Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Forensic investigation'

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2004.
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Computer crimes have become very complex in terms of investigation and prosecution. This is mainly because forensic investigations are based on artifacts left oncomputers and other digital devices. In recent times, perpetrators of computer crimesare getting abreast of the digital forensics dynamics hence, capacitated to use someanti-forensics measures and techniques to obfuscate the investigation processes.Incases where such techniques are employed, it becomes extremely difficult, expensive and time consuming to carry out an effective investigation. This might causea digital forensics expert to abandon the investigation in a pessimistic manner.ThisProject work serves to practically demonstrate how numerous anti-forensics can bedeployed by the criminals to derail the smooth processes of digital forensic investigation with main focus on data hiding and encryption techniques, later a comparativestudy of the effectiveness of some selected digital forensics tools in analyzing andreporting shreds of evidence will be conducted.

The Internet has become important since information is now stored in digital form and is transported both within and between organisations in large amounts through computer networks. Nevertheless, there are those individuals or groups of people who utilise the Internet to harm other businesses because they can remain relatively anonymous. To prosecute such criminals, forensic practitioners have to follow a well-defined procedure to convict responsible cyber-criminals in a court of law. Log files provide significant digital evidence in computer networks when tracing cyber-criminals. Network log mining is an evolution of typical digital forensics utilising evidence from network devices such as firewalls, switches and routers. Network log mining is a process supported by presiding South African laws such as the Computer Evidence Act, 57 of 1983; the Electronic Communications and Transactions (ECT) Act, 25 of 2002; and the Electronic Communications Act, 36 of 2005. Nevertheless, international laws and regulations supporting network log mining include the Sarbanes-Oxley Act; the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) and the Bribery Act of the USA. A digital forensic model for computer networks focusing on network log mining has been developed based on the literature reviewed and critical thought. The development of the model followed the Design Science methodology. However, this research project argues that there are some important aspects which are not fully addressed by South African presiding legislation supporting digital forensic investigations. With that in mind, this research project proposes some Forensic Investigation Precautions. These precautions were developed as part of the proposed model. The Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) Theory is the framework underpinning the development of the model and how it can be assimilated into the community. The model was sent to IT experts for validation and this provided the qualitative element and the primary data of this research project. From these experts, this study found out that the proposed model is very unique, very comprehensive and has added new knowledge into the field of Information Technology. Also, a paper was written out of this research project.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2006.
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Thesis (M.S.F.S.) PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis or dissertation. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you.
In Belgium, approximately 75 homicides a year go unnoticed. In addition it is estimated that 5 - 10% of the so-called natural deaths are not natural at all. This amounts to 5,000 – 10,000 deaths a year with an incorrect cause of death. Both Belgium – composed of three regions, three communities, and ten provinces – and the United States of America – divided into 50 states – are overseen by a Federal Government, and their police system consist of multiple law enforcement agencies. When looking from a distance, more similarities than differences are seen for the organization of law enforcement agencies. However, differences become apparent when analyzing the responsibilities of the different agencies during crime scene processing and evidence collection. Seen the scope of the forensic science program, the focus will more specifically be on the process, procedures, and actors involved. The goal of this thesis is to (a) analyze the Belgian and U.S. crime scene investigation system, (b) compare the two systems to one another, (c) discuss the weaknesses and strengths behind each system, and finally (d) come up with recommendations. Existing issues will also be evaluated and their impact will be discussed. To achieve the above mentioned goals, information was obtained through literature review and interviews with experts. During the interviews information (e.g. books), not available to the general public, was obtained. Crime scene investigation, for both the U.S. and Belgian system, can be divided into 5 different steps: the initial notification, the first response team, the investigation of the crime scene (documenting, collecting, and processing evidence), the analysis of collected evidence, and the autopsy. In both systems, first responders and emergency medical services will be the first actors present at the scene. Although most procedures and actors involved in the investigation of a crime scene are similar between the United States of America and Belgium, some differences cannot be overlooked. These differences are: the person in charge of completing the death certificate, determining whether or not jurisdiction is accepted, the educational background and composition of the crime scene team, the investigation of the deceased, the requirements needed to become a forensic pathologist, and the cases in which an autopsy is systematically performed. Comparing both crime scene investigation systems showed that each system has its own strengths, weaknesses, and issues. The comparison also showed that both systems can learn from one another, since the combination of already existing processes and procedures, from both crime scene investigation systems, was used to create an “ideal” crime scene investigation system.
2031-01-01

Digital forensics is the science concerned with discovering, preserving, and analyzing evidence on digital devices. The intent is to be able to determine what events have taken place, when they occurred, who performed them, and how they were performed. In order for an investigation to be effective, it must exhibit several characteristics. The results produced must be reliable, or else the theory of events based on the results will be flawed. The investigation must be comprehensive, meaning that it must analyze all targets which may contain evidence of forensic interest. Since any investigation must be performed within the constraints of available time, storage, manpower, and computation, investigative techniques must be efficient. Finally, an investigation must provide a coherent view of the events under question using the evidence gathered. Unfortunately the set of currently available tools and techniques used in digital forensic investigations does a poor job of supporting these characteristics. Many tools used contain bugs which generate inaccurate results; there are many types of devices and data for which no analysis techniques exist; most existing tools are woefully inefficient, failing to take advantage of modern hardware; and the task of aggregating data into a coherent picture of events is largely left to the investigator to perform manually. To remedy this situation, we developed a set of techniques to facilitate more effective investigations. To improve reliability, we developed the Forensic Discovery Auditing Module, a mechanism for auditing and enforcing controls on accesses to evidence. To improve comprehensiveness, we developed ramparser, a tool for deep parsing of Linux RAM images, which provides previously inaccessible data on the live state of a machine. To improve efficiency, we developed a set of performance optimizations, and applied them to the Scalpel file carver, creating order of magnitude improvements to processing speed and storage requirements. Last, to facilitate more coherent investigations, we developed the Forensic Automated Coherence Engine, which generates a high-level view of a system from the data generated by low-level forensics tools. Together, these techniques significantly improve the effectiveness of digital forensic investigations conducted using them.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2005
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It has been highlighted that shame may be an important dynamic risk factor for prevention of violence and recidivism in forensic populations. However, past research investigating the relationship between shame and violence, or recidivism has been inconsistent. Different conceptualisations and measurements of shame used in the literature may explain these inconsistencies. Therefore, a systematic review was conducted to explore how shame was conceptualised in forensic populations and these measures were then evaluated. Findings revealed that most studies did not clearly define shame, and when they did, the same theoretical underpinnings were used in different ways. By assessing the validity and reliability of shame measures, it was revealed that different measures focused on different aspects of shame. This could explain the current confusion in the conceptualisation and measurement of shame in forensic populations, and shed light on inconsistent findings between shame and other constructs. Shame in violent female offenders is an unexplored phenomenon and therefore may involve various complex and unexpected factors. A social constructivist grounded theory approach was applied to the narratives of eight violent female offenders, focusing on thoughts, feelings and life experiences in relation to shame and violence. A model was constructed suggesting that childhood victimisation, in the absence of available, compassionate, secure relationships, may lead to difficulties with emotion regulation. The experience of negative emotions, including shame, may lead to self-harm, substance misuse and violence. It was however demonstrated that this vicious cycle could be broken through the development of secure, positive and compassionate relationships. These findings suggest that shame and attachment may be important factors for treatment and service planning, to meet the unique needs of female offenders.

This composition presents a digest of research that investigates aspects of forensic accounting that shape its development from practice to an academic research perspective. This submission is based on six outputs that cover the period of 2006 through 2008. My research theme is, in the context of valuations of privately held companies, identifying the skills of a forensic accountant, and how to use them. This research not only breaks ground in the growing field of forensic accounting as it applies to private company valuation, but also lays a firm foundation and gives direction for further research. It provides insights into a growing sector of accounting for which there is a pressing need due to a dearth of research in the area. Statistically significant results of Output 1 indicate that there are systematic trends in court preferences for valuation methods, and provides empirical evidence of best valuation choices for decision makers involved in proposition of methods to the courts. Study controls indicated that macroeconomic factors such as GDP and inflation are related to court choice of valuation methods for some types of cases. Specifically, market methods are preferred during higher economic growth and the capitalized earnings method is preferred during times of higher economic inflation. Output 2 contributes to research by producing new knowledge with the understanding of the trend of investigating a potential insurance fraud in a routine business interruption. Output 3 hypothesized that valuation approaches for closely held companies preferred by court vary by industry type. Income approaches were more popular that either asset or market approaches for manufacturing industries, and that the market approach had a higher proportion of cases than asset approach for holding companies. Significant results for logistic regression analyses indicated that income valuation approaches had odds ratios approximately five times greater for manufacturing companies than other types of companies, which substantiated the results from the univariate analyses. Output 4 found a statistically significant odds ratio of 6.27 indicating the matrimonial court preferred the capitalized earning method when inflation was high and involved a manufacturing company. In addition, the excess earning method was far more likely to be preferred in marital dissolution when the case did not involve a service company. Output 5 defined the relevant skills of forensic accountants, and the perceived importance of these skills among three important stakeholders; forensic accountants, accounting academics, and users of forensic accounting services. These empirical findings are the first of its kind. Output 6 presented the results of a moderated multiple regression analysis to show that, all else held equal, there exists a positive premium in the relative valuation of S corporations over C corporations in the period subsequent to the Tax Court rulings that started this debate. The model also allows for the moderation of this premium by varying different levels of a set of interaction variables. The results of the study indicate that the magnitude of the "S corporation premium" depends on the level of these variables. My contribution to knowledge is presented in table format with the number of citations of each publication according to searches on Google Advanced Scholar, Lexis-Nexis, and a general World Wide Web search. In addition, since the World Wide Web has essentially created an environment where information is simply a point and a click away, the relevance of manuscript downloads are an important indicator of the interest and contribution of a paper. There are recorded downloads of my publications from various publishing sources either selling academic articles online or simply providing working papers available for download. Included in table 1 and table 2 are the aggregate number of downloads and source, respectively

Continuous professional development has been looked at in many professions over the years, most notably in primary and secondary education and in the medical fields. With digital forensics being cast into the limelight due to the rapid advancements in technology, academic institutions have added courses to address the void created by the boom in the industry. Little research has been done to address the issues that have now become apparent concerning continued learning in this field. The purpose of this research was to investigate the kinds of frameworks and methods used in other professions, and how the practitioners themselves see career development, and to create a framework that could be used to keep abreast of developments in the field of digital forensics, be it changes in the law, case law, or changes in software. The data analysis showed quite a number of continued learning approaches that could be employed in the digital/computer forensic fields to achieve the objective of keeping abreast of changes in the field. Some, understandably, are due to the nature of the discipline. As part of practitioners' current approach to continued learning, they rely heavily on knowledge sharing in the form of learning from other professionals, through self-study by reading books, articles and research conducted in the forensic field, the use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) for education, and the use of Internet sources such as user forums, Facebook groups, and web-blogs. The majority of the respondents had received formal training in digital forensics, and of the total number of participants, only six percent had not been involved in any form of continued learning activities in the past five years. When looking at the data obtained, and because there are no formal requirements to perform continued learning in the digital/computer forensic field, it becomes clear that individuals themselves need to be self-driven to keep up to date with changes in the field. As seen in studies focused on continued learning activities in other professions, the research shows that digital/computer forensic practitioners experience similar barriers to their own approaches to continued learning.

The objective of this research is to evaluate and develop new forensic techniques for use in honeynet environments, in an effort to address areas where anti-forensic techniques defeat current forensic methods. The fields of Computer and Network Security have expanded with time to become inclusive of many complex ideas and algorithms. With ease, a student of these fields can fall into the thought pattern of preventive measures as the only major thrust of the topics. It is equally important to be able to determine the cause of a security breach. Thus, the field of Computer Forensics has grown. In this field, there exist toolkits and methods that are used to forensically analyze production and honeypot systems. To counter the toolkits, anti-forensic techniques have been developed. Honeypots and production systems have several intrinsic differences. These differences can be exploited to produce honeypot data sources that are not currently available from production systems. This research seeks to examine possible honeypot data sources and cultivate novel methods to combat anti-forensic techniques. In this document, three parts of a forensic framework are presented which were developed specifically for honeypot and honeynet environments. The first, TimeKeeper, is an inode preservation methodology which utilizes the Ext3 journal. This is followed with an examination of dentry logging which is primarily used to map inode numbers to filenames in Ext3. The final component presented is the initial research behind a toolkit for the examination of the recently deployed Ext4 file system. Each respective chapter includes the necessary background information and an examination of related work as well as the architecture, design, conceptual prototyping, and results from testing each major framework component.

