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1
Henderson, Adrienne D., A. Wayne Johnson, Lindsey G. Rasmussen, Weston P. Peine, Sydney H. Symons, Kade A. Scoresby, Sarah T. Ridge, and Dustin A. Bruening. "Early-Stage Diabetic Neuropathy Reduces Foot Strength and Intrinsic but Not Extrinsic Foot Muscle Size." Journal of Diabetes Research 2020 (March 12, 2020): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/9536362.
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Background. Tracking progression of diabetic peripheral polyneuropathy (DPN) is usually focused on sensory nerves and subjective testing methods. Recent studies have suggested that distal muscle atrophy may precede sensation loss. Methods to objectively measure distal muscle size and strength are needed to help understand how neuropathy affects muscle function. Purpose. To evaluate individual intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscle sizes and functional foot strength in participants with DPN. Methods. Thirty individuals participated in this cross-sectional study (15 DPN and 15 matched controls). Sizes of 10 separate muscles of the lower leg and foot were measured using ultrasound imaging. Functional foot strength was also quantified using custom great toe and lateral toe flexion tests along with a doming test. Muscle size and strength metrics were compared between groups using ANOVAs and paired t-tests (α=0.05). Correlations between strength and relevant muscle sizes were also evaluated. Results. The sizes of all four intrinsic foot muscles were smaller in individuals with DPN (p≤0.03), while only one (toe extensor) of the six extrinsic muscles was smaller (p<0.01). Great toe flexion (p=0.03) and lateral toe flexion (p<0.01) strengths were decreased between groups and showed moderate to strong correlations (0.43≤r≤0.80) with several corresponding intrinsic muscle sizes. The doming strength test did not show any difference between groups and was moderately correlated with one muscle size (r=0.59). Conclusion. Diabetic peripheral polyneuropathy affects intrinsic muscles before extrinsics. Ultrasound imaging of individual muscles and functional toe flexion tests can be used clinically to monitor DPN progression and foot function. Participants need to be trained in the doming test before a relationship can be established between this test and DPN foot function. Future studies should include muscle quality measurements to better understand characteristics of affected muscles.
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ÜNVER, Banu, Hanifegül TAŞKIRAN, and Ahmet Cüneyt AKGÖL. "Foot Muscle Strength, Muscle Shortness, Balance, and Shoe Preferences in Different Foot Postures." Clinical and Experimental Health Sciences 12, no. 4 (December 30, 2022): 939–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.33808/clinexphealthsci.714950.
Full textAbstract:
Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the foot muscle strength, muscle shortness, tibialis posterior endurance, balance, and the shoe preference differences between the neutral and pronated foot posture.
Methods: Forty-nine participants consisting of 23 women and 26 men, and age of between 18 and 45 years were participated in the study. Foot posture, medial longitudinal arch height, height, gastrocnemius and hamstring muscle shortness, foot and ankle muscle strength, tibialis
posterior muscle endurance, static balance, and shoe preferences of the participants were evaluated. Subjects were recruited into two groups according to their foot posture evaluated with Foot Posture Index: as those with neutral and pronated foot posture.
Results: Navicular drop, gastrocnemius, and hamstring muscle shortness were significantly higher in participants with pronated foot posture compared to those with neutral foot (p0.05).
Conclusion: Flexibility of gastrocnemius and hamstring muscles were reduced, but foot muscle strength, tibialis posterior muscle endurance, and balance remained unaffected in young individuals with excessive foot pronation. Moreover, shoe preferences may not affect the foot posture in young people. Although all age-related biomechanical effects of foot pronation are not well known yet, muscle shortness seems to arise earlier than muscle weakness and reduced balance in pronated foot posture
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Skowron, Natalia, Roksana Malak, Ewa Mojs, and Włodzimierz Samborski. "Foot arch condition in comparison with the muscular balance of lower limbs in children at school age of 6–14 years." Journal of Medical Science 84, no. 2 (June 30, 2015): 85–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.20883/medical.e21.
Full textAbstract:
Introduction. Foot arch condition plays an important role in correct setting of lower limbs joints, proper muscles tone and well-being [1]. More and more frequently foot arch deviations affect population of school age children [2, 3]. It is based on anatomic knowledge that abnormal foot arch is strongly connected with the disturbed muscle tone of lower limb. The aim of the presented study is to evaluate the relation between the foot arch condition and muscular balance of the lower limbs.Material and methods. Children were assessed using the Clarke’s angle and indicatory muscles length tests including: quadratus lumborum muscle, hamstring muscle, thigh adductors, piriformis muscle.Results. Abnormal foot arch was showed by 70% of subject children. The greatest number of muscles length abnormality was observed in quadratus lumborum muscles. There was a statistically significant correlation between right hamstring muscle contraction and abnormal foot arch (p = 0.011). Conclusions. Foot arch alternations increasingly more often appear in the greater number of school–age children. The assessment and therapy of abnormal foot arch should include the examination of muscular balance of the lower limbs.
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Hansen, J., G. D. Thomas, T. N. Jacobsen, and R. G. Victor. "Muscle metaboreflex triggers parallel sympathetic activation in exercising and resting human skeletal muscle." American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology 266, no. 6 (June 1, 1994): H2508—H2514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.1994.266.6.h2508.
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Activation of a metabolically generated reflex in exercising skeletal muscle (muscle metaboreflex) in humans is known to trigger increases in sympathetic nerve activity (SNA) to resting skeletal muscles. In seven healthy human subjects, to determine whether this reflex mechanism also increases SNA to the exercising muscles, we recorded muscle SNA with microelectrodes in the right peroneal nerve and in fascicles of the left peroneal nerve selectively innervating the exercising muscles of the left foot. Subjects performed static toe extension at 20% maximal voluntary contraction alone or in combination with foot ischemia. Only static toe extension at 20% MVC during ischemia activated the muscle metaboreflex. This paradigm caused increases in SNA to exercising muscle that paralleled those to the resting muscles: during the first minute of exercise SNA was unchanged, but during the second minute SNA increased from 29 +/- 2 to 38 +/- 2 bursts/min (P < 0.05) to the exercising muscles and from 30 +/- 3 to 40 +/- 2 bursts/min (P < 0.05) to the resting muscles. These bilateral increases in SNA were maintained when metaboreflex activation was sustained by postexercise foot ischemia. In conclusion, these data provide neurophysiological evidence that the muscle metaboreflex evokes parallel sympathetic activation in exercising and resting human skeletal muscle.
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Lee, Jin Hyuck, Ki Hun Shin, Taek Sung Jung, and Woo Young Jang. "Lower Extremity Muscle Performance and Foot Pressure in Patients Who Have Plantar Fasciitis with and without Flat Foot Posture." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 1 (December 21, 2022): 87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010087.
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Abnormal foot posture and poor muscle performance are potential causes of plantar fasciitis (PF). However, no study has compared the differences between lower extremity muscle performance and foot pressure in patients who have PF with and without abnormal foot postures. This study aimed to compare the differences in lower extremity muscle performance, such as in the hip, quadriceps, hamstring, and plantar flexor, and foot pressure in patients who have PF with and without flat foot postures. Seventy patients with plantar heel pain were enrolled (37 flat feet and 33 without flat feet). The hip muscle strength was measured using a handheld digital dynamometer. The strength and reaction time of the quadriceps, hamstring, and plantar flexor muscles were evaluated using an isokinetic device. Foot pressure parameters were assessed using pedobarography. The strength of the plantar flexor muscles was significantly lower (p = 0.008), while the reaction time of the plantar flexor muscles was significantly faster (p = 0.007) for the involved feet of PF patients with flat feet than in those without flat feet. This study confirmed the differences in muscle performance between patients who have PF with different foot postures. Therefore, clinicians and therapists should plan treatment considering the differences in these characteristics for the management of these patients.
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Ridge, Sarah T., K. Michael Rowley, Toshiyuki Kurihara, Matthew McClung, Jiaxi Tang, Steven Reischl, and Kornelia Kulig. "Contributions of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Foot Muscles during Functional Standing Postures." BioMed Research International 2022 (May 5, 2022): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/7708077.
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Purpose. Maintaining balance during static standing postures requires the coordination of many neuromuscular mechanisms. The role of the intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscles in this paradigm has yet to be clearly defined. The purpose of this study was to explore foot muscle activation during static phases on common weight-bearing tasks of varying loads and balance demands. Methods. Twenty healthy young adults performed 6 standing postures (single-limb and double-limb stand, squat, and heel raise) with one foot on a force plate. Muscle activity was recorded from the abductor hallucis, flexor hallucis longus and brevis, and tibialis posterior using intramuscular electrodes; surface electrodes were used to record activity from the peroneus longus and tibialis anterior. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA (2 loading conditions × 3 postures) were run to compare muscle activation and center of pressure velocity. Results. Intrinsic foot muscle activity increased as loading and postural demand increased; however, the specific effects varied for each of the extrinsic foot muscles. Conclusions. These results suggest that the intrinsic foot muscles play an important role in maintaining static balance. Strengthening intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscles may help increase stability in people who have weak toe flexors or who suffer from a variety of foot pathologies.
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Dygut, Jacek, and Monika Piwowar. "Muscular Systems and Their Influence on Foot Arches and Toes Alignment—Towards the Proper Diagnosis and Treatment of Hallux Valgus." Diagnostics 12, no. 12 (November 25, 2022): 2945. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics12122945.
