and more water than sedentary controls. At parturition, pregnant animals contained significantly less fat, more water and more ash than sedentary pregnant
controls. After 14 days of lactation, there were no significant differences in carcass composition between
exercising and sedentary dams. However, lactating rats, whether exercising or sedentary, catabolized approximately 50 percent of the body fat present at parturition. Pup weight gains were not significantly different between exercising and sedentary dams.
From these findings it was concluded that the effect of exercise during pregnancy and lactation on food intake, body weight and body composition was comparable
to its effect in non-gravid rats. Moderately strenuous exercise during pregnancy prevented the increase
in body fat deposition normally present at this time. Despite these depleted fat stores, the energy supplied by the mobilization of the remaining fat and the increase in food intake was adequate to support normal pup growth.Land and Food Systems, Faculty of
Graduate
Books on the topic "Food substitutes – Physiological effect"
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Balcazar, Dantel M. J., and Esmeralda A. Reinoso Perez. Glutamic acid: Chemistry, food sources and health benefits. Hauppauge, N.Y: Nova Science Publisher's, 2012.
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Inulin-type fructans: Functional food ingredients. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2005.
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Masson, J. Moussaieff. The face on your plate: The truth about food. New York: Norton, 2009.
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International Conference on High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology (1998 Heidelberg, Germany). Advances in high pressure bioscience and biotechnology: Proceedings of the International Conference on High Pressure Bioscience and Biotechnology, Heildelberg, August 30-September 3, 1998. Edited by Ludwig Horst 1937-. Berlin: Springer, 1999.
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Statham, Bill. What's really in your basket?: An easy-to-use guide to food additives and cosmetic ingredients. Chichester: Summersdale, 2007.
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United States. Congress. House. Committee on Public Works and Transportation. Safe Transportation of Food Act of 1989: Report (to accompany H.R. 3386) (including cost estimate of the Congressional Budget Office). [Washington, D.C.?: U.S. G.P.O., 1989.
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Reilly, Conor. Selenium in food and health. London: Blackie Academic & Professional, 1996.
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Hettiarachchy, Navam S. Food proteins and peptides: Chemistry, functionality, interactions, and commercialization. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis, 2012.
Find full textBook chapters on the topic "Food substitutes – Physiological effect"
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Yamamoto, Takashi, Kayoko Ueji, Tadashi Inui, and Haruno Mizuta. "Attenuation of Food Intake by Fragrant Odors: Comparison between Osmanthus fragrans and Grapefruit Odors." In Psychology and Patho-physiological Outcomes of Eating [Working Title]. IntechOpen, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95757.
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Odors affect various physiological and mental activities. Previous studies in rats have shown that the odors of grapefruit and Osmanthus fragrans (OSM, fragrant tea olive) attenuate food intake, leading to a reduction in body weight gain, but it is not yet clear whether the causative mechanisms underlying these effects are the same for both odors. The first part of the present study revealed that grapefruit odor had no effect on the expression of feeding-related neuropeptides, in contrast to the previous finding that OSM odor suppresses orexigenic and activates anorexigenic neuropeptides in the hypothalamus of the rat. The second part revealed that OSM odor activated the parasympathetic nerve, in contrast to the previous finding demonstrating that grapefruit odor activates sympathetic nerve activity. The third part was performed to confirm the previous findings about the effects of OSM odor on appetitive reactions in humans. In human subjects, we found that continuous exposure to OSM odor attenuated appetite and consumption of snacks (cookies) and improved mood, when evaluated using the POMS (Profile of Mood States) data from university students. In conclusion, OSM odor attenuated appetite and decreased food intake in humans, and the underlying causative mechanisms differed from those mediating the effects of grapefruit odor, specifically in terms of the expression of hypothalamic feeding-related neuropeptides and autonomic nerve activity.
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Sinha, Pooja Gokhale. "Effect of Climate Change on Tropical Dry Forests." In Practice, Progress, and Proficiency in Sustainability, 24–41. IGI Global, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-0014-9.ch002.