Digital forensics investigations become more time consuming as the amount of data to be investigated grows. Secular growth trends between hard drive and memory capacity just exacerbate the problem. Bloom filters are space-efficient, probabilistic data structures that can represent data sets with quantifiable false positive rates that have the potential to alleviate the problem by reducing space requirements. We provide a framework using Bloom filters to allow fine-grained content identification to detect similarity, instead of equality. We also provide a method to compare filters directly and a statistical means of interpreting the results. We developed a tool--md5bloom--that uses Bloom filters for standard queries and direct comparisons. We provide a performance comparison with a commonly used tool, md5deep, and achieved a 50% performance gain that only increases with larger hash sets. We compared filters generated from different versions of KNOPPIX and detected similarities and relationships between the versions.

In modern society the medico-legal investigation of death is a prerequisite for the administration of justice and for the betterment of public health. These investigations require a high level of skill, professionalism and ethics and have far reaching effects. South Africa’s high level of unnatural deaths, combined with limited human and fiscal resources, specifically a scarcity in practicing Forensic Medical Practitioners, a lack of adequate training of Forensic Officers and members of the South African Police Service, discrepancies in available statistics and a lack of accreditation and quality control, to name a few, leave the South African medico-legal system overburdened. Death investigation needs to evolve and improve constantly and improvements in death investigation need to occur across a wide spectrum of parameters. In the United States of America, to combat systemic issues such as those experienced in South Africa, Death Investigators have been introduced in a supportive capacity and as an extension of services rendered by Forensic Medical Practitioners. These investigators, who are not medical practitioners but may have some level of training or vocational experience within the medical or investigative field, attend and help to analyse death scenes, collect relevant ante-mortem data, assist during autopsies, expedite special investigations, liaise with other stakeholders and provide testimony if warranted. Multiple benefits are associated with the introduction of these death investigators, with the collection of relevant (pre-autopsy) information which will assist and direct the Forensic Medical Practitioner probably being the most pertinent in the context of this research. The aim of this study was to assess the functionality and value of introducing such Death Investigators into forensic pathology service in South Africa. Specifically, this research focused on the nature and scope of information currently being provided to Forensic Medical Practitioners prior to conducting an autopsy and assessed whether the introduction of these investigators would improve the quality of pre-autopsy information. To determine this, participating Forensic Medical Practitioners were asked to evaluate the quality of information currently provided to them prior to conducting an autopsy and to evaluate the quality of information contained in a Death Investigator worksheet that was completed hypothetically for the same case, as an example of the type of information that would be collected by a Death Investigator. Additionally, the disposition of Forensic Medical Practitioners and external stakeholders to the proposed introduction of Death Investigators was assessed through a questionnaire process. Findings of this research showed that there is a significant deficit in the quality of pre-autopsy information being provided to Forensic Medical Practitioners at present. The current pre-autopsy information received an average information quality score of 21.4%. However, the Death Investigator worksheets received and average information quality score of 84.9% representing a marked improvement. Forensic Medical Practitioners had a favourable disposition to the proposed introduction of Death Investigators and agreed that Death Investigators would provide an improved knowledge and understanding of the circumstances and setting of the death, which in turn would , enhance their ability to strategise a post-mortem approach, to request appropriate special investigations and to better interpret their autopsy findings. Overall, the results of this research suggest that the introduction of Death Investigators would add value, specifically by improving the gathering of appropriate information and would be welcomed by Forensic Medical Practitioners. While this research was conducted in Pretoria, it was done on the premise that the poor-quality pre-autopsy information experienced in Pretoria, is probably, to a greater or lesser extent experienced in other medico-legal laboratories in South Africa. It is recommended, that a multi-centre audit of pre-autopsy information quality is undertaken to verify the results found at the Pretoria Medico-legal Laboratory. Furthermore, to facilitate the introduction of Death Investigators as a new professional category, it is recommended that a working group be convened to further interrogate the added-value potential of this introduction as well as to determine prerequisite educational requirements and acceptable recognised prior learning, and to develop guidelines and scope of practice documents. It is also recommended that should this introduction come to fruition, provision be made to accommodate such Death Investigators on a professional board affiliated with the Health Professions Council of South Africa, to guide training and qualification requirements, advise on best practice and professional standards against which Death Investigators can be held accountable.
Dissertation (MSc (Medical Criminalistic))--University of Pretoria, 2020.
Forensic Medicine
MSc (Medical Criminalistic)
Unrestricted

Schizophrenia is a severe and chronic disorder in many cases. The illness can impact on the whole family. Family interventions are a psychosocial treatment for schizophrenia. A robust evidence base has developed supporting the use of family interventions, as reduced relapse and other clinical benefits can be produced. The majority of service users in forensic services suffer from schizophrenia. Yet little is known about the need, acceptability or feasibility of family intervention in forensic services. The over-arching goal of this programme of research was to review the literature for family intervention and conduct a comprehensive needs assessment, with a final aim to resolve the barriers of implementation of family intervention within forensic services. Meta-analysis indicated that the efficacy of family interventions resulted in positive outcomes in reduced relapse and psychotic symptoms, and improved knowledge and relationships. Family interventions were found to be applicable to the psychological needs of forensic service users. Problems were identified with staff training and supervision on forensic wards, with few wards providing family intervention as part of treatment for schizophrenia. Relatives of forensic service users expressed a need for family intervention. Staff highlighted that the barriers to family intervention were associated with insufficient time, poor support, lack of training, deficient information sharing, and geographic limitations between family homes and the forensic units. Staff offered solutions to implementing family intervention that related to revised policy and improved supervision. Relatives and staff held positive attitudes toward family intervention with open-minded attitudes towards the use of a web camera to facilitate family intervention in forensic services (e-FFI). The fourteen week web based family intervention (e-FFI) feasibility study generated reduced levels of stress, stigma and expressed emotion with improvements in the family’s knowledge of schizophrenia, personal health and an acceptance of forensic services. E-FFI was administered with ease achieving positive feedback from the family and the forensic service.

The investigation of sex crimes is a specific function for many law enforcement agencies, requiring an understanding of how to investigate, process crime scenes, interact with victims and offenders, and prepare for court. Drawing on new methods of investigation and the effects of such crimes on victims, Forensic Investigation of Sex Crimes and Sexual Offenders provides in-depth coverage in these areas, offering a valuable supplement for criminal justice courses and an accessible guide for law enforcement.
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Este trabalho apresenta um olhar sobre a atividade forense começando no antigo Egito, berço da civilização ocidental, passando pela colonização portuguesa e sua influência, até chegar ao Brasil atual, trazendo os elementos interdisciplinares característicos da perícia em cada período histórico. Dado a este caráter interdisciplinar, o trabalho tenta demonstrar quais foram as bases legislativas em cada época. O objetivo foi identificar os problemas que surgiram ao longo do tempo para o exercício da perícia como auxiliar da Justiça, assim como destacar elementos que possam melhorar a relação entre peritos, juízes e partes, tendo em vista o resultado de seu trabalho: o laudo pericial.
This work presents a look at the forensic activity starting in ancient Egypt, the cradle of Western civilization, through the Portuguese colonization and their influence, until getting to Brazil nowadays, with the aim to bring the characteristic elements of interdisciplinary expertise in every historical period. Given its interdisciplinary character, this essay attempts to point which legislative bases had experts to carry out their activities. The aim was to identify the elements which analyzed the problems that have arisen over time to the exercise of skill as an activity assistant, as well as to highlight areas that may assist the improvement of the activity for forensics, judges and parties, as well as the final result of his work: the expert report.

Literature Review: Expertise, decision making and situation awareness literature have allowed a better understanding of practitioner performance in Engineering, Healthcare and Sport. Discourse is thin in the domain of Crime Scene Examination, although Hierarchical Tasks Analysis, Distributed Cognition, Team Working and Perception have all received attention in recent years. The use of camera technology to uncover performance has also found footing in diverse professions, notably Firefighting and Social Work. Crime Scene Investigator practice is proposed as being a fertile area of study, to make apparent aspects of the work that are tacit, as well as to ascertain if performance metrics in the sector connect with the tacit knowledge expressed in the role. Methodology: This study explored the differences in searching strategies between expert and novice Crime Scene Examiners (n=12) in a simulated environment, before discussing a longitudinal ethnographic examination of how Volume Crime Scene Investigators (n=4) make sense of their practice. Eye-tracker and head-mounted camera technology was used to capture performance from an own point of view perceptive. Nvivo 9 was utilised to collate and code video data, field notes and interview transcriptions. Results & Discussion: Results from verbal protocol analysis and eye-tracker recordings indicate that expert examiners target fewer objects within the crime scene space however spend longer on the objects being viewed. Field study results report that Volume Crime Scene Investigators engage in sharing tacit knowledge, this impacted on their strategies or perception of obtaining forensic evidence. In addition the analysis of coded data from video and verbal protocol reports found that specific physical aspects of examination practice such as fingerprint powdering were aligned to decision making or analysis processes. For example, commenting on the morphology of the surface being examined. Furthermore examiners engaged in and highlighted aspects of their role they felt were important but were not captured in any metrics. Conclusion: It is proposed this new understanding will be of use to those in developing crime scene investigation practitioners as well as presenting related literature on how expertise in the domain can be recognised, elicited and developed in others. This work also sheds light on the value of sector standards for this field along with what is needed to make them more user- friendly for the developing practitioner.

The dissertation concerns digital forensic. The expression digital forensic (sometimes called digital forensic science) is the science that studies the identification, storage, protection, retrieval, documentation, use, and every other form of computer data processing in order to be evaluated in a legal trial. Digital forensic is a branch of forensic science. First of all, digital forensic represents the extension of theories, principles and procedures that are typical and important elements of the forensic science, computer science and new technologies. From this conceptual viewpoint, the logical consideration concerns the fact that the forensic science studies the legal value of specific events in order to contrive possible sources of evidence. The branches of forensic science are: physiological sciences, social sciences, forensic criminalistics and digital forensics. Moreover, digital forensic includes few categories relating to the investigation of various types of devices, media or artefacts. These categories are: - computer forensic: the aim is to explain the current state of a digital artefact; such as a computer system, storage medium or electronic document; - mobile device forensic: the aim is to recover digital evidence or data from mobile device, such as image, log call, log sms and so on; - network forensic: the aim is related to the monitoring and analysis of network traffic (local, WAN/Internet, UMTS, etc.) to detect intrusion more in general to find network evidence; - forensic data analysis: the aim is examine structured data to discover evidence usually related to financial crime; - database forensic: the aim is related to databases and their metadata. The origin and historical development of the discipline of study and research of digital forensic are closely related to progress in information and communication technology in the modern era. In parallel with the changes in society due to new technologies and, in particular, the advent of the computer and electronic networks, there has been a change in the mode of collection, management and analysis of evidence. Indeed, in addition to the more traditional, natural and physical elements, the procedures have included further evidence that although equally capable of identifying an occurrence, they are inextricably related to a computer or a computer network or electronic means. The birth of computer forensics can be traced back to 1984, when the FBI and other American investigative agencies have began to use software for the extraction and analysis of data on a personal computer. At the beginning of the 80s, the CART(Computer Analysis and Response Team) was created within the FBI, with the express purpose of seeking the so-called digital evidence. This term is used to denote all the information stored or transmitted in digital form that may have some probative value. While the term evidence, more precisely, constitutes the judicial nature of digital data, the term forensic emphasizes the procedural nature of matter, literally, "to be presented to the Court". Digital forensic have a huge variety of applications. The most common applications are related to crime or cybercrime. Cybercrime is a growing problem for government, business and private. - Government: security of the country (terrorism, espionage, etc.) or social problems (child pornography, child trafficking and so on). - Business: purely economic problems, for example industrial espionage. - Private: personal safety and possessions, for example phishing, identity theft. Often many techniques, used in digital forensics, are not formally defined and the relation between the technical procedure and the law is not frequently taken into consideration. From this conceptual perspective, the research work intends to define and optimize the procedures and methodologies of digital forensic in relation to Italian regulation, testing, analysing and defining the best practice, if they are not defined, concerning common software. The research questions are: 1. The problem of cybercrime is becoming increasingly significant for governments, businesses and citizens. - In relation to governments, cybercrime involves problems concerning national security, such as terrorism and espionage, and social questions, such as trafficking in children and child pornography. - In relation to businesses, cybercrime entails problems concerning mainly economic issues, such as industrial espionage. - In relation to citizens, cybercrime involves problems concerning personal security, such as identity thefts and fraud. 2. Many techniques, used within the digital forensic, are not formally defined. 3. The relation between procedures and legislation are not always applied and taken into consideration

This thesis tackles the challenges presented by shoemark evidence assessment within forensic science as summarised in the recent (2010) "RvT" judgement [1]. Modern evidence types, such as DNA, have raised the bar for the use of transparent and objective computational frameworks within forensic evidence assessment. Initially a new dataset of temporal shoemark images is presented for use in shoe wear experiments, captured over a period of five months. Using this data two computational solutions are designed; first in the spatial-domain using SIFT, an approach previously proven in shoemark classification, and subsequently using a novel ridge detection algorithm within the frequency-domain. Finally, a high-level, conceptual framework is presented for integrating computational techniques with current academic and industry research in the area of forensic shoemark evidence assessment. Experiments with the SIFT-based algorithm showed that SIFT feature matching, although effective in shoe classification, is not adept at detecting corresponding wear features and the results were disappointing. However, the frequency-domain ridge detection algorithm produced more promising results, which were enhanced further with an additional image fusion stage applied when multiple source images were available. As they stand the results show that the algorithms do not yet enable wear estimates to be made reliably. Nevertheless, when coupled with the generalised, and novel, wear model the methodology provides a robust and extensible platform for further work in the field of computational forensics with respect to shoe sole wear.

