Relevant bibliographies by topics / Forced Outage Rate

Contents

  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers

Academic literature on the topic 'Forced Outage Rate'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 3 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Forced Outage Rate"

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Kim, Tae-Woo, Yenjae Chang, Dae-Wook Kim, and Man-Keun Kim. "Preventive Maintenance and Forced Outages in Power Plants in Korea." Energies 13, no. 14 (July 10, 2020): 3571. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13143571.

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Maintaining high facility reliability in power plants is essential to secure long-term electricity supply. This paper applies the survival analysis to the actual unit level power generation data in Korea to estimate the relationship between facility reliability and the preventive maintenance. Duration of generators between forced outages is used to measure plant reliability. the empirical analysis shows that preventive maintenance cost, planned outage for maintenance, use rate, and reserve margin lead to the longer duration of generators and, in turn, the lower forced outage rates. We uncover that the marginal benefit of the preventive maintenance cost is decreasing at an increasing rate. It indicates that the marginal benefit of the “current” maintenance cost is minimal. Results in the paper imply that power plants in Korea might be spending unnecessarily high maintenance costs considering already having world’s lowest forced outage rates.
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Andri and Sutikno. "Effects Analysis of Forced Cooling Rate on Microstructure, Tensile Strength and Hardness of Superheater Tube in Pulverized Coal Boiler." Materials Science Forum 964 (July 2019): 62–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.964.62.

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The availability (readiness) of a Steam Power Plant (PLTU) is an important factor, since one income from a Power Plant is based on its readiness reflected in the EAF (Equivalent Availibility Factor). Factor opposite to Availibility is Outage. Outage occurs when a unit is out of sync to a network and not in a Reserve Shutdown state.
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Isa, Qamber. "Novel Modeling of Forced Outage Rate Effect on the LOLP and LOLE." International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems 9, no. 2 (January 3, 2020): 229–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.12785/ijcds/090208.

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Mohanta, Dusmanta Kumar, Pradip Kumar Sadhu, and R. Chakrabarti. "Fuzzy reliability evaluation of captive power plant maintenance scheduling incorporating uncertain forced outage rate and load representation." Electric Power Systems Research 72, no. 1 (November 2004): 73–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2004.04.001.

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Jiang, Xi Wei, Wen Ying Liu, Jing Jing Zheng, Pei Dong Du, and Jian Bo Wang. "Research on the Peaking Gap of Power System with Large-Scale Wind Power Integration." Applied Mechanics and Materials 672-674 (October 2014): 367–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.672-674.367.

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An important factor affecting the integration of large-scale wind power is whether there is sufficient peaking capacity. If the peaking capacity is insufficient, we cannot make full use of wind power. Therefore it’s of great significance to study the peaking gap of the power system. This paper defined the peak-load regulating demand continuous curve and proposed the calculation method of the peaking gap based on non-sequential Monte Carlo simulation method. Taking wind power’s random fluctuation and the unit forced outage rate into consideration, the calculation method effectively reflect the peaking capacity needs of the system, which is helpful for determining the appropriate wind power integration.
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SYAHRIAL, SYAHRIAL, KANIA SAWITRI, and PARTRIANTI GEMAHAPSARI. "Studi Keandalan Ketersediaan Daya Pembangkit Listrik pada Jaringan Daerah “X”." ELKOMIKA: Jurnal Teknik Energi Elektrik, Teknik Telekomunikasi, & Teknik Elektronika 5, no. 1 (March 14, 2018): 93. http://dx.doi.org/10.26760/elkomika.v5i1.93.