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(1) Background: Static foot deformities, including hallux valgus, are common deformities. The subject under consideration is the role of extrinsic and intrinsic muscles working within muscular systems that shape the arches of the foot and the alignment of the toes. (2) Methods: Based on a literature review, the muscle systems were analyzed. The systems under consideration were as follows: “tendon stirrup” (system I); muscles complementary to the tendon stirrup (system II); “foot lever” (system III); muscles complementary to system III (system IV); “reins of hallux” (system V), a muscular system having distal inserts on the hallux. The shape of the foot arches was analyzed in this context. (3) Results: The correct arch architecture of the foot stabilized mainly by the extrinsic muscle systems determining the function of the intrinsic muscle systems of the foot is described. The proper function of muscular systems shaping the arches of the foot is a prerequisite for the proper function of muscles directly responsible for the alignment of the big toe (hallux) and other foot toes. (4) Conclusion: The action of muscles should be considered in groups (systems) because the action of the group of muscles results in the creation of a new quality of movement. The analysis of individual muscle-pulling forces, especially the moments of force in the weight-bearing foot, may lead to extremely incorrect conclusions. In pathological cases, the restoration of the correct arches of the foot guarantees the recovery of the correct function of the pulling forces of the foot muscles responsible for the physiological alignment of the hallux. This is especially important concerning conservative and surgical treatment of hallux valgus.
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Knellwolf, T. P., A. R. Burton, E. Hammam, and V. G. Macefield. "Firing properties of muscle spindles supplying the intrinsic foot muscles of humans in unloaded and freestanding conditions." Journal of Neurophysiology 121, no. 1 (January 1, 2019): 74–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00539.2018.
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We recently developed an approach for recording from muscle spindles in the intrinsic muscles of the foot in freestanding humans by inserting a tungsten microelectrode into the posterior tibial nerve behind the medial malleolus of the ankle. Here we characterize the behavior of muscle spindles in the small muscles of the foot in 1) seated subjects with the leg horizontal and the foot naturally plantarflexed and 2) standing subjects. In the first study, recordings were made from 26 muscle spindle afferents located within flexor digiti minimi brevis ( n = 4), abductor digiti minimi ( n = 3), quadratus plantae ( n = 3), plantar interossei ( n = 4), flexor digitorum brevis ( n = 3), dorsal interossei ( n = 2), and lumbricals ( n = 2), with one each supplying abductor hallucis, adductor hallucis, and flexor hallucis brevis. The identity of another two muscle afferents was unknown. The majority of the units were silent at rest, only seven (27%) being spontaneously active. Because of the anatomic constraints of the foot, some spindles supplying muscles acting on the toes responded to movements of one or more digits. In the second study, 12 muscle spindle afferents were examined during standing. The ongoing discharge of eight spindle afferents covaried with changes in the center of pressure during postural sway. We conclude that the majority of spindle endings in the small muscles of the foot are silent at rest, which may allow them to encode changes in conformation of the foot when it is loaded during standing. Moreover, these muscle spindle afferents can provide useful proprioceptive information during standing and postural sway. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We have characterized the firing properties of muscle spindles in the intrinsic muscles of the human foot for the first time. The majority of the spindle endings are silent in seated subjects, and most fire tonically during standing, their discharge covarying with center of pressure during postural sway. We conclude that spindle endings in the intrinsic muscles of the foot provide useful proprioceptive information during free standing.
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Kelly, Luke A., Dominic J. Farris, Andrew G. Cresswell, and Glen A. Lichtwark. "Intrinsic foot muscles contribute to elastic energy storage and return in the human foot." Journal of Applied Physiology 126, no. 1 (January 1, 2019): 231–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00736.2018.
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The human foot is uniquely stiff to enable forward propulsion, yet also possesses sufficient elasticity to act as an energy store, recycling mechanical energy during locomotion. Historically, this dichotomous function has been attributed to the passive contribution of the plantar aponeurosis. However, recent evidence highlights the potential for muscles to modulate the energetic function of the foot actively. Here, we test the hypothesis that the central nervous system can actively control the foot’s energetic function, via activation of the muscles within the foot’s longitudinal arch. We used a custom-built loading apparatus to deliver cyclical loads to human feet in vivo, to deform the arch in a manner similar to that observed in locomotion. We recorded foot motion and forces, alongside muscle activation and ultrasound images from flexor digitorum brevis (FDB), an intrinsic foot muscle that spans the arch. When active, the FDB muscle fascicles contracted in an isometric manner, facilitating elastic energy storage in the tendon, in addition to the energy stored within the plantar aponeurosis. We propose that the human foot is akin to an active suspension system for the human body, with mechanical and energetic properties that can be actively controlled by the central nervous system. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The human foot is renowned for its ability to recycle mechanical energy during locomotion, contributing up to 17% of the energy required to power a stride. This mechanism has long been considered passive in nature, facilitated by the elastic ligaments within the arch of the foot. In this paper, we present the first direct evidence that the intrinsic foot muscles also contribute to elastic energy storage and return within the human foot. Isometric contraction of the flexor digitorum brevis muscle tissue facilitates tendon stretch and recoil during controlled loading of the foot. The significance of these muscles has been greatly debated by evolutionary biologists seeking to understand the origins of upright posture and gait, as well as applied and clinical scientists. The data we present here show a potential function for these muscles in contributing to the energetic function of the human foot.
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Andrade, Antonio C. F., Danilo S. Catelli, Bruno L. S. Bedo, Guilherme M. Cesar, Thiago F. Santos, Eduardo B. Junqueira, and Paulo R. P. Santiago. "Association between the Strength of Flexor Hallucis Brevis and Abductor Hallucis and Foot Mobility in Recreational Runners." Biomechanics 2, no. 4 (December 15, 2022): 613–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomechanics2040048.
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Different measurements of foot morphological characteristics can effectively predict foot muscle strength. However, it is still uncertain if structural and postural alterations leading to foot pronation could be compensated with more efficient function of the intrinsic foot muscles and how mobility and strength are associated. Additionally, the relationship between foot mobility and the strength of the intrinsic muscles that control the foot arch is still unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the morphological parameters between dominant and non-dominant feet and the relationship between the intrinsic foot muscle strength and foot mobility in recreational runners. We used a cross-sectional study design to evaluate twenty-four healthy recreational runners (minimum 15 km/week) with an average training history of 70 ± 60 months. Foot Posture Index (FPI-6), isometric intrinsic muscle strength, overall morphology, and normalized mobility of both feet were assessed. Parametric tests analyzed the unidimensional measures, and paired analysis determined differences between dominant and non-dominant sides. Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation coefficients determined the relationships between normalized strength and the variables of interest (CI = 95%). There was no significant association between intrinsic foot muscle strength and mobility. The only difference observed was between the dominant and non-dominant foot regarding the normalized foot length and midfoot width during non-weight-bearing, with small and medium effect sizes, respectively. Neither foot morphology nor foot mobility was associated with strength from intrinsic foot muscles in healthy recreational runners. Further work should explore the relationship investigated in our study with professional athletes and runners with symptomatic lower limb injuries to potentialize training and rehabilitation protocols.
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Hillen, Brian K., Devin L. Jindrich, James J. Abbas, Gary T. Yamaguchi, and Ranu Jung. "Effects of spinal cord injury-induced changes in muscle activation on foot drag in a computational rat ankle model." Journal of Neurophysiology 113, no. 7 (April 2015): 2666–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00507.2014.
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Spinal cord injury (SCI) can lead to changes in muscle activation patterns and atrophy of affected muscles. Moderate levels of SCI are typically associated with foot drag during the swing phase of locomotion. Foot drag is often used to assess locomotor recovery, but the causes remain unclear. We hypothesized that foot drag results from inappropriate muscle coordination preventing flexion at the stance-to-swing transition. To test this hypothesis and to assess the relative contributions of neural and muscular changes on foot drag, we developed a two-dimensional, one degree of freedom ankle musculoskeletal model with gastrocnemius and tibialis anterior muscles. Anatomical data collected from sham-injured and incomplete SCI (iSCI) female Long-Evans rats as well as physiological data from the literature were used to implement an open-loop muscle dynamics model. Muscle insertion point motion was calculated with imposed ankle trajectories from kinematic analysis of treadmill walking in sham-injured and iSCI animals. Relative gastrocnemius deactivation and tibialis anterior activation onset times were varied within physiologically relevant ranges based on simplified locomotor electromyogram profiles. No-atrophy and moderate muscle atrophy as well as normal and injured muscle activation profiles were also simulated. Positive moments coinciding with the transition from stance to swing phase were defined as foot swing and negative moments as foot drag. Whereas decreases in activation delay caused by delayed gastrocnemius deactivation promote foot drag, all other changes associated with iSCI facilitate foot swing. Our results suggest that even small changes in the ability to precisely deactivate the gastrocnemius could result in foot drag after iSCI.
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Kate, Riddhi, and Anagha Palkar. "Effect of Intrinsic Foot Muscle Exercises on Foot Posture Index in Obese Individuals with Pes Planus." International Journal of Health Sciences and Research 11, no. 10 (October 20, 2021): 280–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.52403/ijhsr.20211037.