Attacks on an operating system have become a significant and increasingly common problem. This type of security incident is recorded in forensic artifacts, such as log files. Forensic investigators will generally examine the logs to analyze such incidents. An anomaly is highly correlated to an attacker's attempts to compromise the system. This thesis proposes a novel framework to automatically detect an anomaly in a forensic timeline constructed from log files. Before identifying anomalies, an automatic log parser is built so that the investigators do not need to define a rule-based parser. Parsing is modeled as named entity recognition problem and a deep learning technique, namely the bidirectional long short-term memory, is exploited to parse log entries. This thesis proposes three major methods as the base of the framework. First, a method for automatic cluster-based anomaly detection is proposed. The anomaly decision is made based on the estimated threshold derived from the clustering results. It considers several statistical properties, including frequency and inter-arrival rate. Second, anomalies are identified by establishing a baseline model for normal activities from log files. Another deep learning technique, namely the deep autoencoders, is employed to construct the baseline. Third, this research proposes an anomaly detection using sentiment analysis of log messages. A negative sentiment means that the investigated log entry is an anomaly. Two methods, specifically the attention-based deep learning and the gated recurrent unit, are proposed to perform the sentiment analysis. This work also addresses the class imbalance issue in the log data using the Tomek link method. Finally, a fusion technique is applied to combine the aforementioned major methods. The weighted majority voting is used for the final anomaly decision. The detection results are then displayed in a forensic timeline to assist the investigators. Experiments on various public datasets indicate that the proposed framework achieves superior performance compared to other log anomaly detection methods.

This thesis lays the groundwork for a philosophy of forensic science. Forensic science is a historical science, much like archaeology and geology, which operates by the analysis and understanding of the physical remnants of past criminal activity. Native and non-native principles guide forensic science’s operation, application, and interpretations. The production history of mass-produced goods is embedded in the finished product, called the supply chain. The supply chain solidifies much of the specificity and resolution of the evidentiary significance of that product. Forensic science has not had an over-arching view of this production history integrated into its methods or instruction. This thesis offers provenance as the dominant factor for much of the inherent significance of mass-produced goods that become evidence.

This project constitutes an instructional unit for honors biology that involves the use of science in the field of criminal investigation and forensics. Before beginning the unit, the learners should have mastered basic laboratory skills, including use of the microscope. They should also have an understanding of the basic structure and function of DNA and its role in heredity and protein synthesis. The standard time frame is 24 days with 70-minute periods, but can be easily adjusted to meet classroom needs. Several instructional strategies enhance student learning and make science fun. The unit is inquiry-driven and activity-based. Students are surprised by the crime, gather and analyze evidence, and work towards proposing an explanation. This real world problem involves the use of cooperative learning and a variety of assessment techniques.

In computer forensics, digital evidence related to time is both important and complex. The rules of changes in time associated with digital evidence, such as files or folders, can be used to analyze certain user behaviors like data access, modification or transfer. However, the format and the rules in time information for user actions are quite different for different file systems, even for different versions of operating systems with the same file system. Some research on temporal analysis has already been done on NTFS and FAT file systems, while there are few resources that describe temporal analysis on the Hierarchical File System Plus (HFS+), the default file system in Apple computer. Moreover, removable devices like USB disks are used frequently; transferring files and folders between different devices with different file systems and operating systems happens more and more frequently, so the changes of times across different file systems are also crucial in digital forensics and investigations. In this research, the changes in time attributes of files and folders resulting from user actions on the HFS+ file system and across file systems are analyzed, and the rules of time are generated by inductive reasoning to help reconstruct crime scenes in the digital forensic investigation. Since inductive reasoning is not definitely true compared with deductive reasoning, experiments are performed to validate the rules. The usage of the rules is demonstrated by analyzing a case in details. The methods proposed here are efficient, practical and easy to put into practice in real scenarios.
published_or_final_version
Computer Science
Master
Master of Philosophy

This research, situated at the intersection of sociology, science and technology studies and police studies, provides the first sociological account of Crime Scene Investigator (CSI) training in England and Wales. Focusing on the acquisition and everyday enactment of CSI expertise, this qualitative, ethnographic investigation asks (1) what are the roles, practices and expertise of the CSI and (2) how is the CSI’s expertise developed in training and enacted in everyday work. These questions are explored through participant observation at the main training centre for UK CSIs, observation at crime scenes, interviews with trainees during and after their training and visual methods. By unpicking the visible and invisible components of CSI work, I analyse how CSIs are trained to document crime scenes and explore the practices of transforming a potentially relevant object from these locations into artefacts that meet the requirements of courtroom scrutiny. I demonstrate how CSIs engage actively and reflexively with the requirements of different conceptions of objectivity and the changing demands placed on them. They continually and performatively negotiate and delimit multiple boundaries, from the very literal in demarcating a crime scene to claiming their position within the investigative hierarchy in each interaction. Unlike other discussions of boundary work, for the CSI this is iterative, requires constant effort and is embedded in their routine practice. Within police environments, the CSI has scope for such boundary work. In the courtroom, however, crime scene investigation is narrowly defined. This thesis develops our understanding of the CSI and crime scene investigation as a practice. It stresses the significance of taking this actor seriously in any account of forensic science and investigative practices. By viewing the CSI as simply an evidence collector, or not considering her work at all, the expertise and pivotal role of this actor in the meaningful and efficient use of science in policing is blackboxed. My detailed qualitative analysis of the CSI’s role, work and specialist expertise contributes a necessary account of a key actor in the police and criminal justice system.

Scrutiny of the capabilities and accuracy of computer forensic tools is increasing as the number of incidents relying on digital evidence and the weight of that evidence increase. This thesis describes the capabilities of the leading proprietary and open source digital forensic tools. The capabilities of the tools were tested separately on digital media that had been formatted using Windows and Linux. Experiments were carried out with the intention of establishing whether the capabilities of open source computer forensics are similar to those of proprietary computer forensic tools, and whether these tools could complement one another. The tools were tested with regards to their capabilities to make and analyse digital forensic images in a forensically sound manner. The tests were carried out on each media type after deleting data from the media, and then repeated after formatting the media. The results of the experiments performed demonstrate that both proprietary and open source computer forensic tools have superior capabilities in different scenarios, and that the toolsets can be used to validate and complement one another. The implication of these findings is that investigators have an affordable means of validating their findings and are able to more effectively investigate digital media.

The ability of jurors and juries to comprehend and utilise scientific evidence in Australian criminal trials has been examined. From mock jury surveys relating to DNA profiling evidence, it was determined that most respondents were able to comprehend some basic and applied statistics, although their ability was in part related to their knowledge of English and their level of education. The point at which mock jurors were prepared to convict an accused solely on the basis of DNA profiling evidence was examined and found to be low compared with the strength of DNA profiling evidence commonly presented in Australian courts. Mock jurors also demonstrated the ability to process evidence that was presented in a Bayesian framework; commencing with prior odds, introducing new information and culminating in posterior odds. From a survey of Australian forensic scientists, including fraud investigators, it was found that most practitioners' concerns could be addressed by greater pre-trial consultation between experts and legal advocates. Improved knowledge within the legal profession concerning the jargon, principles, procedures, limitations and conclusions to be drawn from different scientific disciplines, prior to presenting this evidence in court, is recommended as the means by which complex evidence can be better adduced from expert witnesses and better presented to juries in criminal trials. Finally, from interviewing actual jurors in criminal trials in the Australian Capital Territory it was determined that where jurors' expectations of scientific evidence, particularly DNA profiling evidence, are not met, high levels of juror frustration and speculation may culminate in hung juries. The adversarial setting of criminal proceedings was also found to produce an environment in which jurors felt that information that would assist them in reaching a verdict was being deliberately withheld. The ability of the jury to ask questions and the allowed nature of those questions were also examined, with the resultant recommendation that juries be given more explicit information at the commencement of trials to inform them about their rights and obligations when asking questions.

The change of a vehicle’s velocity due to an impact, DeltaV (v) is often calculated and used in the scientific investigation of road traffic collisions. Two types of model are in common use to achieve this purpose, those based on the conservation of linear and angular momentum and the CRASH model which also considers the conservation of energy. It is shown that CRASH and major implementations of the momentum models are equivalent provided certain conditions are satisfied. Explicit conversions between the main variants of the models are presented. A method is also presented which describes a new formula for determining the total work performed in causing crush to a particular vehicle. This has the advantage of incorporating restitution effects and yields identical results to the momentum only models. Although the CRASH model has received adverse criticism due to perceived inaccuracies in the results, little work has been performed to determine the theoretical limitations on accuracy. This thesis rectifies that shortcoming. A Monte Carlo simulation and analytical model are developed here to provide two independent methods for determining the overall accuracy of the CRASH method. The principal direction of force was found to be the most likely to introduce error based on the CRASH assessment. It is shown how this and other sources of error in the CRASH model can be quantified for a particular collision suggesting priorities for minimising the overall uncertainty. The data from a series of well known crash tests are used with each of the models to provide comparison and validation data. It is recognised that without additional data velocity change is of limited use for forensic investigation. However DeltaV can be used as a proxy for acceleration and is particularly useful in studies involving injury causation. A method is also presented here which uses the change in velocity sustained by a vehicle in a planar collision to estimate the velocities of a vehicle before and after a collision. This method relies solely on conservation laws and is also applicable to situations where the coefficient of restitution is non-zero. An extension to the method is also described which allows an initial estimate to be modified to generate more realistic directions of force. This extension has the desirable effect of reducing uncertainty in the estimation of the direction of force which significantly improves the overall accuracy.

In South Africa, there is a burden of unidentified deceased individuals in forensic mortuaries. When human remains are severely compromised, hard tissues may provide the only DNA source for identification. The QIAamp® DNA Investigator Kit is used in forensic laboratories worldwide, including in South Africa, to extract DNA for identification purposes. However, in local forensic casework, the DNA recovered from teeth is often of insufficient quantity and quality for generating a DNA profile. The phenol-chloroform DNA extraction method has demonstrated improved, yet inconsistent results, when used on hard tissues. Therefore, this study assessed DNA recovery from 52 human control teeth from three deceased individuals, using an optimised phenol-chloroform method. This method involved an overnight demineralisation, two additions of phenol/chloroform/isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1) and an ethanol precipitation, as used by the Australian Federal Police. Quantitative PCR (Quantifiler™ Trio DNA Quantification Kit) and DNA profiling (PowerPlex® ESI 16 System) were then used to assess DNA quantity and quality. Results were compared to those obtained from the same teeth but extracted using the QIAamp® DNA Investigator Kit. The phenol-chloroform method recovered DNA with significantly higher yields (p = 0.0454) and significantly less degradation (p < 0.0001). Despite this improvement, there was no significant difference in DNA profiling success. This study also did a preliminary analysis of other factors affecting results and suggested that premolars might be the best tooth type with regards to DNA quantity, quality and profiling. Furthermore, dental disease and jawbone had a significant impact on results from teeth. Lastly, the phenol-chloroform method was applied to six teeth from a marine decomposition case to assess its performance in a local forensic setting. DNA metrics were particularly poor in this casework example, highlighting how different forensic and control environments are and the need for further optimisation. Overall, this study supports the use of the phenol-chloroform method and has provided a preliminary suggestion of the best tooth type, jawbone and tooth condition for DNA analysis for forensic human identification.