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ABSTRAKKeandalan tenaga listrik didefinisikan sebagai peluang dari suatu peralatan untuk beroperasi sesuai dengan fungsinya dalam suatu selang waktu tertentu dan dalam suatu kondisi operasi tertentu, sehingga dapat memenuhi kebutuhan listrik konsumen. Keandalan ketersediaan daya suatu sistem pembangkit dapat diketahui berdasarkan indeks keandalan yaitu LOLP (Loss of Load Probability) dan UE (Unserved Energy). Penelitian dilakukan dengan merancang 2 model konfigurasi sistem pembangkit berdasarkan nilai beban puncak, kemudian mengambil data laju kegagalan dan laju perbaikan dari masing-masing komponen sistem pembangkit yang selanjutnya dipakai untuk menghitung nilai FOR (Forced Outage Rate). Nilai FOR yang telah diperoleh digunakan untuk menghitung nilai indeks keandalan menggunakan metode segmentasi. Konfigurasi sistem pembangkit skenario ke-2 memiliki nilai indeks keandalan lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan konfigurasi sistem pembangkit skenario ke-1 yaitu dengan LOLP sebesar 0,0000088248 hari/tahun dan UE sebesar 0,0584 KWH/tahun dengan total perkiraan biaya pada konfigurasi ini sebesar Rp 587.567.108,00.Kata kunci: Keandalan, metode segmentasi, LOLP, FOR, UEABSTRACTThe reliability of electric power is defined as the chance of an apparatus to operate in accordance with its function in a certain interval of time and in a certain operating conditions, so as to meet the electricity needs of consumers. The reliability of a power generation system availability can be determined based on the reliability index is LOLP (Loss of Load Probability) and UE (Unserved Energy). The study was conducted by designing two models generating system configuration based on the value of the peak load, and then retrieve the data failure rate and the rate of repair of the individual components of the next generation system which is used to calculate the value FOR (Forced Outage Rate). FOR Value that has been obtained is used to calculate the reliability index using segmentation method. Generating system configuration scenarios to-2 has a reliability index value is smaller than the generating system configuration scenarios to-1 that is by LOLP of 0.0000088248 days / year and the EU amounted to 0.0584 KWH / year with a total estimated cost in this configuration Rp 587,567,108.00.Keywords: Reliability, segmentation method, LOLP, FOR, UE
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FANG, Yongfeng, Wenliang TAO, and Kong Fah TEE. "Reliability Analysis of Multi-State Engine Units Utilizing Time-Domain Response Data." Journal of Systems Science and Information 4, no. 4 (August 25, 2016): 354–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.21078/jssi-2016-354-11.

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Abstract A novel reliability-based approach has been developed for multi-state engine systems. Firstly, the output power of the engine is discretized and modeled as a discrete-state continuous-time Markov random process. Secondly, the multi-state Markov model is established. According to the observed data, the transition intensity is determined. Thirdly, the proposed method is extended to compute the forced outage rate and the expected engine capacity deficiency based on time response. The proposed method can therefore be used for forecasting and monitoring the reliability of the multi-state engine utilizing time-domain response data. It is illustrated that the proposed method is practicable, feasible and gives reasonable prediction which conforms to the engineering practice.
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BHATKAR, M. V., A. K. VERMA, and NAVA RAJ KARKI. "IMPACT OF LEVEL OF CONTINGENCIES ON WELLBEING STATES OF GENERATING SYSTEM – A PROBABILISTIC AND FUZZY APPROACH." International Journal of Reliability, Quality and Safety Engineering 15, no. 02 (April 2008): 101–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218539308002964.

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The required level of operating reserve to be maintained by an electric power system can be determined by deterministic and probabilistic techniques. The power system parameters such as failure and repair rates used in the probabilistic models basically come from historical operation records, which are necessarily limited and subject to errors. There is considerable data uncertainty that exists in these parameters. This paper presents the application of fuzzy sets, which is recognized as a potential tool to include data uncertainty in normal calculations, for evaluation of spinning reserve is illustrated. In conventional reliability evaluation method, loads are deterministic values. The failure rate of the generating units is represented as triangular fuzzy number. The fuzzy set is used to represent consumer's demand, which is the deterministic load, as fuzzy loads. The concept is extended for evaluating the fuzzy based well-being indices using different criterion for the generating system. The fz-forced outage rate (FOR) and fz-availability of a unit in service are evaluated using fuzzy Sets and fuzzy interval arithmetic to find the fuzzy well-being states, which are designated as healthy, marginal and at risk. The concept is illustrated for a Roy Billinton's Test System (RBTS) and IEEE RTS. Impact of outage level and deterministic criteria is also illustrated. The proposed method can be applied to the operation of deregulated power system in which operating reserve is served as an important issue with respect to stable and reliable operation.
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Malik, Arif S., and Cornelius Kuba. "Power Generation Expansion Planning Including Large Scale Wind Integration: A Case Study of Oman." Journal of Wind Energy 2013 (July 17, 2013): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/735693.

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Many options can be effectively used to meet the future power needs of a country in ways which would be more economically viable, environmentally sound, and socially just. A least-cost generation expansion planning study is conducted to find the economic feasibility of large scale integration of wind farms in the main interconnected transmission system of Oman. The generation expansion planning software used is WASP which is restricted in its ability to model intermittent nature of wind. Therefore, a wind turbine is modeled as a thermal plant with high forced outage rate related to its capacity factor. The result of the study has shown that wind turbines are economically viable option in the overall least-cost generation expansion plan for the Main Interconnected System of Oman.
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Omoroghomwan, A. E., S. O. Igbinovia, and F. O. Odiase. "Vulnerability Assessment of Components in a Typical Rural Nigerian Power Distribution System." March 2021 5, no. 1 (March 2021): 32–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.36263/nijest.2021.01.0237.