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Background: Flatfoot (pes planus) is a postural deformity in which the arch of the foot collapses. Obesity increases the stresses applied to the foot directly, via increased bodyweight, and indirectly, via alterations to foot structure. Extrinsic and intrinsic foot muscles act as the main components of foot function. Foot posture index is a clinical tool used to quantify the degree to which a foot is pronated, neutral or supinated. Studies done have concluded that strengthening intrinsic muscles enhances dynamic support of MLA and foot stability. There is lack of literature on effectiveness of intrinsic exercise on flat foot in obese individuals, hence the present study is undertaken to assess and evaluate the effect of intrinsic foot muscle training on Foot Posture Index in obese individuals with pes planus. Methodology: This study was an experimental study where 30 obese patients were selected using convenient sampling. Pre and post treatment score of foot posture index was calculated. After that intrinsic foot muscle exercises and SFE were implemented on the subjects. Protocol (2times/day for 6weeks). Results: This study included 30 subjects consisting of 16 females and 14 males. Intra-group comparison of right leg and left leg foot posture index revealed that the FPI score scores were significantly reduced in obese individuals at sixth week from baseline (p<0.0001). Conclusion: Six-week short foot exercises and intrinsic foot muscle training was effective on reducing the foot pronation, pain and there was significant reduction in the FPI score in obese individuals with pes planus. Key words: SFE-Short Foot Exercises, FPI- Foot Posture Index, Pes Planus, Flat foot, Obese, Intrinsic foot muscle training.
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Kelly, Luke A., Glen A. Lichtwark, Dominic J. Farris, and Andrew Cresswell. "Shoes alter the spring-like function of the human foot during running." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 13, no. 119 (June 2016): 20160174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2016.0174.
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The capacity to store and return energy in legs and feet that behave like springs is crucial to human running economy. Recent comparisons of shod and barefoot running have led to suggestions that modern running shoes may actually impede leg and foot-spring function by reducing the contributions from the leg and foot musculature. Here we examined the effect of running shoes on foot longitudinal arch (LA) motion and activation of the intrinsic foot muscles. Participants ran on a force-instrumented treadmill with and without running shoes. We recorded foot kinematics and muscle activation of the intrinsic foot muscles using intramuscular electromyography. In contrast to previous assertions, we observed an increase in both the peak (flexor digitorum brevis +60%) and total stance muscle activation (flexor digitorum brevis +70% and abductor hallucis +53%) of the intrinsic foot muscles when running with shoes. Increased intrinsic muscle activation corresponded with a reduction in LA compression (−25%). We confirm that running shoes do indeed influence the mechanical function of the foot. However, our findings suggest that these mechanical adjustments are likely to have occurred as a result of increased neuromuscular output, rather than impaired control as previously speculated. We propose a theoretical model for foot–shoe interaction to explain these novel findings.
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Valentyn, Gusyev. "Functional foot correction is the basis of any therapy." Archives of Medical Case Reports and Case Study 5, no. 5 (June 6, 2022): 01–03. http://dx.doi.org/10.31579/2692-9392/122.
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The main element that supports lymph and blood circulation in the body - the processes of cell metabolism, are musculoskeletal structures. This is indicated by human physiology, but this is not taken into account in the treatment - rehabilitation of the body. The skeleton must be considered not only as a system of levers and muscles that form our posture, but also as a set of movements that are laid down by nature to support the functioning of lymphatic and venous-muscle pumps. The paired muscles hold the bones of the skeleton in the so-called neutral stable position. This achieves the relative stability of the body, in which the General Center of Gravity (GCG) of the body constantly makes oscillations in the X-Y planes within 2-4 cm from its neutral position. So in a state of rest, cell nutrition is continuously maintained, and their decay products are excreted. Without muscle contraction, the respiratory, digestive, and thermoregulation systems would not work.
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Gooding, Thomas M., Mark A. Feger, Joseph M. Hart, and Jay Hertel. "Intrinsic Foot Muscle Activation During Specific Exercises: A T2 Time Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study." Journal of Athletic Training 51, no. 8 (August 1, 2016): 644–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-51.10.07.
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Context: The intrinsic foot muscles maintain the medial longitudinal arch and aid in force distribution and postural control during gait. Impaired intrinsic foot-muscle function has been linked to various foot conditions. Several rehabilitative exercises have been proposed to improve it; however, literature that identifies which individual muscles are activated during specific intrinsic foot-muscle exercises is lacking. Objective: To describe changes in activation of the intrinsic plantar foot muscles after 4 exercises as measured with T2 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Setting: Research laboratory. Patients or Other Participants: Eight healthy National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I collegiate cross-country and track athletes (5 men and 3 women: age = 20 ± 0.93 years, height = 180.98 ± 10.84 cm, mass = 70.91 ± 7.82 kg). Intervention(s): Participants underwent T2 MRI before and after each exercise. They completed 1 set of 40 repetitions of each exercise (short-foot exercise, toes spread out, first-toe extension, second- to fifth-toes extension). Main Outcome Measure(s): Percentage increases in muscle activation of the abductor hallucis, flexor digitorum brevis, abductor digiti minimi, quadratus plantae, flexor digiti minimi, adductor hallucis oblique, flexor hallucis brevis, and interossei and lumbricals (analyzed together) after each exercise were assessed using T2 MRI. Results: All muscles showed increased activation after all exercises. The mean percentage increase in activation ranged from 16.7% to 34.9% for the short-foot exercise, 17.3% to 35.2% for toes spread out, 13.1% to 18.1% for first-toe extension, and 8.9% to 22.5% for second- to fifth-toes extension. All increases in activation had associated 95% confidence intervals that did not cross zero. Conclusions: Each of the 4 exercises was associated with increased activation in all of the plantar intrinsic foot muscles evaluated. These results may have clinical implications for the prescription of specific exercises to target individual intrinsic foot muscles.
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Colby, Scott, Anthony Francisco, Yu Bing, Donald Kirkendall, Michael Finch, and William Garrett. "Electromyographic and Kinematic Analysis of Cutting Maneuvers." American Journal of Sports Medicine 28, no. 2 (March 2000): 234–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/03635465000280021501.
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The objective of this study was to qualitatively characterize quadriceps and hamstring muscle activation as well as to determine knee flexion angle during the eccentric motion of sidestep cutting, cross-cutting, stopping, and landing. Fifteen healthy collegiate and recreational athletes performed the four movements while knee angle and electromyographic activity (surface electrodes) of the vastus lateralis, vastus medialis obliquus, rectus femoris, biceps femoris, and medial hamstring (semimembranosus/semitendinosus) muscles were recorded. The results indicated that there is high-level quadriceps muscle activation beginning just before foot strike and peaking in mid-eccentric motion. In these maneuvers, the level of quadriceps muscle activation exceeded that seen in a maximum isometric contraction. Hamstring muscle activation was sub-maximal at and after foot strike. The maximum quadriceps muscle activation for all maneuvers was 161% maximum voluntary contraction, while minimum hamstring muscle activity was 14%. Foot strike occurred at an average of 22° of knee flexion for all maneuvers. This low level of hamstring muscle activity and low angle of knee flexion at foot strike and during eccentric contraction, coupled with forces generated by the quadriceps muscles at the knee, could produce significant anterior displacement of the tibia, which may play a role in anterior cruciate ligament injury.
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Woźniacka, Renata, Łukasz Oleksy, Agnieszka Jankowicz-Szymańska, Anna Mika, Renata Kielnar, and Artur Stolarczyk. "The Association between Symmetrical or Asymmetrical High-Arched Feet and Muscle Fatigue in Young Women." Symmetry 14, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 52. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym14010052.