The proliferation of the Internet has amplified the use of social networking sites by creating a platform that encourages individuals to share information. As a result there is a wealth of information that is publically and easily accessible. This research explores whether open source intelligence (OSINT), which is freely available, could be used as a digital forensic investigative tool. A survey was created and sent to digital forensic investigators to establish whether they currently use OSINT when performing investigations. The survey results confirm that OSINT is being used by digital forensic investigators when performing investigations but there are currently no guidelines or frameworks available to support the use thereof. Additionally, the survey results showed a belief amongst those surveyed that evidence gleaned from OSINT sources is considered supplementary rather than evidentiary. The findings of this research led to the development of a framework that identifies and recommends key processes to follow when conducting OSINT investigations. The framework can assist digital forensic investigators to follow a structured and rigorous process, which may lead to the unanimous acceptance of information obtained via OSINT sources as evidentiary rather than supplementary in the near future.

Portland cement (PC) concrete has historically been the most commonly used construction material within the United Arab Emirates (UAE), however, as the demand increases to reduce CO2 emissions most of newly-built facilities make use of modern concrete formulations adopting various PC substitutes, and these ‘blended cements’ typically involve mineral admixtures such as ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), fly ash (FA) and silica fume (SF). The percentage of PC replaced in these concrete mixtures varies depending on the type of cement and design criteria as well as other related issues such as fire resistance. The use of PC replacements in ready-mixed concrete has been made obligatory in Dubai from 1st April 2015. This recent move towards using greener concretes has been implemented with little research on their heat resistant properties and as such an understanding of their behaviour on exposure to high temperatures in structural fires is limited. Furthermore, the applicability of forensic engineering techniques for the assessment of any deterioration in these concrete formulations is largely untested. For this reason, a range of analytical techniques have been investigated as part of this research in order to establish the chemical and physical changes taking place as well as the practical applicability of the techniques used. Three key areas were addressed as part of this research. Firstly, a review of urban fires in Dubai and a survey of fire investigation related issues within the region was undertaken. This formed a base from which the research questions could be refined. Secondly, nine concrete mixtures were assessed using 15 analytical techniques. The concrete mixtures were exposed to 4 temperatures (150°C, 300°C, 600°C, and 900°C) within a muffle furnace and the chemical, mineralogical, physical and mechanical changes were investigated using TGA, DSC, FTIR, XRD, SEM, EDX, BET surface area, residual compressive strength, density loss, carbonation depth, visual colour change, rebound hammer, UPV, portable 3D laser scanning and micro CT scanning. Finally, a set of test concrete mixtures most closely linked to those used in construction in the UAE were exposed to a real fire and were analysed post fire using a reduced set of the analytical techniques. The techniques were assessed as to how well they could define the temperature range to which the concrete had been exposed as well as ascertaining the degree of concrete degradation based on the confirmation of the chemical, mineralogical, physical and mechanical changes which had occurred. Findings indicate that the use of blended cement concrete improves the thermal resistance of the material when compared with PC concrete up to a certain temperature, usually below 600°C. Discolouration in heated concrete sections were visualised using simple digital photography. Changing the cement composition influenced the rate of carbon ingress into the concrete matrix, however this did not result in any significant colour change in heated mortar surfaces. By contrast, colour changes within the aggregates was observed at temperatures > 300°C and was strongly determined by the mineralogy of the material. The analytical data demonstrated that there were three temperature regions that provide measurable data and information to inform fire investigators of the thermal history experienced by the concrete matrix. Between 70°C-200°C the evaporation of non-chemically bound water and dissociation of ettringite, gypsum and gel-like calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) occur, and can be detected using a range of the techniques used. The heat flux required for these reactions to occur was greater in all mixtures containing GGBS. Observed chemical and physical transformations between 300°C and 500°C were mainly due to the oxidation of iron hydroxide and the dehydroxylation of portlandite. Further chemical changes at 650°C and above were identified as a direct result of the decarbonation of CaCO3. At elevated temperatures, the absence of certain minerals within the concrete formulations provided an indication of the temperature which would have been reached by the concrete matrix. It was also revealed that in some cases the minerals present rehydrated during cooling of the concrete and this was also detectable using a number of the analytical methods employed. For the test samples exposed to real fire conditions, the rebound hammer, UPV and compressive strength measurements all provided good indications of physical losses experienced by the concrete, however these methods were not good estimators of the exposure temperature. The results from TGA, DSC and FTIR in particular were more reliable but differed from the reference models in that water used in suppression and absorbed by the concrete affected some of the predicted features. XRD also revealed peaks which could be related to various phases of change within the concrete, which was helpful in revealing the thermal history of concrete. Discolouration of cross-sections of the concrete samples produced trends similar to the lab-heated specimens however this was hard to visualise on the surface of the concrete due to the soot layer resulting from the fire. The results characterised, for the first time, chemical and physical changes occurring within a range of concrete mixtures used in the UAE and linked these to specific temperature ranges to which the concrete were exposed. Furthermore, this work has demonstrated that a number of the analytical techniques used can be helpful in the determination of the thermal history of concrete which has been exposed to fire conditions.

This thesis examines the evolution, applications, and statistical interpretations of DNA typing as a tool in the field of forensic science as well as in our criminal justice system. The most controversial aspect of DNA typing involves the determination of how likely it is that two people share the same DNA profile. This involves the use of population genetics and databases of allelic frequencies as well as some assumptions about population structuring.

Thesis (M.S.F.S.)
Swabs are an integral part of any forensic science “toolkit”. They can be used to gather many types of evidence at crime scenes, in the lab, or even in the hospital or morgue. Cotton swabs have been the traditional choice for most forensic laboratories, and for sexual assault kits. They have been the obvious choice for decades as cotton swabs were really the only option and they were and still are relatively inexpensive and easy to obtain. In the past dozen years or so, new synthetic fibers have been incorporated into novel swab designs. Fiber swabs can be made of polyester or rayon, polyurethane foam swabs can be round, narrow, oval or arrow shaped; swabs can also be flocked, or sprayed with strands of material such as nylon. The effectiveness of any type of swab used to collect biological material is based on three characteristics: the ability to pick up the material for which they are designed, the ability to hold that material until processed and then the ability to release as much of that material as possible to be analyzed in the lab. In this study, the efficacy of four different commercially available swabs to collect, store and release spermatozoa was evaluated. Puritan Cotton fiber swabs, Fisher Polyester fiber swabs, Fisher polyurethane swabs, and Copan nylon flocked swabs were all compared for their ability to pick-up and elute cells from solid surfaces. The surfaces included three types of commonly found tile: a smooth glossy ceramic tile, a rough non-porous ceramic tile, and a smooth semi-porous quarry tile. In general, polyester fiber swabs outperformed both the polyurethane foam and the nylon flocked swab when used on all three surfaces (P < 0.05). Polyester swabs were not significantly different from the cotton fiber swabs even though the average number of cells picked-up and eluted was higher overall. Swabs used to collect postcoital samples were also compared. Volunteer couples were given a variety of swabs to use after intercourse. The result of the comparison for the same four swab types when used as postcoital swabs was different from the results of the tile study. After estimating the number of cells collected and released from each swab, a comparison was made within each couple. Nylon flocked swabs yielded the highest level of cellular material overall and foam swabs recovered the least. This study demonstrates the need for further research into different swab types and in what capacities they are to be used in forensic science.