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The major aim of any power system is the continuous provision of safe, quality and reliable electric power to the customers. One of the greatest challenges to meeting up with this goal is the failure of components in the system. In this article, the frequency of outages caused by failure of different components in the distribution system was investigated to ascertain the ones that are more susceptible to failure by comparing their proportions in the entire failure events. The outage data obtained from Irrua Transmission Station comprising Ehor, Ubiaja and Uzebba 33kV feeders were analyzed using Microsoft Excel while the hazard rates were measured using the failure rate index. Findings revealed that 93.77% of all the forced outages in the distribution subsystem in the power sector are caused by the high exposure rate of the bare aluminum conductors used in the construction of the various overhead feeders. Subsequently, the yearly failure rates of aluminum conductors, cross arms, relay, insulators, fuses, electric poles, breakers, transformers, isolators, cables lightning surge arresters were found to be 836.0, 17.5, 17.0, 10.3, 4.3, 2.0, 1.5, 1.3, 1.0, 0.5 and 0.3 respectively in the studied network. A comparison between this study and a related work showed that the rural feeders are more prone to faults as compared to the ones in the urban areas. It was therefore recommended that regular tree trimming along the network corridor should be done. Proper conductor size should be used in every subsequent construction and every segment with undersized conductor should be replaced with the appropriate size. This study will help the power system engineers in the design, construction, maintenance and operation of the distribution power system for optimum and improved system performance.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Forced Outage Rate"

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Swaminathan, Shiva. "The influence of initial conditions on power system production costing - A markovian approach." Ohio : Ohio University, 1995. http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/view.cgi?ohiou1178904364.

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Rondla, Preethi 1988. "MonteCarlo and Analytical Methods for Forced Outage Rate Calculations of Peaking Units." Thesis, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/148370.

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All generation facilities have to report their generator un-availabilities to their respective Independent System Operators (ISOs). The un-availability of a generator is determined in terms of its probability of failure. Generators may serve the role of two kinds, base units which operates all the time and the others are peaking units which operate only for periods of time depending on load requirement. Calculation of probability of failure for peaking units using standard formulas gives pessimistic results owing to its time spent in the reserve shut down state. Therefore the normal two state representation of a generating unit is not adequate. A four state model was proposed by an IEEE committee to calculate the forced outage rate (unavailability) of such units. This thesis examines the representation of peaking units using a four-state model and performs the analytical calculations and Monte Carlo simulations to examine whether such a model does indeed represent the peaking units properly.
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Books on the topic "Forced Outage Rate"

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Lofe, James. Seasonal Performance Trends: Peak Season Equivalent Force Outage Rate Trend Evaluations for Fossil-Steam Generating Units. North Amer Electric, 1991.

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Book chapters on the topic "Forced Outage Rate"

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Fuller-Seeley, Kathryn H. "Rochester and the Revenge of Uncle Tom in the 1940s and 1950s." In Jack Benny and the Golden Age of American Radio Comedy. University of California Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520295049.003.0006.