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The foot arches are responsible for proper foot loading, optimal force distribution, and transmission throughout the soft tissues. Since the foot arch is an elastic structure, able to adapt to forces transmitted by the foot, it was reported that low arch is related to excessive foot pronation, while high arched foot is more rigid and inflexible. Therefore, it is also probable, that foot arch alterations may change the force transmission via myofascial chains. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of symmetrical and asymmetrical excessive feet arching on muscle fatigue in the distal body parts such as the lower limbs, trunk, and head. Seventy-seven women (25.15 ± 5.97 years old, 62 ± 10 kg, 167 ± 4 cm) were assigned to three groups according to the foot arch index (Group 1—both feet with normal arch, Group 2—one foot with normal arch and the other high-arched, Group 3—both feet with high-arch). The bioelectrical activity of the right and left hamstrings muscles, erector spine, masseter, and temporalis muscle was recorded by sEMG during the isometric contraction lasting for 60 s. The stable intensity of the muscle isometric contraction was kept for all the time during the measurement. Mean frequency difference (%), slope (Hz), and intercept (Hz) values were calculated for muscle fatigue evaluation. No differences were observed in fatigue variables for all evaluated muscles between the right and left side in women with symmetrical foot arches, but in the group with asymmetric foot arches, the higher muscle fatigue on the normal-arched side compared to the high-arched side was noted. Significantly greater values of the semitendinosus—semimembranosus muscle frequency difference was observed on the normal-arched side compared to the high-arched side (p = 0.04; ES = 0.52; −29.5 ± 9.1% vs. −24.9 ± 8.4%). In the group with asymmetric foot arches, a significantly higher value of lumbar erector spinae muscle frequency slope (p = 0.01; ES = 1.32; −0.20 ± 0.04 Hz vs. −0.14 ± 0.05 Hz) and frequency difference (p = 0.04; ES = 0.92; −7.8 ± 3.1% vs. −4.8 ± 3.4%) were observed on the high-arched foot side compared to the side with normal foot arching. The thoracic erector spine muscle frequency slope was significantly larger in women with asymmetrical arches than in those with both feet high-arched (right side: p = 0.01; ES = 1.25; −0.20 ± 0.08 Hz vs. −0.10 ± 0.08 Hz); (left side: p = 0.005; ES = 1,17; −0.19 ± 0.04 Hz vs. −0.13 ± 0.06 Hz) and compared to those with normal feet arches (right side: p = 0.02; ES = 0.58; −0.20 ± 0.08 Hz vs. −0.15 ± 0.09 Hz); (left side: p = 0.005; ES = 0.87; −0.19 ± 0.04 Hz vs. −0.14 ± 0.07 Hz). In the group with asymmetric foot arches, the frequency difference was significantly higher compared to those with both feet high-arched (right side: p = 0.01; ES = 0.87; −15.4 ± 6.8% vs. 10.4 ± 4.3%); (left side: p = 0.01; ES = 0.96; 16.1 ± 6.5% vs. 11.1 ± 3.4%). In the group with asymmetric foot arches, a significantly higher value of the masseter muscle frequency difference was observed on the high-arched side compared to the normal-arched side (p = 0.01; ES = 0.95; 6.91 ± 4.1% vs. 3.62 ± 2.8%). A little increase in the longitudinal arch of the foot, even though such is often not considered as pathological, may cause visible changes in muscle function, demonstrated as elevated signs of muscles fatigue. This study suggests that the consequences of foot high-arching may be present in distal body parts. Any alterations of the foot arch should be considered as a potential foot defect, and due to preventing muscle overloading, some corrective exercises or/and corrective insoles for shoes should be used. It can potentially reduce both foot overload and distant structures overload, which may diminish musculoskeletal system pain and dysfunctions.
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Kosov, Igor' Semenovich, O. V. Kozhevnikov, S. A. Mikhaylova, S. E. Kralina, L. K. Kadzhaya, I. S. Kosov, O. V. Kozhevnikov, S. A. Mikhailova, S. E. Kralina, and L. K. Kadzhaya. "On Pathogenesis of Recurrent Club Foot." N.N. Priorov Journal of Traumatology and Orthopedics 18, no. 1 (March 15, 2011): 48–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/vto201118148-54.
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Complex study of motor skills in children with congenital club foot was performed at CITO laboratory of clinical physiology and biomechanics, and clinic of pediatric orthopaedics. Subjects for electrophysiological and biomechanical examination were 34 patients with congenital unilateral club foot (19 boys and 15 girls) aged from 3 to 16 years. Intact extremity indices were used for comparison. Study in open biokinematic contour mode on the affected side showed decrease in voluntary bioelectric activity of anterior tibial muscle by 34-60% and gastrocnemius muscle by 7-19%. Spectrum analysis of EMG and computed mechanography showed the decrease of tonic fibers activity in peroneal muscles of the lower leg with its increase in posterior group of muscles. Stabilometry and study of gate parameters on the affected side showed synergetic type of anterior and posterior muscles interaction with preservation of antagonistic type in the normal extremity. Suprasegmentary pattern of affection (lesion) was detected by method of stimulation electromyography. The data obtained confirm the influence of pathologic motor skill on the development of deformity recurrences at surgical treatment of children with congenital club foot.
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Knellwolf, T. P., A. R. Burton, E. Hammam, and V. G. Macefield. "Microneurography from the posterior tibial nerve: a novel method of recording activity from the foot in freely standing humans." Journal of Neurophysiology 120, no. 3 (September 1, 2018): 953–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00937.2017.
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The posterior tibial nerve, located behind the medial malleolus of the ankle, supplies the intrinsic muscles of the foot and most of the skin of the sole. We describe a novel approach for recording from this nerve via a percutaneously inserted tungsten microelectrode and provide examples of recordings from presumed muscle spindle endings recorded in freely standing human subjects. The fact that the angular excursions of the ankle joint are small as the foot is loaded during the transition from the seated position to standing means that one can obtain stable recordings of neural traffic in unloaded, loaded, and freely standing conditions. We conclude that this novel approach will allow studies that will increase our understanding of the roles of muscle and cutaneous afferents in the foot in the control of upright posture. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We have performed the first microneurographic studies from the posterior tibial nerve at the ankle. Stability of the recording site allows one to record from muscle spindles in the intrinsic muscles of the foot as well as from cutaneous mechanoreceptors in the sole of the foot during the transition from seated to standing. This novel approach opens up new opportunities for studying the roles of muscle and cutaneous afferents in the foot in the control of upright stance.
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Ridge, Sarah T. "Relationships between footwear, foot structure, and foot muscle strength." Footwear Science 11, sup1 (June 28, 2019): S3—S4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19424280.2019.1606340.
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Sulowska, Iwona, Anna Mika, and Łukasz Oleksy. "The influence of plantar short foot muscle exercises on foot posture and gait parameters in long-distance runners." Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 27, no. 78 (June 30, 2017): 75–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0011.6820.
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Aim: The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of exercises of plantar short foot muscles on foot posture and gait parameters in long-distance runners. Basic procedures: The study involved 48 long-distance runners aged 21-45 years. The runners performed the short foot muscle exercises daily for 6 weeks. The Foot Posture Index (FPI-6) and gait parameters (G-walk) were measured twice: at baseline and after 6 weeks of exercises. Results: Lower values of the Foot Posture Index (FPI-6) were observed. In the assessment of gait parameters runners obtained lower cadence, walking speed, stride length and % stride length/height. Gait cycle duration was increased. Conclusions: Exercises strengthening short foot muscles have beneficial effect on foot alignment by change of foot posture from a slight pronation towards a neutral foot. Change of gait parameters may indicate on improvement of motor control and shift natural and comfortable walking speed towards lower values. The short foot muscle exercises should be included as a part of daily training programme of runners.
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Allan, Joanne, William Munro, and Elaine Figgins. "Foot deformities within the diabetic foot and their influence on biomechanics: A review of the literature." Prosthetics and Orthotics International 40, no. 2 (July 24, 2015): 182–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0309364615592705.
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Background: Diabetes mellitus causes a multitude of complications. Foot ulceration is one complication with serious consequences, amputation. Foot deformities contribute to ulcer development. It would be advantageous to ascertain whether foot deformities are preventable as their presence increases amputation risk. Objectives: The objectives were to understand the development of foot deformities in diabetes and explore their biomechanical effects. Study design: Literature review. Methods: In February 2014 CINAHL, Embase, Ovid and Medline were searched. Studies in English of adults with Diabetes that reported neuropathy, foot deformities or associated gait abnormalities were included for review. All study designs were considered. The articles’ quality was considered high overall, assessed using SIGN and CARS. Results: In total, 17 studies were reviewed. The main themes identified in relation to foot deformities were nerve function, intrinsic foot muscles, muscle weakness and limited joint mobility. Nerve function and intrinsic foot muscle atrophy did not display definitive associations with foot deformities. However, muscle weakness and limited joint mobility were associated with foot deformities, although the relationship is still unclear. Conclusion: The development of common foot deformities in diabetes is not well understood. The literature did not support the common belief that motor neuropathy, atrophy and muscle imbalance cause foot deformities. Clinical relevance An understanding of the aetiology of foot deformities in diabetes mellitus may allow for pro-active management of the foot in anticipation of the development of foot deformities and ulceration. If the aetiology of deformity was established preventative treatment may reduce the incidence of foot deformities and resultant ulcerations and amputations.
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G, Valentyn. "Diabetic Foot." Clinical Research Notes 2, no. 1 (September 6, 2021): 01–03. http://dx.doi.org/10.31579/2690-8816/036.
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Diabetic foot syndrome is a complex complex of anatomical and functional changes that occur in 40-60% of patients with diabetes mellitus. It is believed that a high blood glucose content reduces its fluidity, impairs arterial and capillary blood circulation (angiopathy), leads to damage to the vessels and nerves of the lower extremities, and to a disorder of muscle innervation processes (neuropathy). At first, gangrene develops on one leg, which can be seen from the swelling and color difference of the skin of the legs, the appearance of a feeling of "foot in a trap", when its squeezing is felt, the temperature of the tissues rises
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Kelly, Luke A., Andrew G. Cresswell, Sebastien Racinais, Rodney Whiteley, and Glen Lichtwark. "Intrinsic foot muscles have the capacity to control deformation of the longitudinal arch." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 11, no. 93 (April 6, 2014): 20131188. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2013.1188.
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The human foot is characterized by a pronounced longitudinal arch (LA) that compresses and recoils in response to external load during locomotion, allowing for storage and return of elastic energy within the passive structures of the arch and contributing to metabolic energy savings. Here, we examine the potential for active muscular contribution to the biomechanics of arch deformation and recoil. We test the hypotheses that activation of the three largest plantar intrinsic foot muscles, abductor hallucis, flexor digitorum and quadratus plantae is associated with muscle stretch in response to external load on the foot and that activation of these muscles (via electrical stimulation) will generate sufficient force to counter the deformation of LA caused by the external load. We found that recruitment of the intrinsic foot muscles increased with increasing load, beyond specific load thresholds. Interestingly, LA deformation and muscle stretch plateaued towards the maximum load of 150% body weight, when muscle activity was greatest. Electrical stimulation of the plantar intrinsic muscles countered the deformation that occurred owing to the application of external load by reducing the length and increasing the height of the LA. These findings demonstrate that these muscles have the capacity to control foot posture and LA stiffness and may provide a buttressing effect during foot loading. This active arch stiffening mechanism may have important implications for how forces are transmitted during locomotion and postural activities as well as consequences for metabolic energy saving.