Introduction Evolutionary psychology (EP) is a discipline born between evolutionary biology, cognitive science, and physical anthropology. It's both a theoretical and practical scientific discipline which principal purpose is to study human behavior, in order to understand the biological and evolutionary causes that generated it. Evolutionary psychology finds its roots in the Darwinian theory, considering human behavior as the product of adaptations to recurring problems in the ancestral environment, which evolved as functional results of natural or sexual selection forces. A branch of this discipline, Evolutionary forensic psychology, is a burgeoning fieldwhich explores the application of science and the profession of psychology to questions and issues relating to the law and legal systems. It make use of empirical methodologies, as fieldwork, the method mutually exclusive of multiple hypotheses, and the deductive investigative logic, which allowsto create psychological profiles. These profiles are based on objective data from the analysis of the cases, and aim to predict and understand biological motives that led people to commit violent behavior. Evolutionary forensic psychology promise to be a useful tool to study and analyze the variables of different situations, in order to assist and direct police and defensive investigations. In this PhD research I addressed different aspects and applications of this discipline. In the specific, during my research period at Philippe-Pinel research institute of Montrèal, Canada, I have explored the application of evolutionary psychology in the study of presence, a psychological state akin to perceptual illusion, first identified by cognitive and cyber psychology, and here analyzed as sexual presence. However , my research has mainly concentrated on the study of the adaptive value of maternal infanticide, with a special focus on the phenomenon of maternal neonaticide, here meant as "reproductive disinvestment", and its social and legal implications. Following this line of research, as part of the Evolutionary Forensic Psychology Laboratory, I experienced the role of the investigative psychologist, attending as defensive consultant a case of suspected maternal infanticide. Applying the methodology of evolutionary forensic psychology, I conducted, with my supervisor, an interdisciplinary research between forensic psychobiology and legal medicine, aiming to verify the validity of tympanic and rectal temperature in estimating the time of death. I suggest that the results of this research had relevant consequences both in medico-legal and investigative domain but, above all, our outcomes brought to light a number of methodological errors, that are systematically made in our country during the crime scene investigation and the rescuing in outdoor conditions. According to these findings, I have analyzed the European Guidelines for resuscitation in wild conditions, and I took in exam what happens in the practice in our country. Finally I present representative cases, where the time of death was a crucial data, but its erroneous interpretations led to controversial verdicts. The sexual presence model Introduction to the concept of presence Presence is defined as a psychological state or subjective perception causing an individual to give into the illusions created by a computerizing system., it’s a real feeling of been immersed in a virtual environment, mediated by emotional states and biological predispositions. In the practice, it is very important to define and measure the feeling of presence, since Virtual Reality is used to for a large number of purpose. Most recent research show how useful virtual reality is in medical context, both in diagnosis and treatment assessments. According to this, here is presented a special kind of the feeling of presence, the sexual presence, which describes the particular psychological cognitive and physical feeling generate by the experience of sexuality through different media, as erotic movies or chat-line. Aim of the theory To define and understanding sexual presence is crucial to maximize and recall this feeling in an experimental context. In fact, virtual reality is a powerful tool to assess sexual fantasies and interests in individual. Especially with child molesters, and sexual offenders. To get the highest level of presence, which integrates, the users need as much identification as possible inside the virtual system, which should be provided by the developer through a convincing and controlled motor and perceptual illusion. For all these reasons, this work aims to identify the features of sexual presence, and how to induce it in an experimental situation. Main aspects of the sexual presence model Sexual presence is an evolutionary phenomenon featured by motivational emotional and physical feelings, that an individual experiences when exposed to internal or external stimuli, like erotic movies, on-line erotic chat and most of all, sexual fantasies. Sexual presence arises from an adequate combination of form and contents, and is strictly related to sexual arousal and sexual behavior. Following Riva and colleagues (2011) this work identified three sub-processes of sexual presence: proto, core and extended presence, which are deeply connected, and represent both in conscious and in unconscious behaviors and in intents that features sexual presence, and they differ from male and female. This three level model should be well-known when we need to induce sexual presence in experimental context. Thus to maximize sexual presence it is important to identified the erotic imagery features for each participant, and to develop a virtual environment which is significant to the participant. Conclusion This model could be particularly useful in the study of paraphilias and sexual behavior disordered using virtual reality system. In fact, at the present time, the research team I worked with at the Philippe-Pinel Institute, is applying this model in the study of evolutionary hypothesis on rape. Mothers Who Kill Their Offspring: Testing Evolutionary Hypothesis in a 110-case Italian Sample Introduction and aim The killing of a child by own biological mother has occurred in our species since its origin, most probably in every culture and every population. According to evolutionary theory, the killing of offspring by its own mother may, under certain conditions, represent an evolved behavioural pattern that increases the reproductive fitness of the mother. This research aimed to identify incidents of mothers in Italy killing their own children, verifying if neonaticide (killings of children within the first day of life), infanticide (killing of children within the first year of life), and filicide (killing of children after the first year of life) can be objectively distinguished by psychobiological profiles that might help to prevent them, and testing an adaptive evolutionary hypothesis to explain their occurrence. Methods 110 cases of mothers killing 123 of their own offspring from 1976 to 2010 were analyzed. Each case was classified using 13 dichotomic (yes/no) variables. Descriptive statistics and hierarchical cluster analysis were performed both for cases and variables, and significant differences between clusters were analyzed. Results: The Italian sample of neonaticides was found to satisfy most evolutionary predictions for an evolved behavioral, emotional and motivational pattern to increase fitness, showing a consistent profile for the offending mothers. All neonaticide cases fall in a single cluster, distinct from all other cases. Infanticide and filicide, on the contrary, do not significantly differ according to the variables measured (marital status, conditions of the body, mothers age, violent killing, other sons, psychopathology, economical condition, suicide, nationality). The common profile of mothers who have committed infanticide or filicide includes psychopathology, suicide or attempted suicide after killing their children, violent killing of their victims, and no attempt to conceal the victims’ bodies. These results suggest that maternal infanticide and filicide represent an improper functioning of adaptation, and their profile are much more variable than those of neonaticide offenders. Conclusion: Our study confirms that only neonaticide is an adaptive reproductive disinvestment, possibly evolved in the remote past, to increase the biological fitness of the mother by eliminating an unwanted newborn and preserving resources for future offspring born in better conditions. I here show that Neonaticide is clearly distinct from infanticide and filicide and therefore should be approached, prevented, and judged differently in penal assessment. Why mothers kill newborn: a focus on Italian sample Introduction and aims In the light of the results just presented, it has been defined deeply the phenomenon of neonaticide in our country. In line with the literature, our previous outcomes show that neonaticidal mothers are young women, in bad socio-economical situation, who can’t grow their offspring, due to a so defined “reproductive comprehensive instinct”. The socio-biological profile of these women seems very similar to those who decide to have an abortion: renounce to a pregnancy, in this case, doesn’t mean to go against the reproductive instinct, but preserveenergy and resources for a future pregnancy. Here we compared the profiles of neonaticidal mothers and women who decide to interrupt their pregnancy, in order to identify risk factors and contribute to the prevention of this phenomena. Methods 35 cases of neonaticide were analyzed. Each case was classified using 7 main dichotomic variables. To analyze possible risk factors, all data have been normalized, based on the actual frequency of the reference populations, in order to have comparable values, according to ISTAT 2002. Results This study shows that neonaticide and abortion share similar traits, especially concerning the young age of the women. The profile of these women “at risk” suggests that they are 1) normally at their first birth, 2) usually very young with 3) a great residual reproductive potential and (4) immigrated from another country. Conclusion The results here presented might have important implications in therapeutic assessment, as the identification of risk factors, to offer and promote adequate socio-psychological support to at risk future mothers. Evaluation of tympanic and rectal temperature measurements to estimate the time of death in accidents in cold water Introduction and aims The reliable measurement of core deep body temperature is fundamental to estimate the time of death (TOD) in Hessnge nomogram. The golden standard is measuring through rectal or oesophagus probe. Recently infrared tympanic thermometers (ITT), have substituted in some cases the golden standard. We assisted, as defense consultants, a case of suspect maternal infanticide, where the emergency service revealed a deep temperature of 24.9° C with ITT on a female victim of 2 years old, immersed in a 18° C river. The ITT estimated time of death, which seemed to be the only strong evidence against the mother, was in contrast with the predictions from most other biological and thanatological evidences (bloodgas analysis and myocardium electric activity). I could ascertain that according to the psycho-biological profile, the mother had no motive to kill her daughter. To validate the TOD evidence, this work aimed to provide a reliable correlation between the golden standard and infrared tympanic temperature to be eventually used in this and future cases of TOD measurements in accidents occurring in cold water. Methods To compare the ITT and the rectal probe temperature measurements, we tested laboratory rats, in three different conditions: dry alive, immersed alive in 18C° water, and immersed dead (by cervical dislocation) in 18°C water. To sample infrared temperature, we used 3 infrared thermometers. Genius 3000 A (used in this forensic case, 2 samples) and Genius 2 (the most popular at present in Italian emergency services). The rectal temperature was assessed using a rectal probe connected to a monitor Propaq. We also tested the accuracy of ITT, recording body temperatures on a human volunteer before during and after exposing its right ear to 3 minutes running water at 18°C and subsequently dried. Results The Genius 2 stopped registering at 33°C and never resumed recording following the first measurement after the rat was submersed in water. This observation was a posteriori confirmed in the user manual, which stated that this thermometer stopped reading below 33°C. When the rats were submerged in the 18°C running water, the rectal temperature began to decline steadily. The tympanic temperature recorded with Genius 3000A, in contrast, dropped sharply from 34°C to 24°C after the rats were submerged alive in the water. After their deaths, the rectal temperatures continued to decline steadily without major variations, while the tympanic temperature fluctuated above water temperature. On the human volunteer ITT measures immediately fell under 19C°, while the whole body temperature, remained unchanged at 36.5C°. ITT measurements recovered the subject correct body temperature after 33 minutes from water exposure. Conclusion In water-related accidents, such as near drowning, infrared ear thermometry is not a suitable method to measure the actual deep body temperature. Further, confirming these results, the temperature readings of the ITT device provide unreliable measurements of the core temperature. This inaccuracy could lead to inappropriate medical decisions, and thus, we suggest ITT measurements should not be utilised for such cases. Moreover, the use of the ITT Genius 2 is not recommended in emergency settings, especially in case of hypothermia due to his its incapacity to register under 33 C°. Errors, Guidelines and Remarks: what happens in the practice? Introduction and aims The results of previous study left a lot of unanswered questions. The bulk of knowledge necessary to diagnosis of the time of death, known as thanatology, is a multidisciplinary field of study, that includes forensic pathology to biology, through chemistry, physics and also forensic entomology., Assessing the victims time of death is a crucial point in forensic practice: it allows investigators to clarify the last hours alive of the victims, it also helps to point out the causes of death and, moreover, it’s crucial to substantiate suspicious alibis. Nevertheless, before becoming a crime scene, the environment and setting where a body is found, is a place where someone need to be rescued and treated by medical assistance, and this interferes with thanatological requirements. Here we aim to analyze what happens in the forensic and medico-legal practice in our country. Methods We have analyzed the European guidelines for resuscitation in wild conditions as hypothermia and drowning in cold water, with a focus on what are the suggestions for estimating the core temperature, both for the resuscitation procedure and the estimation of the time of death. Then we took in consideration what happens in Italian emergency services and which procedures, if any, they implement in the described conditions. Those data were found on the Hospital’s websites, in our Country. Finally, we have examined some relevant cases, taken from the analysis of specialized books and from the archives of major newspapers that have followed the penal processes reported, where the investigation of the crime scene and the estimation of the time of death were decisive to solve the crime. Results The European guidelines for resuscitation are very precise concerning the treatment for a patient affected by injuries due to hypothermia or drowning. But they are not that specific for what concern the use of a particular method to register the core temperature. In the forensic practice the methodology to estimate the TOD is heterogeneous. In Italy, the guidelines to resuscitation are provided just at local level, and it’s not even mandatory to have a temperature recording device on the ambulance. Conclusion We found out that procedural mistakes and lack of univocal rules in the practice have led to controversial outcomes in legal processes. Our work urges further studies regarding the techniques to estimate the post- mortem period, and suggests an adequate training for the rescue teams members, to provide the best care and to preserve such important evidence as TOD. General Conclusions In this thesis I’ve explored the applications of evolutionary psychology in the forensic practice, outlining the role of the investigative psychologist. The research outcomes might have both theoretical and practical implications. First, It has been described for the first time the sexual presence, which is a phenomena which might be involved in the assessment of paraphilias and violent behavior with virtual reality. Second, it has been found that maternal neonaticide, in our species, has an evolutionary cause, and the neonaticidal woman profile is different from infanticidal and filicide ones. These suggestions have relevant effects in the investigation phase, in correctional assessment, and also in the definitions of preventive measurement targeted to at-risk future mothers. Third, collaborating as consultant in a case of suspect infanticide, I found that the tympanic temperature, very used in the practice, is not a valuable measure to assess the time of death in extreme outdoor conditions, where the body core temperature is essential. In light of these results, it has been noticed the lack of regulations in our country about the estimating of TOD, and I provide suggestions to improve medico –legal and resuscitation actions in the forensic practice. These studies show the versatility and the practical value of evolutionary psychology in the forensic domain. In fact, the most important outcome of this work is to demonstrate how the techniques and theories learned and explored during three PhDs years, have important applications in the clinical, criminological and forensic practice, and how it could be important to carry on researches in evolutionary forensic psychology, due to its social implications.
Introduzione La psicologia evoluzionistica è una disciplina che proviene dall’incontro tra diverse materie, quali la biologia evoluzionistica, le scienze cognitive e l’antropologia fisica. E’ una disciplina basata sull’approccio scientifico, il cui principale obbiettivo è comprendere le cause biologiche ed evoluzionistiche che hanno generato il comportamento umano. La psicologia evoluzionistica affonda le radici nella teoria Darwiniana, che considera il comportamento umano come un prodotto dell’evoluzione dei diversi adattamenti a problemi ricorrenti che i nostri antenati hanno dovuto risolvere in un ambiente ancestrale, presumibilmente plio-pleistocenico. Questi comportamenti si sono evoluti sotto la spinta della selezione naturale e sessuale. Una branca di questa disciplina, la psicologia evoluzionistica forense, è un settore di studio in grande espansione, che studia l’applicazione della scienza e il ruolo di psicologo nell’analisi di aspetti forensi e legali. Questa disciplina si avvale dell’approccio empirico, come lo studio sul campo, il metodo delle ipotesi multiple mutuamente esclusive, e il ragionamento logico-deduttivo, che consente di creare profili psicologici basati su dati oggettivi provenienti dall’analisi dei casi, con lo scopo di comprendere e predire i moventi biologici che portano le persone a commettere comportamenti violenti. Per questi motivi la psicologia evoluzionistica forense si appresta ad essere un valido strumento nell’analisi delle diverse variabili in situazioni differenti, così da assistere e guidare l’operato delle forze dell’ordine e delle indagini difensive. Durante il mio dottorato, ho potuto esplorarediversi aspetti e applicazioni di questa disciplina. Nello specifico, durante il mio periodo di ricerca all’estero, presso l’Istituto di ricerca Philippe-Pinel di Montrèal, in Canada, ho applicato le teorie della psicologia evoluzionistica nello studio del concetto di “presence” uno stato psicologico derivante dall’illusione percettiva, originariamente identificato dalla cyber psicologia cognitiva, e qui analizzato come “sexual presence”. Tuttavia, la mia ricerca si è principalmente concentrata nello studio del valore adattivo dell’infanticidio materno, con particolare attenzione al fenomeno del neonaticidio, qui inteso come “disinvestimento riproduttivo”, e le sue implicazioni sociali e legali. Grazie a questi studi, in collaborazione con il laboratorio di psicologia evoluzionistica, ho collaborato come consulente della difesa, in un caso di sospetto infanticidio materno. Applicando le metodologie della psicologia evoluzionistica forense, ho condotto, in collaborazione con il mio supervisor, il Prof. Andrea Camperio Ciani, un ricerca interdisciplinare a cavallo tra la psicobiologia forense e la medicina legale, il cui obiettivo è stato quello di verificare la validità delle temperature rettali e timpaniche nella stima dell’ora del decesso. Il risultato di questi esperimenti potrebbero avereconseguenze rilevanti sia dal punto di vista medico legale che medico investigativo, ma soprattutto, ha mostrato come, nel nostro paese, vengano commessi diversi errori durante l’analisi della scena del crimine e nelle fasi del salvataggio in situazioni estreme. Alla luce di questi risultati ho preso in esame le linee guida per la rianimazione in situazioni estreme, osservando quello che succede nel nostro Paese, portando come esempio dei casi rappresentativi in cui la stima del decesso era un dato fondamentale, ma la cui erronea o incompleta interpretazione ha portato a risultati controversi. Il modello della sexual presence Introduzione al concetto di presence La presence è un stato psicologico, una percezione soggettiva che fa sì che un individuo sperimenti l’illusione creata da un computer, definibile come una sensazione reale di essere immersi in un ambiente virtuale mediata da stati emotivi e predisposizioni biologiche, nella pratica è molto importante definire e misurare la sensazione di presence, in quanto la realtà virtuale ha diverse applicazioni. Recenti ricerche hanno mostrato l’importanza della realtà virtuale nel contesto diagnostico e trattamentale, per questo motivo, in questa tesi viene presentata uno speciale aspetto della presence, la sexual presence, che descrive la sensazione psicologica, cognitiva e fisica generata dall’esperienza della sessualità tramite diversi media, come ad esempio i film o le chat-line erotiche. Scopi della teoria Comprendere e definire la sexual presence è fondamentale per massimizzare e richiamare questa sensazione nel contesto sperimentale. Infatti, la realtà virtuale è uno strumento efficace per testare le fantasie e gli interessi sessuali degli individui, in particolarecon i molestatori sessuali e i pedofili. Per raggiungere il massimo livello di presence, gli utenti o i soggetti in esame,hanno bisogno della massima identificazione possibile all’interno del sistema virtuale, che dovrebbe essere fornita dai programmatori, attraverso un’illusione percettiva e motoria controllata e convincente. Per tutte queste ragioni, questo studio si pone l’obiettivo di identificare le caratteristiche della sexual presence e di come indurla in una condizione sperimentale. Principali aspetti del modello La sexual presence è un fenomeno che ha delle basi evolutive, caratterizzato da sensazioni motivazionali, emozionali e fisiche, che un individuo sperimenta quando esposto a stimoli, esterni o interni, come film erotici, chat-line erotiche e, soprattutto, le fantasie sessuali. La sexual presence è generata da una combinazione adeguata di forma e contenuto, ed è strettamente connessa all’eccitazione e al comportamento sessuali. Seguendo le nozioni di Riva e colleghi (2011), questo lavoro identifica tre sub-processi che sottostanno alla sexual presence: la proto la core e la extended presence, che sono strettamente connessi e rappresentano comportamenti ed intenti sia consci che inconsci, e che si differenziano tra maschi e femmine. Questo modello a tre livelli dovrebbe essere ben noto, nel momento in cui si vuole indurre la massima sensazione di presence in un esperimento. Quindi, per massimizzare la sensazione di presence è importante identificare l’immaginario erotico di ogni partecipante e sviluppare un ambiente virtuale che sia significativo per il partecipante. Conclusioni Questo modello potrebbe essere particolarmente utile nello studio delle parafilie e dei disturbi del comportamento sessuale tramite realtà virtuale. Infatti, attualmente, il gruppo di ricerca a cui ho partecipato al Philippe- Pinel Institute, sta applicando questo modello nello studio delle ipotesi evoluzionistiche sullo stupro, tramite realtà virtuale. Madri che uccidono: studio su un campione di 110 casi in Italia Introduzione e obiettivi L’omicidio di un bambino da parte della madre biologica accade nella nostra sin dalle origini, in ogni cultura e popolazione. Secondo la teoria evoluzionistica, l’omicidio materno della prole può, in alcune circostanze, rappresentare un comportamento adattivo che si è evoluto per aumentare la fitness riproduttiva della madre. Questa ricerca si pone l’obiettivo di identificare l’incidenza delle madri che uccidono i loro figli nel nostro paese, verificando se il neonaticidio (l’omicidio dei neonati entro le 24 ore dal parto), l’infanticidio (entro il primo anno di vita) e il figlicidio (dopo il primo di vita), possono essere oggettivamente distinti in profili psicobiologici che possono aiutare a prevenirli, e testare le ipotesi evoluzionistiche adattive per spiegarne le dinamiche. Metodi Sono stati analizzati 110 casi di madri che hanno ucciso 123 bambini, dal 1976 al 2010. Ogni caso è stato classificato utilizzando 13 variabili dicotomiche. Sul campione sono state effettuate analisi statistiche descrittive e una analisi per cluster, sia per casi che per variabili, analizzando poi le differenze significative tra i gruppi. Risultati Il campione italiano dei neonaticidi ha soddisfatto tutte le ipotesi evoluzionistiche, per un pattern di comportamenti emozioni e motivazioni volte ad aumentare la fitness riproduttiva, mostrando un profilo consistente per madri neonaticide. Tutti i casi di questo tipo sono stati raggruppati in un unico cluster, diviso dagli altri casi. Infanticidio e figlicidio non differiscono significativamente per nessuna delle variabili prese in esame (stato civile, condizioni del corpo, età della madre, modus operandi, psicopatologia, suicidio e nazionalità). Il profilo della madre che ha commesso infanticidio e figlicidio è caratterizzato da psicopatologia, suicidio o tentato suicidio, modus operandi violento e nessun tentativo di nascondere il corpo della vittima. Questi risultati suggeriscono che il figlicidio e l’infanticidio siano due comportamenti maladattivi, e il loro profilo sia molto più variabile di quello delle neonaticide. Conclusioni Questi studio conferma che solo il neonaticidio è un disinvestimento riproduttivo adattivo, evolutosi in un passato remoto, con lo scopo di aumentare la fitness riproduttiva materna eliminando un figlio non voluto e preservandole risorse per una prole future, in condizioni migliori. Il neonaticidio si è dimostrato essere chiaramente distinto dall’infanticidio e come tale dovrebbe essere affrontato, prevenuto e giudicato in tribunale. Perchè le madri uccidono I neonati: focus su un campione italiano Introduzione e obiettivi Alla luce dei risultati appena presentati, è stato analizzato più in profondità il fenomeno del neonaticidio nel nostro paese. In linea con la letteratura, i nostri precedenti risultati mostrano che le madri neonaticide sono donne giovani, in condizioni socio-economiche difficile, che non possono crescere i propri figli, a causa di un cosiddetto “istinto riproduttivo complessivo”. Il profilo socio-biologico di queste donne sembra essere molto simile a quello delle donne che decidono di abortire: ovvero rinunciare alla gravidanza in questo caso non significa andare contro all’istinto riproduttivo, ma conservare le energie e le risorse per una gravidanza futura. In questo lavoro ho confrontato il profilo della madre neonaticida e della donna che decide di interrompere la propria gravidanza, con lo scopo di identificare i fattori di rischio e contribuire alla prevenzione del fenomeno. Metodi Sono stati analizzati 35 casi di neonaticidio, ogni caso è stato analizzato utilizzando 7 variabili dicotomiche. Per comparare i possibili fattori di rischio tutti i dati sono stati normalizzati sulla base delle frequenze della popolazione di riferimento, secondo i dati forniti dall’ISTAT 2002. Risultati Lo studio ha messo in luce come il neonaticidio e l’aborto abbiano aspetti simili, soprattutto per quanto concerne la giovane età delle donne. Il profilo di queste donne a rischio suggerisce che esse sono 1) alla loro prima gravidanza 2) solitamente molto giovani con 3) un grande potenziale riproduttivo residuo e 4) immigrate da un paese straniero. Conclusioni I risultati riportati hanno significative implicazioni nellavalutazione terapeuticoa, e nella definizione dei fattori di rischio, per indirizzare, promuovere ed offrire un adeguato sostegno socio-psicologico alle future madri in difficoltà. ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬Valutazione delle temperature timpaniche e rettali nella stima dell’ora del decesso in incidenti in acque fredde. Introduzione ed obiettivi La corretta rilevazione della temperature profonda del corpo è fondamentale nella stima dell’ora del decesso (SOD) nel nomogramma di Hengge. Lo standard è la misurazione rettale o esofagea. Recentemente però, i termometri timpanici ad infrarossi hanno sostituito, in alcuni casi, lo standard previsto. Come parte del Laboratorio di Psicologia Evoluzionistica Forense, ho assistito come consulente della difesa, un caso di infanticidio materno, dove il Pronto Soccorso ha registrato sul corpo della vittima di due anni, immerso nell’acqua corrente di fiume fredda a 18C°, la temperatura timpanica di 24.9C°. L’ora del decesso stimata tramite termometro timpanico ad infrarossi, è risultata essere la sola evidenza contro la madre nel processo, e sembrava essere in contrasto con molte delle prove tanatologiche e biologiche rilevate (emogas analisi e attività elettrica miocardica). Secondo il profilo psico-biologico, la madre non aveva alcun movente per uccidere la figlia. Pertanto, per verificare la correttezza della SOD, abbiamo studiato la correlazione tra la temperature rettale e quella timpanica, in caso di ritrovamento di cadavere in acque fredde. Metodi Per confrontare le due temperature, sono stati utilizzati 3 ratti da laboratorio, in 3 diverse condizioni: vivo, immerse vivo a 18°C, e immerso, sempre alla medesima temperature, ma deceduto tramite dislocazione cervicale. Per la temperatura timpanica abbiamo utilizzato 3 termometri ad infrarossi, il Genius 3000 A (2 campioni, usato nel caso in oggetto) e il Genius 2 (il più utilizzato nei Pronto Soccorsi italiani). La temperatura rettale è stata registrata tramite una sonda rettale connessa ad un monitor Propaq. Abbiamo inoltre testato l’accuratezza della temperatura timpanica, misurandola sia prima che durante che dopo, su un volontario maschio adulto umano, il cui orecchio è stato esposto per 3 minuti sotto acqua corrente a 18C° e successivamente asciugato. Risultati Il Genius 2 ha smesso di registrare la temperatura a 33C° e non è mai ripartito, dopo la prima misurazione sul ratto immerso in acqua. Questa osservazione è stata poi confermata anche dal manuale, che riportava appunto l’incapacità dello strumento di registrare al di sotto dei 33C°. Una volta immersi in acqua movimentata a 18 C° la temperatura rettale dei soggetti cominciava a scendere molto lentamente. La temperatura timpanica, registrata tramite Genius 3000°, al contrario, precipita da 34C° a 24C° non appena immersi. Dopo la soppressione, la temperatura rettale continua a scendere senza particolari variazioni, mentre la temperatura rettale si arresta fluttuando poco al di sopra della temperatura dell’acqua. La temperatura timpanica del volontario umano, dopo l’esposizione all’acqua fredda, precipita sotto i19C°, mentre la temperatura corporea rimane invariata intorno ai 36.5C°. La temperatura timpanica è ritornata a misurare la corretta temperatura basale dopo 33 minuti dall’esposizione. Conclusioni In incidenti avvenuti in acque fredde, come nel caso degli annegamenti, il termometro timpanico ad infrarossi risulta essere un metodo non corretto per misurare la temperatura corporea profonda. Questa in accuratezza può portare a decisioni mediche imprecise, e le conclusioni di questo lavoro suggeriscono che la temperatura timpanica non venga utilizzata in casi come questi. Inoltre, l’utilizzo del Genius 2, è sconsigliato nei Pronto Soccorsi, specialmente in casi di ipotermia data la sua incapacità di registrare temperature inferiori ai 33 C°. Errori, Linee guida e suggerimenti: cosa succede nella pratica? Introduzione ed obiettivi I risultati dello studio precedente hanno lasciato aperte diverse questioni. La diagnosi dell’epoca della morte, conosciuta come tanatologia, è un campo multidisciplinare, che include la patologia forense, la biologia, la chimica, la fisica e addirittura l’entomologia forense. Infatti, la SOD è un punto fondamentale nella pratica forense: permette agli investigatoti di fare luce sulle ultime ore di vita della vittima, chiarisce le cause della morte, e soprattutto, permette di confermare gli alibi dei sospettati. Tuttavia, prima di diventare una scena del crimine, un luogo in cui viene ritrovato un corpo esanime, è prima di tutto un posto in cui qualcuno ha bisogno di assistenza medica, e questo puòinterferire con la corretta ricostruzione dell’ora della morte. Ho quindi osservato cosa succede nella pratica medico legale nel nostro Paese. Metodi Sono state analizzate le Linee Guida europee per la rianimazione in condizioni estreme, come l’ipotermia o l’annegamento in acqua fredde, con particolare attenzione a quelle che sono le norme per la stima della temperature profonda, sia nel caso della rianimazione sia nel calcolo dell’ora del decesso. E’ stato analizzata la procedura nei Pronti Soccorsi e nei dipartimenti di medicina legale. Questi risultati sono stati trovati nei vari website degli ospedali dei nostri paesi, e 9 dipartimenti sono stati direttamente contattati per avere le informazioni richieste. Infine sono stati osservati alcuni casi rilevanti dove l’investigazione della scena del crimine e la stima dell’ora del decesso erano fondamentali per la soluzione dei casi. Risultati Le linee guida Europee per la rianimazioni sono molto precise per quello che riguarda il trattamento di pazienti affetti da ipotermia o annegamento. Ma non sono state altrettanto specifiche per quello che riguarda l’uso dei termometri nei casi di annegamento. Nella pratica forense, la metodologia per stimare l’ora del decesso è eterogenea. In Italia le linee guida sono fornite solo a livello locale e addirittura non è obbligatorio avere un termometro per la misurazione della temperatura all’interno dell’ambulanza. Conclusioni I risultati mostrano che errori procedurali e la mancanza di norme univoche portano a risultati controversi nei procedimenti penali. Si suggerisce quindi la necessità di ulteriori studi nello studio delle tecniche per la stima dell’ora del decesso ed è necessario un training adeguato per i team di ricerca e pronto soccorso, con l’obiettivo di fornire le migliori cure possibili e preservare importanti prove come la temperatura per la stima dell’ora del decesso. Conclusioni Generali In questa testi ho esplorato le applicazioni della psicologia evoluzionistica nella pratica forense, sottolineando il ruolo dello psicologo investigativo. I risultati della ricerca hanno implicazioni sia teoretiche che pratiche. Prima è stato descritto epr la prima volta il modello della sexual presence, applicabile allo studio delle parafilie e del comportamento violento tramite realtà virtuale. Poi è stato evidenziato come il neonaticidio materno nella nostra specie abbia una causa evoluzionistica, e di come il profiling della madre neonaticida si differenzi da quello della madre infanticidia e figlicida. Questi risultati hanno effetti rilevanti sia nella fase investigative sia nella fase di definizione della pena e del trattamento, ma soprattutto nella realizzazione di misure preventive rivolte alle future madri a rischio. Infine, collaborando come consulente in un caso di sospetto infanticidio materno, è stato trovato che la temperatura timpanica, usata spesso nella pratica, non sia una misura utilizzabile per stimare l’ora del decesso in condizioni estreme, dove la temperatura profonda è essenziale. Alla luce di questi risultati, sono state riportate le linee guida per migliorare l’intervento dei medici legali e dei team di rianimazione sul posto, nel nostro paese. Questi studi hanno dimostrato la versatilità e il valore pratico della psicologia evoluzionistica nelle scienze forense. Infatti il risultato più importante di questa tesi è stato dimostrate come le tecniche e le teorie apprese durante questi anni di dottorato abbiano importanti applicazioni nella clinica, nella criminologia e nella pratica forense, e di come possa essere importante proseguire le ricerche nella psicologia evoluzionistica forense, a causa delle sue rilevanti implicazioni sociali.