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Hugely popular on radio and in film playing Rochester in the early 1940s, Eddie Anderson’s celebrity and career were at a peak in the World War II years, when in film, and in government-created publicity, he was a spokesman for black opportunity that was non-threatening across the white political spectrum. Race riots, conservative white backlash, and growth of assertive black critics rooting out “Uncle Tom” accommodation to white dominance, threatened Anderson’s career. Even Benny and his writers could occasionally unthinkingly forget to move ahead, as a recycled old script about Rochester’s minstrel-type ways raised outraged cries from the black press in 1950. Anderson became even more central to Benny’s program in the 1950s with Mary Livingstone’s retirement, as Rochester was dismissed by many as passé, but on the other hand, closer than ever to Jack as an interracial “Odd Couple” of housemates.
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"pride which makes a mortal forget his place in the order of things), the word is most often used of dealings between human beings. It generally describes behaviour which is uncontrolled and which presupposes a desire to humiliate or at least a contempt for the rights and prestige of others. It could be applied to anything from mockery through verbal insult to physical assault, including rape. However, in law the term was narrower. The law on hybris quoted at Dem. 21.47 appears to cover action, not words. It is likely, moreover, that in legal contexts at least, though the law was imprecise (it appears to have begun: ‘if anyone commits outrage [hybris] against someone . . .’), the offence was generally understood to cover physical violence. It is not clear what converted aikeia into hybris, but it may be suggested that where the speaker could argue that the assault was committed either with the intention of humiliating or with wilful disregard for the status of the victim then the action for outrage might succeed. In the present case the action of Konon in imitating a victorious fighting cock after beating Ariston could be held to prove either. In explaining his reasons for choosing the private action, Ariston naturally places the emphasis on modesty (a public action would require more boldness and greater legal experience than a young man should in this culture possess) and restraint. In the process he suppresses other motives. As was explained in the general introduction, the prosecutor in a public action faced serious penalties if lie either dropped the case or failed to obtain 20 per cent of the judges’ votes. In addition, since on most reconstructions hybris involved the state of mind or intention of the perpetrator it would be more difficult to prove than aikeia, for which the fact of striking first sufficed. Finally, if Konon were convicted in a public action for hybris any fine would go to the state, while the victor in a private action for aikeia stood to gain compensation. The case against Konon is presented with remarkable force, and one’s first impression is that Ariston’s case is overwhelming. As to the assault itself, Ariston has good evidence from a doctor that he was severely beaten. That Konon was actually the perpetrator is suggested by Konon’s behaviour at arbitration (for which Ariston has witness testimony); evidently Konon had difficulty assembling a case, and it appears that it was only when his situation was looking desperate that his associates gave evidence on his behalf. However, it is far from clear that the witnesses who carried Ariston home actually saw the attack; they may merely have found him lying beaten. It may be that the only witness on Ariston’s side was his friend Phanostratos. From §§30–3 one." In Trials from Classical Athens, 103. Routledge, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203130476-28.

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Conference papers on the topic "Forced Outage Rate"

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Brandt, Kris. "Utilizing an Equivalent Forced Outage Rate (EFOR) Reliability Assessment to Improve the Bottom Line." In 2012 20th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering and the ASME 2012 Power Conference. ASME, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone20-power2012-54567.

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Ekstrom, Thomas E. "Reliability Measurements for Gas Turbine Warranty Situations." In ASME 1992 International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/92-gt-208.

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Reliability performance is currently receiving significant attention in the bid requests for new gas turbine generating units. Reliability guarantees backed by liquidated damages clauses are becoming the rule rather than the exception. But the power generation industry does not have a universally accepted set of reliability measurements and the more commonly used measurements are not sufficiently refined for the warranty situation. This paper is intended to provide the guidance, structure and refinement needed for meaningful reliability warranties. Four key areas of reliability measurement: starting reliability, running reliability, availability and equivalent availability are separately addressed. And within each of these areas there is the flexibility, the methodology and the need to adapt the measurement system to the varied operating regimes and philosophies encountered such as: peaking vs. continuous service, attended vs. unattended sites, different levels of maintenance intensity, chargeable vs. non-chargeable outage events and emotional/political/optical acceptability (i.e., 3% Forced Outage Factor vs. 40% Forced Outage Rate). Warranty structuring rationale and suggested contract language are provided to address such needs as a rigorous and explicit operating log, certification of data, measurement accuracy, statistical confidence, assurance of readiness and risk assessment. The suggestions presented herein have been constructed with logic and fairness. This paper will be beneficial to all Architect Engineers, Utilities, Independent Power Producers and OEM’s that become involved with the structuring of reliability warranties.
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Yau, Jenfu, and Hui Kuang. "An Empirical Model for Predicting Crack Growth Behavior of Gas Turbine Stage 1 Nozzles." In ASME Turbo Expo 2002: Power for Land, Sea, and Air. ASMEDC, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/gt2002-30302.

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Expenditure of maintenance cost for gas turbines can be greatly reduced if the parts can be well managed during the service to avoid excessive fallout rate or unplanned forced outage. In order to achieve the optimum part life management plan, the ability to accurately predict the life capabilities and fallout rates of the life limiting components becomes very important. An empirical model for the stage 1 nozzle of F-class frame 9 GE gas turbine has been developed based on Weibull statistic analysis of measured crack dimensions at observed critical locations of the nozzle. The crack measurements were taken during the hot gas path inspections and data from several different machine units which had different operating histories were used to establish relationship between Weibull parameters and elapsed operation histories. The fallout rate as function operation history is predicted by performing a Monte Carlo analysis to account for the combined effects of multiple cracks.
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Kumar, Nikhil, Maria Ouellette, Kurt Miller, and Michael C. Liu. "Impact of Plant Cycling on Availability." In ASME 2015 Power Conference collocated with the ASME 2015 9th International Conference on Energy Sustainability, the ASME 2015 13th International Conference on Fuel Cell Science, Engineering and Technology, and the ASME 2015 Nuclear Forum. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/power2015-49359.