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Around 1.6 billion people in the world are directly dependent on forests for food, fodder, fuel, shelter, and livelihood, out of which 60 million are entirely dependent on forests. Forests silently provide us with ecosystem services such as climate regulation, carbon sequestration, harbouring biodiversity, synchronizing nutrient cycling, and many more. Tropical Dry Forests (TDF's) occupy around 42% of total forest area of the tropics and subtropics and facilitate sustenance of world's marginalized populations. Change in vegetation composition and distribution, deflected succession, carbon sequestration potential, nutrient cycling and symbiotic associations would affect TDF at ecosystem level. At species level, climate change will impact photosynthesis, phenology, physiognomy, seed germination, and temperature-sensitive physiological processes. In order to mitigate the effects of climate change, specific mitigation and adaptation strategies are required for TDF that need to be designed with concerted efforts from scientists, policy makers and local stakeholders.
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Subudhi, Debadutta, and M. Manivannan. "An Exploration of Influence of Duration on Physiological Effects of Asanas." In Handbook of Research on Evidence-Based Perspectives on the Psychophysiology of Yoga and Its Applications, 451–74. IGI Global, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-3254-6.ch025.
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Different body postures that can be maintained for a certain duration with awareness are called yoga-asanas. These asanas matter flexibility, coordination, and strength, while the breathing practices and meditation sharpens the mind for better awareness and reduce anxiety and thus adds quality into life. Other beneficial effects might involve a reduction of stress, blood pressure, and improvements in resilience, mood, and metabolic regulation. The asanas performed regularly for a short duration in hours is well studied in the literature. However, when performed for a long duration continuously for several hours (40-hour yogathon), without food and sleep has a significant effect in regulating homeostasis. The homeostasis is accessed through cardio-respiratory and galvanic skin response changes. The study shows the physiological changes after the yogathon and compares it with effects on physiology due to short term yoga. It also emphasizes on the reduction of dependency on food, because of energy compensation through yoga-asanas.
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Noratiqah Jumli, Mimie, and Muhammad Ilyas Nadeem. "The Mechanistic and Pathophysiological Role of Adiponectin and Resistin Towards Regulation of Food Intake and Appetite in Cardiovascular Associated Risk Factor of Metabolic Syndrome." In Type 2 Diabetes [Working Title]. IntechOpen, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96171.
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Insulin resistance syndrome or syndrome X is also known as metabolic syndrome (MetS). It is an emerging problem globally with the surge of increasing prevalence among urban population of developing countries. The etiology of pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome includes the inflammatory pathways of insulin resistance, deregulated appetite, diet-induced, inflammation-induced obesity, and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Adipose tissue is an endocrine organ that secrets adipokines like adiponectin and resistin during physiological and pathological states. Moreover, the adipokines associated with diet-induced and inflammation-induced obesity have secondary deteriorating effects on cardiovascular system. Although, the adiponectin and resistin were potentially found in regulating food intake and appetite but their mediating effect on pathophysiology of CVD still needs future investigations. However, the prior studies reported the association of adiponectin and resistin levels with CVD complications related to food intake but still there is need to understand its multifactorial heterogeneity. Therefore, literature suggests figuring out potential target mechanistic and therapeutic approaches of adiponectin and resistin hormone towards food intake and appetite involvement in metabolic syndrome and CVD.
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Arlt, Wiebke. "Dehydroepiandrosterone and ageing." In Oxford Textbook of Endocrinology and Diabetes, 1511–19. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199235292.003.0134.