Computer forensic tools have been developed to enable forensic investigators to analyse software artefacts to help reconstruct possible scenarios for activity on a particular computer system. A number of these tools allow the examination and analysis of system generated artefacts such as the Windows registry. Examination and analysis of these artefacts is focussed on recovering the data extracting information relevant to a digital investigation. This information is currently underused in most digital investigations. With this in mind, this thesis considers system generated artefacts that contain information concerning the activities that occur on a Windows system and will often contain evidence relevant to a digital investigation. The objective of this research is to develop an architecture that simplifies and automates the collection of forensic evidence from system generated files where the data structures may be either known or in a structured but poorly understood (unknown) format. The hypothesis is that it should be feasible to develop an architecture that will be to integrate forensic data extracted from a range of system generated files and to implement a proof of concept prototype tool, capable of visualising the Event logs and Swap files. This thesis presents an architecture to enable the forensic investigator to analyse and visualise a range of system generated artefacts for which the internal arrangement of data is either well structured and understood or those for which the internal arrangement of the data is unclear or less publicised (known and not known data structures). The architecture reveals methods to access, view and analyse system generated artefacts. The architecture is intended to facilitate the extraction and analysis of operating system generated artefacts while being extensible, flexible and reusable. The architectural concepts are tested using a prototype implementation focussed the Windows Event Logs and the Swap Files. Event logs reveal evidence regarding logons, authentication, account and privilege use and can address questions relating to which user accounts were being used and which machines were accessed. Swap file contains fragments of data, remnants or entire documents, e-mail messages or results of internet browsing which reveal past user activities. Issues relating to understanding and visualising artefacts data structure are discussed and possible solutions are explored. The architecture is developed by examining the requirements and methods with respect to the needs of computer forensic investigations and forensic process models with the intention to develop a new multiplatform tool to visualise the content of Event logs and Swap files. This tool is aimed at displaying data contained in event logs and swap files in a graphical manner. This should enable the detection of information which may support the investigation. Visualisation techniques can also aid the forensic investigators in identifying suspicious events and files, making such techniques more feasible for consideration in a wider range of cases and, in turn, improve standard procedures. The tool is developed to fill a gap between capabilities of certain other open source tools which visualise the Event logs and Swap files data in a text based format only.