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Mohammadi, Hosein Kouhzad, Khosro Khademi Kalantari, Sedighe Sadat Naeimi, Alireza kbarzadeh Baghban, Navid Taheri, and Mohammad Pouretezad. "Comparison of Lower Limb Muscle Activation Patterns in Different Foot Structures using Voluntary Response Index: A Study Protocol." International Journal of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation 1, no. 2 (May 25, 2022): 49–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.12974/2313-0954.2014.01.02.4.
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Background: Structural foot disorders can widely contribute to lower limb musculoskeletal conditions. Some researchers consider them the origin of overuse injuries in lower limbs. Although their effects on electrical activities of intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscles are well-established, their impact on other lower limb muscle groups are yet to be clarified.
Objectives: This study aims to identify the activation patterns of lower limb muscle groups in various foot structures.
Materials and Methods: In this case control study, 45 asymptomatic male and female subjects with different foot structures (pronated, supinated, and normal) will be selected using non-random sampling. The electrical activities of the gluteus medius, vastus lateralis and medialis, biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and lateral and medial gastrocnemius muscles will be examined during a jump-landing task. Voluntary response index, including magnitude and similarity index, will be subsequently calculated.
Discussion: While several studies have evaluated the activation of lower limb muscles in different foot structures, they have solely focused on foot muscles. In contrast, the present study will assess activation patterns of the global lower limb muscles using the voluntary response index.
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Askerov, E. D., O. Z. Topolnitsky, and O. V. Zayratyants. "Anatomical features of the extensor digitorum brevis muscle as a plastic material in reconstructive surgery of facial paralysis." Pediatric dentistry and dental profilaxis 20, no. 2 (June 10, 2020): 84–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.33925/1683-3031-2020-20-2-84-87.
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Relevance. Facial paralysis is a common neurological illnesses of the maxillofacial region. Gold standard of dynamic correction of permanent facial paralysis is gracilis muscle transfer. However, using this flap is impractical or impossible in some cases. There are few domestic and international publications about extensor digitorum brevis muscle for facial reanimation surgery.Purpose. Assessment of muscle variability on the dorsum of the foot; analysis of blood supply and innervation of the extensor digitorum brevis muscle.Materials and methods. Operations performed on 10 unclaimed corpses: dissection of the extensor digitorum brevis muscle, as well as the blood vessels and nerves of the dorsum of the foot. The legal and ethical requirements for such studies were observed planning the design of the study and during work.Results. As a result, in 80% of cases, was found a typical anatomy of muscles, blood vessels, and nerves in the dorsum of the foot. In 10% was found a typical anatomy of muscles and nerves, but there was no lateral tarsal artery – the branch of the dorsal artery of the foot. Blood supply to the extensor digitorum brevis muscle performed by perforating branches of the peroneal artery. In 10% was found subtotal atrophy and fibrous degeneration of the extensor digitorum brevis muscle.Conclusions. The use of the extensor digitorum brevis muscle is a perspective method for the treatment of facial paralysis. Harvesting of this flap is complicated.
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Li, Sheng. "Ankle and Foot Spasticity Patterns in Chronic Stroke Survivors with Abnormal Gait." Toxins 12, no. 10 (October 7, 2020): 646. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12100646.
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Chronic stroke survivors with spastic hemiplegia have various clinical presentations of ankle and foot muscle spasticity patterns. They are mechanical consequences of interactions between spasticity and weakness of surrounding muscles during walking. Four common ankle and foot spasticity patterns are described and discussed through sample cases. The patterns discussed are equinus, varus, equinovarus, and striatal toe deformities. Spasticity of the primary muscle(s) for each deformity is identified. However, it is emphasized that clinical presentation depends on the severity of spasticity and weakness of these muscles and their interactions. Careful and thorough clinical assessment of the ankle and foot deformities is needed to determine the primary cause of each deformity. An understanding of common ankle and foot spasticity patterns can help guide clinical assessment and selection of target spastic muscles for botulinum toxin injection or nerve block.
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Żebrowska, Kinga, and Katarzyna Homoncik. "The influence of foot arch on ankle joint torques andon sEMG signal amplitude in selected lower leg muscles." Advances in Rehabilitation 30, no. 3 (September 1, 2016): 69–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/rehab-2015-0050.
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Abstract Introduction: This study sought to assess the influence of proper foot arch on electromyographic activity of selected lower limb muscles. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of foot arch on the activity of selected muscles and to determine whether electromyography might help to identify types of flat feet resulting from muscle- or ligament-related causes. Material and methods: The experiment involved 24 students of the Faculty of Rehabilitation, University of Physical Education in Warsaw. To determine Clarke’s angle, all study participants were examined with a podoscope. Based on the obtained results, the subjects were divided into two groups. The experimental group consisted of 12 individuals with low foot arches, while the control group included students with proper foot arches. The surface EMG (sEMG) signal was recorded from the following muscles: peroneus longus, tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius and soleus. First, the sEMG signal was recorded while measuring MVC for ankle extensors and flexors. Then, it was recorded in the following positions: free standing, two-leg standing on tiptoe, one-leg standing on tiptoe, pressing the first metatarsal head to the ground standing on heels. Results: No significant differences in muscle activity between the groups with low and proper foot arches were noted (p>0.05). Muscle activity did not prove to be a differentiating factor. Moreover, no differences were found in torques of ankle extensors and flexors between both groups. Conclusions: The findings of the study confirmed the hypothesis that the size of the foot arch had no effect on electromyographic activity of lower limb muscles. It was also revealed that flat feet did not lead to the weakening of muscle strength of ankle flexors and extensors.
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Sung, Paul S. "Relative index of ankle muscle activations on agonistic phase between subjects with and without flat foot." Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Informatics 2, no. 1 (November 2, 2015): 129. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/jbei.v2n1p129.
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Background: Although co-activation of ankle muscles has been reported, relative ankle muscle activation in subjects with flat foot has not been carefully investigated. The aim of this study was to compare the relative activation index (RAI) on the tibialis anterior (TA) and medial gastrocnemius (GTN) muscles during active ankle range of motion (ROM) between subjects with and without flat foot. Methods: There were 17 subjects with flat foot and 17 age- and gender-matched control subjects who participated in this study. The RAI based on electromyography (EMG) was measured during the agonist phase at a controlled velocity of ankle motion (10°/second). The subject was seated upright with the tested foot held firmly onto a footplate that was attached to a torque sensor. The ankle being measured was strapped to the leg support of the Intel stretch device at 60° of knee flexion. The RAI was analyzed by the summation of EMG activity from the agonistic time window divided by the total EMG activity during full active ankle ROM. Results: The RAI was significantly different on the TA muscle (t = 3.08, P = 0.004), but no difference was found on the GTN muscle (t = -1.24, P = 0.23) in subjects with flat foot. There was an interaction between group and RAI (F =7.89, P = 0.007); however, the RAI demonstrated no interaction with age (F = 2.59, P = 0.14), height (F = 3.73, P = 0.06), or weight (F = 2.96, P = 0.09). Conclusions: The RAI indicated a lack of TA muscle activation in the flat foot group. Such dissociated activation in the flat foot group might be relevant to the inefficiency of synergistic motions. The relative activation of the agonistic phase needs to be further investigated to compare co-activation of synergistic muscle activation with various functional tasks.
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Ferris, Daniel P., Joseph M. Czerniecki, and Blake Hannaford. "An Ankle-Foot Orthosis Powered by Artificial Pneumatic Muscles." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 21, no. 2 (May 2005): 189–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.21.2.189.
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We developed a pneumatically powered orthosis for the human ankle joint. The orthosis consisted of a carbon fiber shell, hinge joint, and two artificial pneumatic muscles. One artificial pneumatic muscle provided plantar flexion torque and the second one provided dorsiflexion torque. Computer software adjusted air pressure in each artificial muscle independently so that artificial muscle force was proportional to rectified low-pass-filtered electromyography (EMG) amplitude (i.e., proportional myoelectric control). Tibialis anterior EMG activated the artificial dorsiflexor and soleus EMG activated the artificial plantar flexor. We collected joint kinematic and artificial muscle force data as one healthy participant walked on a treadmill with the orthosis. Peak plantar flexor torque provided by the orthosis was 70 Nm, and peak dorsiflexor torque provided by the orthosis was 38 Nm. The orthosis could be useful for basic science studies on human locomotion or possibly for gait rehabilitation after neurological injury.
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Minetto, Marco Alessandro, and Alberto Botter. "Elicitability of muscle cramps in different leg and foot muscles." Muscle & Nerve 40, no. 4 (October 2009): 535–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mus.21382.
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Dingenen, Bart, Louis Peeraer, Kevin Deschamps, Steffen Fieuws, Luc Janssens, and Filip Staes. "Muscle-Activation Onset Times With Shoes and Foot Orthoses in Participants With Chronic Ankle Instability." Journal of Athletic Training 50, no. 7 (July 1, 2015): 688–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-50.2.02.