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Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is the crucial precursor of human sex steroid synthesis and thus mediates the majority of its effects indirectly, following downstream conversion to sex steroids and other steroids of potentially distinct activity. No specific receptor for DHEA or its sulfate ester DHEAS has been identified yet. However, there is evidence of specific binding sites for DHEA on immune and vascular cells and for direct interaction with cell signaling cascades, which may facilitate direct effects of DHEA. DHEA is mainly secreted by the adrenal zona reticularis and, together with cortisol and aldosterone, represents one of three major steroids produced by the adrenal glands. However, in contrast to cortisol and aldosterone, circulating concentrations of DHEA and its sulfate ester DHEAS show a physiological decline with ageing. Seminal studies in patients with adrenal insufficiency, who suffer from pronounced DHEA deficiency, have illustrated the physiological significance of DHEA (1–4) (Chaper 5.9) and its role as an efficient vehicle for female androgen replacement. Importantly, studies in systemic lupus erythematosus have started to define a role for DHEA as an immune modulatory drug. By contrast, the few randomized controlled trials on DHEA supplementation in healthy elderly adults have yielded largely disappointing results. However, irrespective of the very scarce evidence, DHEA is perceived by the lay public as a ‘fountain of youth’ hormone, based merely on the observation of declining serum levels with ongoing ageing. This has led to widespread, uncontrolled use, further facilitated by its inappropriate classification as a ‘food supplement’ by the US Food and Drug Administration. Two issues are important to consider when assessing the scientific literature on the potential clinical effects of DHEA. Firstly, the capability of the adrenal gland to produce DHEA is only observed in some but not all mammals, and thus represents a recent evolutionary development. Most importantly, the adrenal glands of rodents do not express CYP17 and therefore cannot synthesize DHEA. Therefore, the potential for transferring results of rodent experiments to the human situation is limited. To date, many reports on DHEA effects, in particular with regard to protection against cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and obesity (5) are based on the administration of grossly supraphysiologic DHEA doses in rodent models. The second problem in the scientific DHEA literature is the multitude of studies based on associations rather than mechanistic insights, which often results in oversimplification of perceived causalities. This is exemplified by the multitude of studies demonstrating various effects of DHEA on longevity, which then is used by many to claim a general antiageing effect. In this chapter, a closer look at the available current evidence with regard to the role of DHEA in ageing humans is provided.
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Petrova, Zhanna, and Yurii Sniezhkin. "FEATURES OF THE PROCESS OF DEHYDRATION OF FUNCTIONAL VEGETABLE RAW MATERIALS." In Integration of traditional and innovation processes of development of modern science. Publishing House “Baltija Publishing”, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.30525/978-9934-26-021-6-38.
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Given the general trend of energy consumption, which leads to an increase in the amount of energy consumed worldwide, the cost of this energy is constantly increasing and its deficit is growing. Therefore, it is important to solve the problem of creating and large-scale implementation of modern energy-efficient heat technologies that reduce energy. This is especially true for providing the population to food, as an additional complication is that the production and processing of agricultural raw materials occurs in conditions of increased consumption of gas and other energy sources with low coefficient of performance and high losses of raw materials during processing. Food and nutrition play a leading role in everyone's life, no matter how we treat it. Nutrition is a key moment in the life of every living organism. Functional foods have evolved as a separate category and are not always considered as dietary supplements. Functional food products (FFP) are the products influencing a functional condition of an organism for the purpose of its increase - resistance, working capacity, prolongation of life. Although the definitions of functional products are different, they are basically ordinary foods and beverages, but enriched with a functional component - a nutrient that plays a special physiological role in the body, has a positive effect on human health. The purpose of the paper is a theoretical and experimental substantiation of complex and efficient processing of vegetable raw materials, creation of energy-efficient heat technology of agricultural raw materials processing in order to obtain functional products with maximum preservation of biologically active substances. In this work, 4 groups of functional foods were studied (according to the classification of the main plant functional ingredients of Doctor of Technical Sciences Petrova Zh.O.) - these are antioxidants, phytoestrogens, folates, prebiotics. An important point is to increase energy efficiency with maximum preservation of functional ingredients of raw materials. Preliminary preparation of raw materials for drying was developed and researched, optimal dehydration regime parameters were selected, which allow to reduce energy consumption for the process and to keep BAS for each group of functional raw materials at a high level. Since the increase in energy costs for drying is associated with the difficulty of removing moisture from plant material, it was important to investigate changes in the specific heat of evaporation of water from functional compositions. The conducted experimental researches confirmed the theoretical assumption of dependence of specific heat of evaporation of water from parenchymal fabrics of plants on composite components of raw materials. The obtained results allow to state that at correctly picked up compositions they not only stabilize components of native raw materials, but also there is an intensification of drying process with reduction of energy consumption on process. The duration of the drying process of functional raw materials on the experimental convective stand was calculated by the method of Krasnikov V.V. The estimated drying durations of functional raw materials and drying rates are determined. The kinetics of heat exchange was studied with the determination of the specific heat flux density and the Rebinder number, which proves the efficiency of the introduction of step drying regimes.