Il ruolo della Fire Investigation, intesa come attività investigativa, riguarda l'esame degli episodi legati agli incendi con la finalità di determinarne le cause. Tale disciplina rientra nel campo dell'ingegneria forense, abbracciando diversi ambiti specialistici che hanno lo scopo di ricostruire il nesso eziologico fondato su principi scientifici che coniugano l'ingegneria strutturale con il diritto. L’investigazione sulle cause d’incendio/esplosione è un’attività che richiede particolari conoscenze multidisciplinari, quali quelle relative al fenomeno incendio o quelle sul comportamento al fuoco dei materiali e delle strutture. L’investigazione antincendio è, inoltre, resa complessa non solo dalla natura distruttiva dell’evento su cui si indaga, che vede gli investigatori operare su scenari caratterizzati da livelli di danneggiamento delle strutture e dei materiali tali da non consentire una ricostruzione dello stato dei luoghi, ma anche della carenza di strumenti uniformi per la ricerca delle cause di incendi e di esplosione. La tesi affronta i principali punti della Fire Investigation, per una maggiore comprensione della tematica, avvalendosi di informazioni reperite in letteratura. Le conoscenze di base per un tecnico Fire Investigator, sono l’analisi degli incendi, la conoscenza di ingegneria strutturale applicata all’incendio, la metodologia logica di investigazione come indicati dalla norma NFPA 921 e infine la conoscenza delle attuali norme di prevenzione incendi in uso, al fine di saper comparare gli esiti dell’analisi di un incendio con le soluzioni progettuali che più idonee descritte in normativa. La tesi consta di una parte teorica sulla pratica investigativa antincendi e di una parte applicativa di fire investigation con due casi reali, con l’obiettivo di fornire una comparazione dei casi di studio con le attuali norme di prevenzione incendi, per identificare i difetti progettuali che hanno contribuito allo sviluppo dell’incendio.

Former manufactured gas plants (FMGPs) are a ubiquitous source of environmental con- tamination. The process of gas production created a number of by-products, including coal tar and ammoniacal liquor. Coal tar contains a complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds, many of which are toxic and carcinogenic. It is estimated that over 3000±1000 FMGPs exist in the United Kingdom alone, yet there are few recent publications detailing the analysis of coal tars. The complex composition of coal tar is known to vary due to a number of factors, including production method, temperature and coal type, making the analysis and interpretation of such samples extremely challenging. Environmental forensics is concerned with the source, fate and transport of contaminants. The introduction of recent legislation such as the EU Environmental Liabilities Directive 2004/35/EC, which promotes the "polluters pay" policy, has encouraged the development of accurate and robust scientific methods for the identification of contaminants. Analytical instrumentation is constantly evolving, thus new protocols to trace the origin of contamination must also be developed to utilise these technological advances. Two-dimensional gas chromatography (GCxGC) and compound specific isotope analysis (CSIA) are two exam- ples of advanced analytical instruments which have the potential to aid source identification. GCxGC provides enhanced separation of complex mixtures compared to conventional gas chromatographic techniques, while CSIA allows chemically identical contaminants to be compared based on their isotopic composition. In this study, preliminary research investigated the isotopic composition of coal tars, as this technique is currently a major tool for source apportionment in environmental forensics. However, the results demonstrated .that the similar nature of British coals used for gas production at the investigated sites produced similar isotopic values in the resultant tars, making the technique redundant in this case. Therefore, the potential of GCxGC was investigated for ultra resolution chemical fingerprinting of coal tars. Traditionally, chemical fingerprinting of complex mixtures, such as coal tar, is performed using a tiered approach including rigorous sample preparation steps and analysis by multiple instruments. In this work, a new, single-step analytical procedure was developed for the analysis of coal tars by GCxGC. Automated sample extraction techniques combined with GCxGC analyses were employed to provide detailed chemical fingerprinting in a fast, yet accurate, manner. This research represents a major advance in knowledge of compositional variation within coal tars. The enhanced separation of GCxGC provides vast quantities of chemical data which can be difficult to interpret without statistical methods. A multivariate statistical model was developed to provide process-specific classification of coal tars. The statistical model was validated through use of a blind study, indicating that process-specific apportionment of coal tars was achievable. Based on these results, the application of the single-step procedure for environmental forensics on a commercial basis was evaluated.

In media forensics, the devices; e.g. computers, smart phones, still/video cameras, audio recorders, and software; e.g. video, audio, and graphics editors, file and disk utilities, mathematical computation applications, are, for the most part, black boxes. The design specifications are usually proprietary and the operating specifications may be incomplete, inaccurate, or unavailable. This makes it difficult to validate the technology, but using it without validation could discredit a practitioner's findings or testimony. The alternative is to test the device or program to determine relevant characteristics of its performance.

An important and common device in media forensics is the portable digital audio recorder used to record surveillance and interviews. This type can also be used to record the alternating current (AC) waveform from the mains power. While small variations in the AC frequency (ENF) can be forensically important, distortion in the recording can affect its value in adjudication or investigation. A method is presented to evaluate aspects of a recorder's operation that can cause distortion. Specifically, the method measures the noise generated by the recorder's electronics in its input and amplifier circuits. The method includes a procedure to isolate the recorder from environmental sources of noise. The method analyzes the broadband noise floor produced by the range of recording conditions and recorder settings. It also analyzes the noise amplitude for the harmonics for the mains frequency.

Deep Raman Spectroscopy is a domain within Raman spectroscopy consisting of techniques that facilitate the depth profiling of diffusely scattering media. Such variants include Time-Resolved Raman Spectroscopy (TRRS) and Spatially-Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS). A recent study has also demonstrated the integration of TRRS and SORS in the development of Time-Resolved Spatially-Offset Raman Spectroscopy (TR-SORS). This research demonstrates the application of specific deep Raman spectroscopic techniques to concealed samples commonly encountered in forensic and homeland security at various working distances. Additionally, the concepts behind these techniques are discussed at depth and prospective improvements to the individual techniques are investigated. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of samples based on spectral data acquired from SORS is performed with the aid of multivariate statistical techniques. By the end of this study, an objective comparison is made among the techniques within Deep Raman Spectroscopy based on their capabilities. The efficiency and quality of these techniques are determined based on the results procured which facilitates the understanding of the degree of selectivity for the deeper layer exhibited by the individual techniques relative to each other. TR-SORS was shown to exhibit an enhanced selectivity for the deeper layer relative to TRRS and SORS whilst providing spectral results with good signal-to-noise ratio. Conclusive results indicate that TR-SORS is a prospective deep Raman technique that offers higher selectivity towards deep layers and therefore enhances the non-invasive analysis of concealed substances from close range as well as standoff distances.