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Context Participants with chronic ankle instability (CAI) use an altered neuromuscular strategy to shift weight from double-legged to single-legged stance. Shoes and foot orthoses may influence these muscle-activation patterns. Objective To evaluate the influence of shoes and foot orthoses on onset times of lower extremity muscle activity in participants with CAI during the transition from double-legged to single-legged stance. Design Cross-sectional study. Setting Musculoskeletal laboratory. Patients or Other Participants A total of 15 people (9 men, 6 women; age = 21.8 ± 3.0 years, height = 177.7 ± 9.6 cm, mass = 72.0 ± 14.6 kg) who had CAI and wore foot orthoses were recruited. Intervention(s) A transition task from double-legged to single-legged stance was performed with eyes open and with eyes closed. Both limbs were tested in 4 experimental conditions: (1) barefoot (BF), (2) shoes only, (3) shoes with standard foot orthoses, and (4) shoes with custom foot orthoses (SCFO). Main Outcome Measure(s) The onset of activity of 9 lower extremity muscles was recorded using surface electromyography and a single force plate. Results Based on a full-factorial (condition, region, limb, vision) linear model for repeated measures, we found a condition effect (F3,91.8 = 9.39, P < .001). Differences among experimental conditions did not depend on limb or vision condition. Based on a 2-way (condition, muscle) linear model within each region (ankle, knee, hip), earlier muscle-activation onset times were observed in the SCFO than in the BF condition for the peroneus longus (P < .001), tibialis anterior (P = .003), vastus medialis obliquus (P = .04), and vastus lateralis (P = .005). Furthermore, the peroneus longus was activated earlier in the shoes-only (P = .02) and shoes-with-standard-foot-orthoses (P = .03) conditions than in the BF condition. No differences were observed for the hip muscles. Conclusions Earlier onset of muscle activity was most apparent in the SCFO condition for ankle and knee muscles but not for hip muscles during the transition from double-legged to single-legged stance. These findings might help clinicians understand how shoes and foot orthoses can influence neuromuscular control in participants with CAI.
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Xiao, Songlin, Xini Zhang, Liqin Deng, Shen Zhang, Kedong Cui, and Weijie Fu. "Relationships between Foot Morphology and Foot Muscle Strength in Healthy Adults." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 4 (February 17, 2020): 1274. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041274.
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The purpose of this study was to investigate if measurements of foot morphology in sitting and standing positions can predict foot muscle strength. Twenty-six healthy male adults were recruited, and their foot morphology and foot muscle strength were measured. Foot morphological variables, toe flexor strength, and metatarsophalangeal joint flexor strength were measured by using a digital caliper, Ailitech-AFG500 dynameter and metatarsophalangeal joint flexor strength tester, respectively. Partial correlation and multivariate stepwise regression were used to explore the relationships between foot morphology and toe/metatarsophalangeal joint strength. Results adjusted by age and body mass index were as follows: (1) truncated foot length in sitting and standing positions and foot width in standing position were positively correlated with the flexor strength of the first toe; (2) foot length, foot width, and truncated foot length in both positions were positively related to the flexor strength of the other toes; (3) arch height index in sitting position and differences in navicular height were negatively associated with the flexor strength of the other toes; (4) differences in foot width were negatively associated with metatarsophalangeal joint flexor strength; and (5) the multivariate stepwise regression model showed that truncated foot length in sitting position, navicular height in standing position, differences in navicular height, foot width in sitting position, and differences in foot width were significantly correlated with toe/metatarsophalangeal joint flexor strength. Simple measurements of foot morphological characteristics can effectively predict foot muscle strength. Preliminary findings provided practical implications for the improvement of the foot ability by making specific foot muscle training sessions in professional sports and by compensating the predicted muscle strength defects to prevent foot injury.
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Yunita, Yunita, Aan Wasan, Susilo Susilo, Widiastuti Widiastuti, Juriana Juriana, Kurnia Tahki, and Muchtar Hendra Hasibuan. "The effect of eye-foot coordination, leg muscle strength and mental skills on the shooting skills of bangka football school athletes." Gladi : Jurnal Ilmu Keolahragaan 13, no. 04 (December 30, 2022): 347–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.21009/gjik.134.01.
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This study aims to determine the effect of eye-foot coordination, leg muscle strength, and mental skills on the shooting skills of Bangka Football School athletes. The research method used is an associative quantitative approach with non-test techniques, while the analysis technique uses a path analysis approach. This research was conducted at SSB Selindung 89, Bangka, aged 9-12 years, totaling 36 people. To measure shooting skills, use a ball shooting skill test which is placed at a point 8 m in front of the goal/target. Test your eye-foot coordination by kicking the ball against a wall or the Threebox Wall Soccer Test. Test leg muscle strength using a leg dynamometer with three trials. While the mental skills test uses a questionnaire. Conclusions from the results of the study 1) Eye-foot coordination has a direct effect on shooting skills by 34.1%. 2) Leg muscle strength has a direct effect on shooting skills by 45.3%. 3) Mental skills directly affect shooting skills by 35.4%. 4) Eye-foot coordination has a direct effect on mental skills by 23.5%. 5) Leg muscle strength has a direct effect on mental skills by 44.8%. 6) Eye-foot coordination has an indirect effect on shooting skills of athletes through mental skills of 50.7%. 7) Leg muscle strength has an indirect effect on athletes' shooting skills through mental skills of 43.8%.
Keywords: Eye-Foot Coordination, Leg Muscles, Mental Skills, Shooting
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Windisch, G., F. Anderhuber, V. Haldi-Brändle, and G. Exner. "Additional Muscle in Idiopathic Club Foot." European Journal of Pediatric Surgery 16, no. 4 (August 2006): 294–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-924372.
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Craigen, M. A. C., and E. G. Anderson. "Smooth muscle tumours in the foot." Foot 1, no. 1 (April 1991): 33–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0958-2592(91)90009-z.
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Sakamoto, Kodai, Megumi Sasaki, Chie Tsujioka, and Shintarou Kudo. "An Elastic Foot Orthosis for Limiting the Increase of Shear Modulus of Lower Leg Muscles after a Running Task: A Randomized Crossover Trial." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 22 (November 18, 2022): 15212. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192215212.
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Background: Excessive foot pronation may be attributed to an increasing burden on leg muscles during running, which might be a factor in medial tibial stress syndrome. We developed an elastic foot orthosis (EFO) that can decrease foot pronation and aimed to identify whether this orthosis could limit the increase in lower leg muscle hardness after running. Methods: Twenty-one healthy volunteers participated in this randomized crossover trial with an elastic or sham foot orthosis (SFO). All volunteers ran on a treadmill for 60 min while wearing either orthosis. Muscle hardness of the posterior lower leg was assessed using shear wave elastography before and after running. The Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to compare muscle hardness between the two orthotic conditions. Results: No significant differences were observed between the two orthotic conditions before running (p > 0.05). After running, the flexor digitorum longus (FDL) hardness in the EFO group was significantly lower than that in the SFO group (p < 0.01). No significant changes were observed in the other muscles. Conclusion: The results suggest that the EFO can restrict the increase in FDL hardness with running. The EFO may be an effective orthotic treatment for medial tibial stress syndrome.
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Bae, Youngsook. "Standing Up from a Chair with an Asymmetrical Initial Foot Position Decreases Trunk and Masticatory Muscle Activities in Healthy Young Men." Healthcare 8, no. 4 (November 12, 2020): 480. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8040480.
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This study aimed to identify the activation of lower extremity, trunk, and masticatory muscle and trunk kinematics of the initial foot position during the sit-to-stand (STS) movement. Sixteen young men participated in this cross-sectional pilot study and performed STS using both symmetrical and asymmetrical foot positions. Activation of the tibialis anterior (TA), gastrocnemius lateral head (GA), rectus femoris (RF), biceps femoris (BF), rectus abdominis, erector spinae (ES), sternocleidomastoid (SCM), upper trapezius (UT), temporalis (TE), and masseter muscles in the dominant side was determined. For trunk kinematics, head and trunk velocities, front-back (For-Back) and mediolateral (Med-Lat) weight translation rates, and trunk inclination were measured. GA, TA, BF, and RF activation significantly increased, whereas ES, SCM, UT, and TE activation significantly decreased when using the asymmetrical foot position. Head velocity, For-Back, Med-Lat, and trunk inclination were also significantly decreased. In conclusion, the asymmetrical foot position increases muscle activation in the lower extremities and decreases trunk inclination. In addition, ES, UT, and TE muscle activity decreases at the initial asymmetrical foot position.
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Waheed, Junaid, Nitin Kumar Arora, and Moazzam Hussain Khan. "Comparison of Leg Muscle Activity During Level and Uphill Walking in Individuals with Flat Foot and Normal Foot: A Cross-Sectional Study." Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism 29, no. 1 (March 1, 2022): 14–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/pjst-2022-0003.