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Li, Jie Jack. "Diabetes Drugs." In Laughing Gas, Viagra, and Lipitor. Oxford University Press, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195300994.003.0011.
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Diabetes mellitus is a multisystem disease associated with the loss of control of physiological glucose concentrations in the blood. The disease is broadly broken down into two types based on factors that include age, acuteness of onset, underlying glucose-handling deficit, and therapy. Type 1 diabetes usually manifests acutely in the young, secondary to some underlying insult (possibly infectious) to the islet cells of the pancreas, resulting in an absolute lack of insulin. Type 2 diabetes is more frequently associated with maturity, obesity, and gradually increasing blood glucose concentrations; it may be asymptomatic for some time and discovered on routine glucose screening. In fact, as weight increases among the general population of the developed world, type 2 diabetes is becoming an epidemic. Type 1 diabetes always requires insulin replacement therapy, whereas type 2 can frequently be controlled with diet, weight loss, and oral medications that enhance residual pancreatic function. Diabetes has been known since antiquity. In fact, the term diabetes mellitus comes from the Greek meaning “siphon and honey” due to the excess excretion (siphon or faucet) of hyperglycemic (sweetened, or honeyed) urine. In ancient times, most cases of diabetes were of type 1, with acute onset in the young, which was often fatal. Type 2 diabetes was extremely rare when sources of nutrition were scarce and obesity was not prevalent. Diabetes was also known as “wasting” because diabetics were not able to metabolize the sugar content of food and eventually died from wasting away. Because of the effect of excess blood glucose, the blood of the diabetic is hyperosmolar (concentrated), and this triggers compensatory thirst (in an attempt to dilute the hyperglycemia and return the blood to a normal concentration). This excess thirst results in the common diabetic symptom of polydipsia (excessive drinking secondary to thirst, resulting in the urge to drink frequently) and polyuria (excess urination). Even before many modern diagnosis tools became available, savvy doctors could diagnose diabetic men just by looking at their shoes for the telltale white spots from urine with high sugar content. In fact, tasting urine samples of diabetics was a routine diagnostic tool for diabetes. Even the breath of a severe diabetic was sweet—a sickly smell as a result of acidosis. In addition, it has been mentioned that ants would track to the urine of diabetics.
Conference papers on the topic "Food substitutes – Physiological effect"
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Huang, W. L., T. T. Zhou, L. Xue, J. Li, and Z. Y. Lie. "Density effect on physiological characteristics in Michelia chapensis seedlings." In 2015 International Conference on Food Hygiene, Agriculture and Animal Science. WORLD SCIENTIFIC, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/9789813100374_0034.
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Li, J., Z. Y. Lie, L. Xue, and W. L. Huang. "Density effect on physiological characteristics of broadleaved seedlings of Elaeocarpus sylvestris." In 2015 International Conference on Food Hygiene, Agriculture and Animal Science. WORLD SCIENTIFIC, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/9789813100374_0031.
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Luneva, O. E. "Food supplement “carrageenan” and its effect on the organism." In VIII Information school of a young scientist. Central Scientific Library of the Urals Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.32460/ishmu-2020-8-0014.
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Food additives are positioned as harmless, although, their components affectthe physiological processes associated with the permeability of the wall of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and intestinal microbiota. This article describes thecarrageenan supplement and its effects on the body in in vitro and in vivo experiments. The experimental part is devoted to analysis of the intestinalmicrobiota of laboratory rats with the consumption of the carrageenan dietary supplement in the amount of about 4,4 % of the standard feed.