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Evidence is mounting that power plant cycling is causing significant additional wear and tear on the units. However, the effects of this additional wear and tear on future maintenance costs, production cost, and equivalent forced outage rate (EFOR) are not accurately quantified at the present time. For example, units that were originally designed for base load operation are now being cycled by many utilities. Typically, such units experience long-term decreases in availability and significantly increased maintenance and capital equipment expenditures because several materials degradation phenomena (creep, fatigue, creep-fatigue interaction, etc.) are accelerated by increased cycling. The authors will present results of several hundred studies, which highlight the impacts of plant cycling events on short and long term plant availability. The paper will also show the impact of plant cycling design, annual capital and operating expenses which can have a direct impact on plant availability.
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Duffey, Romney B., and John W. Saull. "How Good Is Good: Improved Tracking and Managing of Safety Goals, Performance Indicators, Production Targets and Significant Events Using Learning Curves." In 10th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ASMEDC, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone10-22426.

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We show a new way to track and measure safety and performance using learning curves derived on a mathematical basis. When unusual or abnormal events occur in plants and equipment, the regulator and good management practice requires they be reported, investigated, understood and rectified. In addition to reporting so-called “significant events”, both management and the regulator often set targets for individual and collective performance, which are used for both reward and criticism. For almost completely safe systems, like nuclear power plants, commercial aircraft and chemical facilities, many parameters are tracked and measured. Continuous improvement has to be demonstrated, as well as meeting reduced occurrence rates, which are set as management goals or targets. This process usually takes the form of statistics for availability of plant and equipment, forced or unplanned maintenance outage, loss of safety function, safety or procedural violations, etc. These are often rolled up into a set of so-called “Performance Indicators” as measures of how well safety and operation is being managed at a given facility. The overall operating standards of an industry are also measured. A whole discipline is formed of tracking, measuring, reporting, managing and understanding the plethora of indicators and data. Decreasing occurrence rates and meeting or exceeding goals are seen and rewarded as virtues. Managers and operators need to know how good is their safety management system that has been adopted and used (and paid for), and whether it can itself be improved. We show the importance of accumulated experience in correctly measuring and tracking the decreasing event and error rates speculating a finite minimum rate. We show that the rate of improvement constitutes a measurable “learning curve”, and the attainment of the goals and targets can be affected by the adopted measures. We examine some of the available data on significant events, reportable occurrences, and loss of availability. We suggest the use of learning curves as a means of accurately tracking progress; and stress the importance of a sustained learning environment in performance improvement.
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Erguina, Vera, and Ernest J. Kee. "Using RIAM for Optimizing Reactor Vessel Head Leak Failure Mode Maintenance Strategies." In 12th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ASMEDC, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone12-49376.

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A cost-benefit-risk study of the best (in terms of plant valuation) long-term strategy for canopy seal weld leakage control and prevention including a span of options for reactor vessel head J-Groove weld failures is performed. The range of options goes from the “do nothing” option up to replacement of the reactor vessel head with new control rod drive mechanisms. The results are presented in form of net present values for the options cost and include uncertainties for long-term costs associated with the options activities and prediction of failure rates for control rod drive mechanisms canopy seals and J-Groove welds. Results of this study rely on catching leaks during an outage and not during operation (mid-cycle). The consequence associated with a mid-cycle leak is much higher than for one found during an outage. This tends to indicate rigorous visual inspections during outages to ensure repairs are made during refueling outages. Thus, the effect of forced outage due to mid-cycle leak detection is not included to avoid strongly biasing the results in favor of reactor vessel head replacement.
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Hamblin-Smoske, Pamela. "Improve Boiler Reliability With Unit Specific Strategic Planning." In ASME 2014 Power Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/power2014-32207.