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Abstract Introduction. Arches of the foot play a significant role in lower limb function and impairments in the arches are correlated to increased injury risk. The aim of this study was to identify the difference in muscles activity in individuals with a flat foot as compared to those with normal foot arch using surface electromyography (sEMG) while walking on at different speeds and gradients (slope of the treadmill). Material and Methods. Sixty healthy subjects were recruited by convenience sampling method and equally divided into two groups: short arch group (n = 30) and normal arch group (n = 30) by measuring arch height. All the subjects were made to walk on a treadmill at varying speeds (2.7, 4.5, and 6.3 km/h) and gradients (0%, 3%, 6% and 9%). The sEMG activity was recorded for medial gastrocnemius (GM) muscle and peroneus longus (PL) muscle while walking on the treadmill. Results. 2 x 3 x 4 split-plot ANOVA revealed a significant group effect for GM activity (p < 0.001), whereas PL activity was not able to show a significant group effect (p = 0.109). Increasing speeds led to a significant difference in the sEMG activity of PL and GM muscles (p < 0.001) in the two groups. Increasing gradient of treadmill also showed a significant difference in the sEMG activity in the two groups for PL and GM muscle (p < 0.05). Conclusions. The findings of this study demonstrated that subjects with flat feet had a lesser activation in PL muscles as compared to subjects with normal foot curvature. Therefore, it is necessary to incorporate strategies to improve the strength of these muscles to improve the arches of the foot.
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Burns, Joshua, Anthony Redmond, Robert Ouvrier, and Jack Crosbie. "Quantification of Muscle Strength and Imbalance in Neurogenic Pes Cavus, Compared to Health Controls, Using Hand-Held Dynamometry." Foot & Ankle International 26, no. 7 (July 2005): 540–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/107110070502600708.
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Background: Pes cavus foot deformity in neuromuscular disease is thought to be related to an imbalance of musculature around the foot and ankle. The most common cause of neurogenic pes cavus is Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease. The aim of this investigation was to objectively quantify muscle strength and imbalance using hand-held dynamometry in patients diagnosed with CMT and pes cavus, compared to healthy controls. Methods: Muscles responsible for inversion, eversion, plantarflexion, and dorsiflexion of the foot and ankle were measured in 55 subjects (11 CMT patients with a frank pes cavus, and 44 healthy controls with normal feet) using the Nicholas hand-held dynamometer (HHD). Test-retest reliability of the HHD procedure also was determined for each of the four muscle groups in the healthy controls. Results: Test-retest reliability of the HHD procedure was excellent (ICC3,1 = 0.88 to 0.95) and the measurement error was low (SEM = 0.3 to 0.7 kg). Patients with CMT were significantly weaker than normal for all foot and ankle muscle groups tested ( p <0.001). Strength ratios of inversion-to-eversion and plantarflexion-to-dorsiflexion were significantly higher in the patients with CMT and pes cavus compared to individuals with normal foot types ( p > 0.01). Conclusions: Hand-held dynamometry is an objective and reliable instrument to measure muscle strength and imbalance in patients with CMT and a pes cavus foot deformity.
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Tjolleng, Amir, Jaesik Yang, and Kihyo Jung. "Analysis of Leg Muscle Activities and Foot Angles while Pressing the Accelerator Pedal by Different Foot Postures." Applied Sciences 12, no. 24 (December 19, 2022): 13025. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app122413025.
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The accelerator pedal in a vehicle can be pressed by either of two (natural and rotated) foot postures, according to driver preference. Since the rotated foot posture requires only foot motion to switch between the brake and accelerator pedals, most drivers prefer it over the natural foot posture, which requires both leg and foot motions to switch between the pedals. However, the rotated foot posture may require more leg-muscle efforts and an awkward foot posture while operating the accelerator pedal, due to an inappropriate contact between the sole of the foot and the top surface of the accelerator pedal. This study examined the effects of foot postures on leg-muscle activities and foot angles while pressing the accelerator pedal for 10 male drivers. The experimental data revealed that %MVC (maximum voluntary contraction) of leg muscles for the rotated posture (6.39%) was significantly higher than that of the natural posture (3.86%). Both foot postures showed shared patterns in foot angles while pressing the accelerator pedal; however, a slight awkward foot inversion was observed in the rotated posture while pressing the accelerator pedal. The findings of this study suggest that a new design of accelerator pedal is needed for a better user experience while pressing the accelerator pedal with the rotated foot posture.
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Baggett, Mary Caitlin, and Diane Nykamp. "Statin-Associated Bilateral Foot Myopathy." Journal of Pharmacy Practice 33, no. 6 (June 27, 2019): 899–902. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0897190019857851.
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Objective: To report a case of statin-induced bilateral foot myopathy that resulted from 2 different statins. Case Summary: A 44-year-old Caucasian male with a history of ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest, hyperlipidemia, and coronary artery disease experienced bilateral foot pain, weakness, and soreness while taking atorvastatin 20 mg daily. The pain subsided within weeks of discontinuing atorvastatin but returned years later after the initiation of rosuvastatin. The Naranjo probability scale indicates that this is a definite association between bilateral foot myopathy and statin use. Discussion: There is an association with statin use and lowering cardiovascular risk in patients with dyslipidemia and cardiovascular disease. However, statin metabolites can accumulate in the myocytes of muscle groups to cause a common side effect of myopathy. Statin myopathy typically occurs in large, bilateral, or proximal muscle groups, such as the thighs, back, calves, or buttocks. This patient was unusual in that his muscle symptoms only occurred in his feet and was severe enough to affect his ambulation. Conclusion: Stain-associated muscle symptoms have been reported to lessen medication adherence. There is also a risk with muscle symptoms that the patient could develop rhabdomyolysis, a rare but serious condition. Recognizing statin-associated muscle symptoms even in uncommon locations is important, so that alternative lipid-lowering strategies can be implemented to lower cardiovascular risk.
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Lin, Jian-Zhi, Wen-Yu Chiu, Wei-Hsun Tai, Yu-Xiang Hong, and Chung-Yu Chen. "Ankle Muscle Activations during Different Foot-Strike Patterns in Running." Sensors 21, no. 10 (May 14, 2021): 3422. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21103422.
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This study analysed the landing performance and muscle activity of athletes in forefoot strike (FFS) and rearfoot strike (RFS) patterns. Ten male college participants were asked to perform two foot strikes patterns, each at a running speed of 6 km/h. Three inertial sensors and five EMG sensors as well as one 24 G accelerometer were synchronised to acquire joint kinematics parameters as well as muscle activation, respectively. In both the FFS and RFS patterns, according to the intraclass correlation coefficient, excellent reliability was found for landing performance and muscle activation. Paired t tests indicated significantly higher ankle plantar flexion in the FFS pattern. Moreover, biceps femoris (BF) and gastrocnemius medialis (GM) activation increased in the pre-stance phase of the FFS compared with that of RFS. The FFS pattern had significantly decreased tibialis anterior (TA) muscle activity compared with the RFS pattern during the pre-stance phase. The results demonstrated that the ankle strategy focused on controlling the foot strike pattern. The influence of the FFS pattern on muscle activity likely indicates that an athlete can increase both BF and GM muscles activity. Altered landing strategy in cases of FFS pattern may contribute both to the running efficiency and muscle activation of the lower extremity. Therefore, neuromuscular training and education are required to enable activation in dynamic running tasks.
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Sanders, Michael, Anton E. Bowden, Spencer Baker, Ryan Jensen, McKenzie Nichols, and Matthew K. Seeley. "The Influence of Ambulatory Aid on Lower-Extremity Muscle Activation During Gait." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 27, no. 3 (May 1, 2018): 230–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2016-0148.
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Context: Foot and ankle injuries are common and often require a nonweight-bearing period of immobilization for the involved leg. This nonweight-bearing period usually results in muscle atrophy for the involved leg. There is a dearth of objective data describing muscle activation for different ambulatory aids that are used during the aforementioned nonweight-bearing period. Objective: To compare activation amplitudes for 4 leg muscles during (1) able-bodied gait and (2) ambulation involving 3 different ambulatory aids that can be used during the acute phase of foot and ankle injury care. Design: Within-subject, repeated measures. Setting: University biomechanics laboratory. Participants: Sixteen able-bodied individuals (7 females and 9 males). Intervention: Each participant performed able-bodied gait and ambulation using 3 different ambulatory aids (traditional axillary crutches, knee scooter, and a novel lower-leg prosthesis). Main Outcome Measure: Muscle activation amplitude quantified via mean surface electromyography amplitude throughout the stance phase of ambulation. Results: Numerous statistical differences (P < .05) existed for muscle activation amplitude between the 4 observed muscles, 3 ambulatory aids, and able-bodied gait. For the involved leg, comparing the 3 ambulatory aids: (1) knee scooter ambulation resulted in the greatest vastus lateralis activation, (2) ambulation using the novel prosthesis and traditional crutches resulted in greater biceps femoris activation than knee scooter ambulation, and (3) ambulation using the novel prosthesis resulted in the greatest gastrocnemius activation (P < .05). Generally speaking, muscle activation amplitudes were most similar to able-bodied gait when subjects were ambulating using the knee scooter or novel prosthesis. Conclusions: Type of ambulatory aid influences muscle activation amplitude. Traditional axillary crutches appear to be less likely to mitigate muscle atrophy during the nonweighting, immobilization period that often follows foot or ankle injuries. Researchers and clinicians should consider these results when recommending ambulatory aids for foot or ankle injuries.