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Imohiosen, Odion Uvo-Oise, and Sarah Abidemi Akintola. "Effect of Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose from Delonix regia Sawdust on Rheological and Filtration Properties of Water Based Drilling Fluid." In SPE Nigeria Annual International Conference and Exhibition. SPE, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/207200-ms.
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Abstract Over the past years, there has been an increase in the importation of Sodium Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), an important drilling mud polymer additive, in the Nigerian oil and gas industry. However, the ripple effects of the importation of this polymer and other oilfield chemicals on the Nigeria oil and gas industry includes rising cost of oil and gas field development, limited oil and gas industry growth, and capital flight. In order to mitigate this trend, studies on the use of local substitutes such as starch and its derivatives have gathered momentum with risk such as competition with food supply and increase in food cost. The use of sawdust wastes which offers a non-competing and a cheap source of feedstock in the production of CMC have rarely been investigated. The study therefore investigated production of CMC from sawdust waste of a highly underutilized wood (Delonix regia), after which drilling mud tests were conducted to determine the rheological and filtration properties of mud treated with the CMC products. The CMC production adopted the Williamson ether synthesis process in a slurry medium involving two main reactions of mercerization and etherification. All reaction parameters were held constant except the etherifying agent concentration. The CMC products were characterized using FTIR Spectroscopy. The synthesized carboxymethyl cellulose products yielded good filtration and rheological properties suitable for drilling fluid applications. The use of low concentrations of about 0.5g to 1.0g of the synthesized products per laboratory barrel of mud could reduce filtration volume by 11.4% to 32.9% at low temperature and pressure conditions. The synthesized CMC products obtained from this work can be used as local substitute of low viscosity foreign CMC products.
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Sirajuddin, Nur Tasmiah, and Tjandra Anggraeni. "The effect of leaf biopesticide (Mirabilis jalapa) and entomopathogenic fungi (Beauveria bassiana) combinations to some physiological characters and histology of Crocidolomia pavonana (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) larvae." In 4TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES (ICMNS 2012): Science for Health, Food and Sustainable Energy. AIP Publishing LLC, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4868807.
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Ibragimov, A. E., D. Yu Garshina, An Kh Baymiev, and O. V. Lastochkina. "Modulation of Triticum aestivum L. tolerance to combined abiotic/biotic stresses by endophytic plant growth promoting bacteria Bacillus subtilis." In РАЦИОНАЛЬНОЕ ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕ ПРИРОДНЫХ РЕСУРСОВ В АГРОЦЕНОЗАХ. Federal State Budget Scientific Institution “Research Institute of Agriculture of Crimea”, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.33952/2542-0720-15.05.2020.11.
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Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important cereal food crops worldwide. Various abiotic and biotic stresses or their combinations lead to crop losses (up to 50-82%) and pose a serious threat to the agricultural industry and food security. Plant growth-promoting endophytic bacteria Bacillus subtilis are considered as a bioactive and eco-friendly strategy for plant protection. Earlier, we have shown B. subtilis 10-4 has a growth-promoting and anti-stress effect on wheat under water deficiency. Here, we investigated the effect of B. subtilis 10-4 and B. subtilis 10-4+salicylic acid (SA) on growth and tolerance of wheat (cv. ‘Omskaya-35’) to combined drought (12%PEG) and Fusarium culmorum. 12%PEG and F. culmorum led to yellowing of leaves (in addition to traces of the root damages). Inoculation with 10-4 and especially 10-4+SA reduced the fusarium development in wheat under drought. Similar effects were revealed for growth parameters. Also, 10-4 (especially 10-4+SA) reduces stress-induced lipid peroxidation (MDA). Such physiological effect may be connected with the ability of strain 10-4 to colonize the internal tissues of host-plant and regulate metabolism from the inside. The obtained construct based on the plasmid pHT01 and the green fluorescent protein (gfp) gene, by which was modified the strain 10-4, will allow revealing the nature of the symbiotic relationships between the strain 10-4 and host-plant. The findings indicate that application B. subtilis 10-4 and its composition with SA may be an effective strategy to increase wheat tolerance to the combined abiotic/biotic stresses.