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Boiler tube failures remain the leading cause of lost availability in power boilers across global markets. The need for strategic planning in regard to inspections, preventative maintenance and targeted replacements has never been greater. Identifying the root problem(s) is essential and must be properly managed for continued safety, reliability and availability. The process associated with integrating a boiler management program can be viewed as an insurmountable obstacle for many utility operators and owners. In many cases, the cookie cutter approach that is often used results in insufficient reliability recovery. However, using modern technology and tactics to strategically manage and properly identify specific operating and design conditions has proven exceedingly successful in reducing a unit’s forced outage rate [EFOR]. Specific challenges plants are faced with include the reduction of onsite engineers, aging workforces and equipment, and the need to remain competitive in a challenging global energy market. Plant managers are routinely faced with the complex task of determining the current condition of their equipment, forecasting outage budgets and schedules, and performing risk assessments. Additionally, insurance companies are increasingly requiring inspection and maintenance records that are not always up-to-date or readily available. The solutions to reducing the EFOR of a unit involves taking a comprehensive approach to boiler management utilizing unit specific operational training, advanced data management, and strategic inspection, maintenance and replacement prioritization. Implementing this comprehensive approach has awarded millions in savings for plant managers that have adopted this strategy. Implementing a unit specific, target driven, and strategic plan enables utility owners and operators to succeed in today’s competitive market by increasing the unit’s reliability and availability without sacrificing safety or environmental standards. Thielsch Engineering, Inc. developed a program titled: 4-SYTE System Strategy that is currently utilized in more than 60 power plants within the United States and Canada. Unit specific strategic planning is necessary for all facilities that rely on these critical components. Advanced technology must be adopted by all energy producers to ensure they remain competitive and profitable.
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Moore, Bill. "The Effects of Cycling on Generator Rotors." In 2012 20th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering and the ASME 2012 Power Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone20-power2012-55093.

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Cycling can cause accelerated deterioration in generator rotors. EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute) states that “Cyclic operation can result in an increase in forced outage rates, higher operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, and further wear and tear on components…” Most industry references do not differentiate between speed cycling and load cycling. Speed cycling is the worst kind of cycling, leading to cracking and fatigue failure of many generator rotor components. The outline of the paper will include the following major topics: • Definition of Cycling • Focus on Speed Cycling versus Load Cycling/Load Following • Low Cycle versus High Cycle Fatigue - • Fatigue progresses to cracking; cracking to failure, failure to forced outages, schedule delays, additional costs • Key Generator Rotor Components Affected by Low Cycle Fatigue • Rotor Forging Shaft including the rotor bore, tooth tops, snap ring groove cracking • Rotor Field Winding including pole crossovers, J-straps/terminal studs, bore copper, conductor end turns • Support Components including slot wedges, retaining rings • Preventative Action by Investigation and NDE/DE • Conclusions and Recommendations.
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Koval, D. O., and A. A. Chowdhury. "Assessment of transmission line common mode, station originated and fault types forced outage rates." In CPS). IEEE, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icps.2009.5463941.

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Anderson, Richard G., Shannon L. Conner, Kathryn J. Demetri, So¨nke Holla¨nder, Andrea Maioli, and Thomas F. Timmons. "AP1000 Plant Availability Analysis in Accordance With the EUR." In 17th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ASMEDC, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone17-75415.

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As part of the European Passive Pressurized Water reactor (EPP) Program, AP1000 plant availability analyses and studies were performed to show compliance with the European Utility Requirements (EUR) goal of an overall plant availability greater than 90%. The EUR annual Design Availability Factor averaged over a 20-year period is defined as a function of the reference duration and number of a pre-defined set of normal outages (e.g., regular refueling and maintenance, 10 years in-service inspection, turbine overhaul) as well as a function of expected forced outages. Reference duration for the regular outages has been evaluated on a deterministic basis using current experience tailored for the AP1000 18 month fuel cycle. Provision for special work has been addressed, also in a deterministic fashion, by assuming a steam generator replacement. Estimation of the annual forced outage has been addressed in a two-fold probabilistic fashion: the expected unavailability due to generic balance of plant and support systems have been derived on a system-level basis from historic operational data, relying on AP600 based information and on updated European operating plant historical information provided by European utilities participating in the EPP Program. Such system-specific analyses also addressed the evolution from the AP600 to the AP1000 design as well as EPP-specific issues (such as the increased Reactor Coolant Pumps (RCP) unavailability due to continuous use of a variable speed driver on a 50 Hz grid). A selected set of AP1000 front end systems have then been analyzed with a fully probabilistic approach by means of Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) and Reliability Block Diagram (RBD) techniques, using reliability data (i.e., failure rates and Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)) for basic components. Again, the evolution of the design from the AP600 and the previous EPP availability analysis has been factored into these studies. The result of the evaluation leads to an overall AP1000 Annual Design Availability of 93.7% averaged over a 20-year period. This exceeds the 90% EUR availability goal.
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