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Faraji, Ali, and Mohsen Rasouli Valajoozi. "Interactive Foot Orthosis (IFO) for People with Drop Foot." Applied Mechanics and Materials 464 (November 2013): 129–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.464.129.
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Different reasons in anatomical and physiological systems' defect may cause disorders in proper gaiting process. Drop foot is one of these. These factors effect on one particular muscle called tibialis anterior, locating on tibia. This problem occurs after the treatments of the different leg related disease. This research is designed a novel product to help patients having a normal and standard gait as well as to improve the muscle weakness and movement. It also provides the important expected factors such as functionality, ergonomics, consistency, pleasure, aesthetic, and finally user satisfaction. By making use of interaction design strategy, three functional mechanisms are designed to improve the disease. In order to measure the rate of applied criteria, and potential of new design, the designed products were evaluated by target group. Final conclusion is stated the product is positively developed.
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Jung, Dohee, Chunghwi Yi, Woochol Joseph Choi, and Joshua Sung H. You. "Effect of dynamic guidance-tubing short foot gait exercise on muscle activity and navicular movement in people with flexible flatfeet." NeuroRehabilitation 47, no. 2 (September 24, 2020): 217–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/nre-203106.
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BACKGROUND: Navicular drop is a common plantar deformity which makes the plantar medial longitudinal arch (MLA) collapse and leads to other deformities in lower extremities. Active structures are from intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscle activities such as abductor hallucis (AbdH), tibialis anterior (TA), tibialis posterior, flexor hallucis brevis, flexor digitorum brevis during dynamic situations. As AbdH plays a role as a dynamic elevator of MLA, the importance of AbdH has been emphasized and the proper recruitment of both intrinsic and extrinsic muscle is crucial for stabilization of MLA during dynamic weight bearing condition. Because the short foot (SF) exercise is difficult to perform and tends to activate the intrinsic muscles concentrically rather than a natural coordination of concentric-isometric-eccentric activation, we have developed the guidance-tubing SF gait (GFG) exercise. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the effect of GFG exercise on muscle activity, AbdH:TA activity ratio, MLA angle, and foot pressure distribution during walking compared to SF gait (SFG) exercise. METHODS: Thirty-two subjects with flexible flat feet were divided into two groups and performed SFG exercise with (GFG) and without guidance-tubing (SFG) for seven serial days. RESULTS: AbdH muscle activity significantly increased from foot flat to heel rise in the GFG group (p = 0.006). The AbdH:TA activity ratio significantly increased in both the SFG (p = 0.015) group and GFG group (p = 0.006). MLA angles significantly decreased in both the SFG group (p = 0.001) and GFG group (p = 0.000), and the decrement was significantly higher in the GFG group (p = 0.001). The foot pressure distribution did not show any statistically significant change. CONCLUSIONS: The result of this study provides a clinical implication for training MLA supporter muscles in individuals with flat feet. The overactive muscle must be inhibited first, then facilitation and strengthening are followed respectively.
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Zheng, Jie, Christopher Sorensen, Ran Li, Hongyu An, Charles F. Hildebolt, Mohamed A. Zayed, Michael J. Mueller, and Mary K. Hastings. "Deteriorated regional calf microcirculation measured by contrast-free MRI in patients with diabetes mellitus and relation with physical activity." Diabetes and Vascular Disease Research 18, no. 4 (July 2021): 147916412110290. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/14791641211029002.
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Objective: To evaluate regional calf muscle microcirculation in people with diabetes mellitus (DM) with and without foot ulcers, compared to healthy control people without DM, using contrast-free magnetic resonance imaging methods. Methods: Three groups of subjects were recruited: non-DM controls, DM, and DM with foot ulcers (DM + ulcer), all with ankle brachial index (ABI) > 0.9. Skeletal muscle blood flow (SMBF) and oxygen extraction fraction (SMOEF) in calf muscle were measured at rest and during a 5-min isometric ankle plantarflexion exercise. Subjects completed the Yale physical activity survey. Results: The exercise SMBF (ml/min/100 g) of the medial gastrocnemius muscle were progressively impaired: 63.7 ± 18.9 for controls, 42.9 ± 6.7 for DM, and 36.2 ± 6.2 for DM + ulcer, p < 0.001. Corresponding exercise SMOEF was the lowest in DM + ulcers (0.48 ± 0.09). Exercise SMBF in the soleus muscle was correlated moderately with the Yale physical activity survey ( r = 0.39, p < 0.01). Conclusions: Contrast-free MR imaging identified progressively impaired regional microcirculation in medial gastrocnemius muscles of people with DM with and without foot ulcers. Exercise SMBF in the medial gastrocnemius muscle was the most sensitive index and was associated with HbA1c. Lower exercise SMBF in the soleus muscle was associated with lower Yale score.
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Park, Du-Jin, and Young-In Hwang. "Comparison of the Intrinsic Foot Muscle Activities between Therapeutic and Three-Dimensional Foot-Ankle Exercises in Healthy Adults: An Explanatory Study." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 19 (October 1, 2020): 7189. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197189.
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Background: In recent years, a three-dimensional ankle exercise has been proposed as a practice for strengthening the intrinsic foot muscles, however this topic still requires further research. This study aimed to compare the activities of the intrinsic muscles in healthy participants during 3D foot–ankle exercises, namely, short foot (SF), and toe spread out (TSO). Methods: Prior to the experiment, 16 healthy adults were trained on how to perform SF, TSO, and 3D foot–ankle exercises for an hour. Once all participants passed the foot–ankle exercise performance test, we randomly measured the activity of the intrinsic foot muscles using electromyography while the patients were performing foot–ankle exercises. Results: The abductor hallucis (AbH), extensor hallucis longus (EHL), and flexor hallucis brevis (FHB) activities showed significant differences among the exercises for intrinsic foot muscle strengthening (p < 0.01). Additionally, the AbH/AdH (adductor hallucis) ratio showed significant differences among the exercises for strengthening the intrinsic foot muscles (p < 0.01). Conclusions: Our results showed that the 3D extension exercise is as effective as the therapeutic exercise in terms of the AbH and FHB activities, and the AbH/AdH ratio. On the contrary, the 3D flexion exercise showed superiority in terms of the EHL activity.
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Vlutters, Mark, Edwin H. F. van Asseldonk, and Herman van der Kooij. "Ankle muscle responses during perturbed walking with blocked ankle joints." Journal of Neurophysiology 121, no. 5 (May 1, 2019): 1711–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00752.2018.
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The ankle joint muscles can contribute to balance during walking by modulating the center of pressure and ground reaction forces through an ankle moment. This is especially effective in the sagittal plane through ankle plantar- or dorsiflexion. If the ankle joints were to be physically blocked to make an ankle strategy ineffective, there would be no functional contribution of these muscles to balance during walking, nor would these muscles generate afferent output regarding ankle joint rotation. Consequently, ankle muscle activation for the purpose of balance control would be expected to disappear. We have performed an experiment in which subjects received anteroposterior pelvis perturbations during walking while their ankle joints could not contribute to the balance recovery. The latter was realized by physically blocking the ankle joints through a pair of modified ankle-foot orthoses. In this article we present the lower limb muscle activity responses in reaction to these perturbations. Of particular interest are the tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius medialis muscles, which could not contribute to the balance recovery through the ankle joint or encode muscle length changes caused by ankle joint rotation. Yet, these muscles showed long-latency responses, ~100 ms after perturbation onset. The response amplitudes were dependent on the perturbation magnitude and direction, as well as the state of the leg. The results imply that ankle muscle responses can be evoked without changes in proprioceptive information of those muscles through ankle rotation. This suggest a more centralized regulation of balance control, not strictly related to the ankle joint kinematics. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Walking human subjects received forward-backward perturbations at the pelvis while wearing “pin-shoes,” a pair of modified ankle-foot orthoses that physically blocked ankle joint movement and reduced the base of support of each foot to a single point. The lower leg muscles showed long-latency perturbation-dependent activity changes, despite having no functional contributions to balance control through the ankle joint and not having been subjected to muscle length changes through ankle joint rotation.
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Lai, Adrian, Anthony G. Schache, Nicholas A. T. Brown, and Marcus G. Pandy. "Human ankle plantar flexor muscle–tendon mechanics and energetics during maximum acceleration sprinting." Journal of The Royal Society Interface 13, no. 121 (August 2016): 20160391. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2016.0391.
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Tendon elastic strain energy is the dominant contributor to muscle–tendon work during steady-state running. Does this behaviour also occur for sprint accelerations? We used experimental data and computational modelling to quantify muscle fascicle work and tendon elastic strain energy for the human ankle plantar flexors (specifically soleus and medial gastrocnemius) for multiple foot contacts of a maximal sprint as well as for running at a steady-state speed. Positive work done by the soleus and medial gastrocnemius muscle fascicles decreased incrementally throughout the maximal sprint and both muscles performed more work for the first foot contact of the maximal sprint (FC1) compared with steady-state running at 5 m s −1 (SS5). However, the differences in tendon strain energy for both muscles were negligible throughout the maximal sprint and when comparing FC1 to SS5. Consequently, the contribution of muscle fascicle work to stored tendon elastic strain energy was greater for FC1 compared with subsequent foot contacts of the maximal sprint and compared with SS5. We conclude that tendon elastic strain energy in the ankle plantar flexors is just as vital at the start of a maximal sprint as it is at the end, and as it is for running at a constant speed.