In ambito forense, l’analisi del tessuto osseo è di fondamentale importanza in quei casi che richiedono l’identificazione di resti scheletrici umani. Negli ultimi decenni si è osservato un interesse sempre maggiore verso lo studio dei frammenti ossei, favorito dall’aumento di eventi criminali e catastrofi ambientali. Le indagini istologiche del tessuto osseo rappresentano uno strumento efficace per lo studio delle alterazioni microstrutturali post-mortali, al fine di predire lo stato di conservazione del DNA. Ad oggi, non sono ancora stati chiariti i fenomeni alla base della preservazione del DNA nei tessuti ossei e solo pochi studi hanno indagato la possibile correlazione tra le caratteristiche microscopiche dell’osso e la quantificazione del DNA, con l’obiettivo di prevedere il successo della tipizzazione del DNA nucleare. La genotipizzazione del DNA nei frammenti ossei è resa particolarmente difficile dell'estrema degradazione dell’acido desossiribonucleico. Nonostante gli avanzamenti nelle tecniche genetiche e lo sviluppo di nuove strategie di estrazione del DNA dal tessuto osseo, esistono svariati protocolli nessuno dei quali possa definirsi gold standard. Il presente studio si è incentrato sull’analisi di 20 frammenti di femore di soggetti non identificati, rinvenuti in Brasile in avanzato stato di decomposizione. Nella prima fase della ricerca, sottili sezioni ricavate dai campioni ossei sono state analizzate al microscopio per verificarne lo stato di conservazione e si è proceduto alla raccolta di alcuni parametri metrici. Nella seconda fase dello studio, le sezioni ossee sono state sottoposte ad indagini genetiche applicando il protocollo di estrazione del DNA Crime Prep Adem-Kit (Pessac, Francia) nella sua versione standard e in due versioni alternative, modificate con aggiunta di EDTA, al fine di verificare quale risultasse migliore. Infine, i risultati delle analisi istologiche e genetiche sono stati confrontati per verificare la presenza e la significatività di possibili correlazioni. L'aspetto microscopico delle ossa ha mostrato alti punteggi dell’OHI evidenziando una buona conservazione istomorfologica dei tessuti, in linea con il loro intervallo post-mortale (da 6 a 13 anni). L'analisi statistica, sulla base dell’indice di correlazione di Spearman, ha suggerito una correlazione negativa tra l'area del sistema haversiano e il tempo di decalcificazione (rs= -0,55; p=0,01), mentre non ha evidenziato alcuna correlazione significativa con il PMI (p=0,89). Nessuna correlazione significativa è stata trovata tra l'area del canale di Havers ed il tempo di decalcificazione (p=0,81) o il PMI (p=0,87). Il numero di lacune era direttamente proporzionale al numero di nuclei osservati (rs=0,83; p=<0,05), mentre non sono state trovate correlazioni significative con il numero di lacune e l'intervallo post mortem (p=0,71). I risultati ottenuti hanno mostrato una correlazione positiva tra il tempo di decalcificazione e la concentrazione di DNA small nel protocollo Standard (rs=0,48; p=0,03), mentre nessuna correlazione significativa è stata trovata con gli altri protocolli. Nessuna correlazione significativa è stata trovata tra il numero di nuclei di osteociti osservati e la concentrazione di DNA, così come non si è evidenziata alcuna associazione tra la degradazione dell'osso ed il dato qualitativo e quantitativo del DNA. Dei tre metodi di estrazione studiati, uno dei protocolli modificati ha mostrato una performance lievemente migliore, suggerendo un impatto benefico dell'aggiunta di EDTA, proponendosi come valida alternativa a quello standard. La carenza di ricerche in questo ambito evidenzia la necessità di ulteriori indagini volte ad indagare la correlazione tra le caratteristiche microscopiche e la resa del DNA.
Bone analysis plays an important role in forensic cases when unidentified skeletonized human remains are found. The frequency of casework involving bone fragments in forensic medicine is on the rise. Among the factors that contribute to this increase are criminal activity (e.g. blast trauma, gunshot injury and blunt force trauma) and taphonomic factors. Histological evaluation has been used to better understand diagenesis and DNA preservation in post-mortem bones. To these days, little is known about where and how DNA is preserved within bone samples and only few studies have investigated the relationship between bone histological feature and DNA yield as a way to predict successful nuclear DNA typing. DNA typing in remains of human bones is particularly hard due to the extreme degradation of DNA. When working with materials that contain few viable cells, it is essential to develop strategies for highly efficient extraction of DNA. Nowadays there are many different DNA extraction protocols from bones but still there is no consensus about which one is the best. The objective of this research was to conduct histological and genetic analysis in 20 femur sample collected from unidentified human bodies found in an advanced state of decomposition in mid-west Brazil. In order to reach this aim, thin sections of fragmentary bones were analyzed under a microscope and the main histological features were collected. Afterwards, the same fragmentary bone sections were subjected to genetic investigations performed with the same kit applied in three different methods, to ascertain which was the best at extracting DNA from bones. It was investigated the Standard DNA extraction protocol for bone by the Crime Prep Adem-Kit (Pessac, France) and two modified protocols using EDTA-based approaches. Both histological and genetic results were compared to verify any possible correlation. The microscopic aspect showed high Oxford Histological Index scores in both undecalcified and decalcified sections, highlighting a good histomorphological bone preservation, in line with their post-mortem interval (“contemporary” bones, from 6 to 13 years). Statistical analysis using Spearman's rank-order correlation suggested a negative correlation between the Area of the Haversian System and the decalcification time (rs= -0.55; p=0.01), but no significant correlation with the PMI (p=0.89). No significant correlations were found with Haversian Canal area and decalcification time (p=0.81) or PMI (p=0.87). The number of lacunae was directly proportional to number of nuclei (rs=0.83; p=<0.05), whilst no significant correlations were found with number of lacunae and post-mortem interval (p=0.71). The bone integrity index, calculated as a ratio between the number of nuclei and lacunae for each specimen, was 0.027 ± 0.018, with a range from 0 to 0.051. Results obtained showed a positive correlation between the decalcification time and the DNA concentration for small autosomal retrieved in protocol A (rs=0.48; p=0.03), whilst no significant correlation were found with the other protocols. No significant correlation was found between osteocytes nuclei number observed and the DNA concentration, and there was no association between the bone degradation and DNA quality and quantity. Of the three investigated DNA extraction methods, one of the adapted protocols showed a slightly better performance, suggesting a beneficial impact of EDTA supplementation. Therefore, the proposed modified protocol could be used in alternative to the standard one. The lack of significant research in this topic highlights the need for further investigation in the possible correlation between DNA yield and microscopic features. Keywords: forensic genetics, bones, histology, DNA, human remains, decomposition, post-mortem diagenesis.

In ambito forense, l’analisi del tessuto osseo è di fondamentale importanza in quei casi che richiedono l’identificazione di resti scheletrici umani. Negli ultimi decenni si è osservato un interesse sempre maggiore verso lo studio dei frammenti ossei, favorito dall’aumento di eventi criminali e catastrofi ambientali. Le indagini istologiche del tessuto osseo rappresentano uno strumento efficace per lo studio delle alterazioni microstrutturali post-mortali, al fine di predire lo stato di conservazione del DNA. Ad oggi, non sono ancora stati chiariti i fenomeni alla base della preservazione del DNA nei tessuti ossei e solo pochi studi hanno indagato la possibile correlazione tra le caratteristiche microscopiche dell’osso e la quantificazione del DNA, con l’obiettivo di prevedere il successo della tipizzazione del DNA nucleare. La genotipizzazione del DNA nei frammenti ossei è resa particolarmente difficile dell'estrema degradazione dell’acido desossiribonucleico. Nonostante gli avanzamenti nelle tecniche genetiche e lo sviluppo di nuove strategie di estrazione del DNA dal tessuto osseo, esistono svariati protocolli nessuno dei quali possa definirsi gold standard. Il presente studio si è incentrato sull’analisi di 20 frammenti di femore di soggetti non identificati, rinvenuti in Brasile in avanzato stato di decomposizione. Nella prima fase della ricerca, sottili sezioni ricavate dai campioni ossei sono state analizzate al microscopio per verificarne lo stato di conservazione e si è proceduto alla raccolta di alcuni parametri metrici. Nella seconda fase dello studio, le sezioni ossee sono state sottoposte ad indagini genetiche applicando il protocollo di estrazione del DNA Crime Prep Adem-Kit (Pessac, Francia) nella sua versione standard e in due versioni alternative, modificate con aggiunta di EDTA, al fine di verificare quale risultasse migliore. Infine, i risultati delle analisi istologiche e genetiche sono stati confrontati per verificare la presenza e la significatività di possibili correlazioni. L'aspetto microscopico delle ossa ha mostrato alti punteggi dell’OHI evidenziando una buona conservazione istomorfologica dei tessuti, in linea con il loro intervallo post-mortale (da 6 a 13 anni). L'analisi statistica, sulla base dell’indice di correlazione di Spearman, ha suggerito una correlazione negativa tra l'area del sistema haversiano e il tempo di decalcificazione (rs= -0,55; p=0,01), mentre non ha evidenziato alcuna correlazione significativa con il PMI (p=0,89). Nessuna correlazione significativa è stata trovata tra l'area del canale di Havers ed il tempo di decalcificazione (p=0,81) o il PMI (p=0,87). Il numero di lacune era direttamente proporzionale al numero di nuclei osservati (rs=0,83; p=<0,05), mentre non sono state trovate correlazioni significative con il numero di lacune e l'intervallo post mortem (p=0,71). I risultati ottenuti hanno mostrato una correlazione positiva tra il tempo di decalcificazione e la concentrazione di DNA small nel protocollo Standard (rs=0,48; p=0,03), mentre nessuna correlazione significativa è stata trovata con gli altri protocolli. Nessuna correlazione significativa è stata trovata tra il numero di nuclei di osteociti osservati e la concentrazione di DNA, così come non si è evidenziata alcuna associazione tra la degradazione dell'osso ed il dato qualitativo e quantitativo del DNA. Dei tre metodi di estrazione studiati, uno dei protocolli modificati ha mostrato una performance lievemente migliore, suggerendo un impatto benefico dell'aggiunta di EDTA, proponendosi come valida alternativa a quello standard. La carenza di ricerche in questo ambito evidenzia la necessità di ulteriori indagini volte ad indagare la correlazione tra le caratteristiche microscopiche e la resa del DNA.
Bone analysis plays an important role in forensic cases when unidentified skeletonized human remains are found. The frequency of casework involving bone fragments in forensic medicine is on the rise. Among the factors that contribute to this increase are criminal activity (e.g. blast trauma, gunshot injury and blunt force trauma) and taphonomic factors. Histological evaluation has been used to better understand diagenesis and DNA preservation in post-mortem bones. To these days, little is known about where and how DNA is preserved within bone samples and only few studies have investigated the relationship between bone histological feature and DNA yield as a way to predict successful nuclear DNA typing. DNA typing in remains of human bones is particularly hard due to the extreme degradation of DNA. When working with materials that contain few viable cells, it is essential to develop strategies for highly efficient extraction of DNA. Nowadays there are many different DNA extraction protocols from bones but still there is no consensus about which one is the best. The objective of this research was to conduct histological and genetic analysis in 20 femur sample collected from unidentified human bodies found in an advanced state of decomposition in mid-west Brazil. In order to reach this aim, thin sections of fragmentary bones were analyzed under a microscope and the main histological features were collected. Afterwards, the same fragmentary bone sections were subjected to genetic investigations performed with the same kit applied in three different methods, to ascertain which was the best at extracting DNA from bones. It was investigated the Standard DNA extraction protocol for bone by the Crime Prep Adem-Kit (Pessac, France) and two modified protocols using EDTA-based approaches. Both histological and genetic results were compared to verify any possible correlation. The microscopic aspect showed high Oxford Histological Index scores in both undecalcified and decalcified sections, highlighting a good histomorphological bone preservation, in line with their post-mortem interval (“contemporary” bones, from 6 to 13 years). Statistical analysis using Spearman's rank-order correlation suggested a negative correlation between the Area of the Haversian System and the decalcification time (rs= -0.55; p=0.01), but no significant correlation with the PMI (p=0.89). No significant correlations were found with Haversian Canal area and decalcification time (p=0.81) or PMI (p=0.87). The number of lacunae was directly proportional to number of nuclei (rs=0.83; p=<0.05), whilst no significant correlations were found with number of lacunae and post-mortem interval (p=0.71). The bone integrity index, calculated as a ratio between the number of nuclei and lacunae for each specimen, was 0.027 ± 0.018, with a range from 0 to 0.051. Results obtained showed a positive correlation between the decalcification time and the DNA concentration for small autosomal retrieved in protocol A (rs=0.48; p=0.03), whilst no significant correlation were found with the other protocols. No significant correlation was found between osteocytes nuclei number observed and the DNA concentration, and there was no association between the bone degradation and DNA quality and quantity. Of the three investigated DNA extraction methods, one of the adapted protocols showed a slightly better performance, suggesting a beneficial impact of EDTA supplementation. Therefore, the proposed modified protocol could be used in alternative to the standard one. The lack of significant research in this topic highlights the need for further investigation in the possible correlation between DNA yield and microscopic features. Keywords: forensic genetics, bones, histology, DNA, human remains, decomposition, post-mortem diagenesis.

In ambito forense, l’analisi del tessuto osseo è di fondamentale importanza in quei casi che richiedono l’identificazione di resti scheletrici umani. Negli ultimi decenni si è osservato un interesse sempre maggiore verso lo studio dei frammenti ossei, favorito dall’aumento di eventi criminali e catastrofi ambientali. Le indagini istologiche del tessuto osseo rappresentano uno strumento efficace per lo studio delle alterazioni microstrutturali post-mortali, al fine di predire lo stato di conservazione del DNA. Ad oggi, non sono ancora stati chiariti i fenomeni alla base della preservazione del DNA nei tessuti ossei e solo pochi studi hanno indagato la possibile correlazione tra le caratteristiche microscopiche dell’osso e la quantificazione del DNA, con l’obiettivo di prevedere il successo della tipizzazione del DNA nucleare. La genotipizzazione del DNA nei frammenti ossei è resa particolarmente difficile dell'estrema degradazione dell’acido desossiribonucleico. Nonostante gli avanzamenti nelle tecniche genetiche e lo sviluppo di nuove strategie di estrazione del DNA dal tessuto osseo, esistono svariati protocolli nessuno dei quali possa definirsi gold standard. Il presente studio si è incentrato sull’analisi di 20 frammenti di femore di soggetti non identificati, rinvenuti in Brasile in avanzato stato di decomposizione. Nella prima fase della ricerca, sottili sezioni ricavate dai campioni ossei sono state analizzate al microscopio per verificarne lo stato di conservazione e si è proceduto alla raccolta di alcuni parametri metrici. Nella seconda fase dello studio, le sezioni ossee sono state sottoposte ad indagini genetiche applicando il protocollo di estrazione del DNA Crime Prep Adem-Kit (Pessac, Francia) nella sua versione standard e in due versioni alternative, modificate con aggiunta di EDTA, al fine di verificare quale risultasse migliore. Infine, i risultati delle analisi istologiche e genetiche sono stati confrontati per verificare la presenza e la significatività di possibili correlazioni. L'aspetto microscopico delle ossa ha mostrato alti punteggi dell’OHI evidenziando una buona conservazione istomorfologica dei tessuti, in linea con il loro intervallo post-mortale (da 6 a 13 anni). L'analisi statistica, sulla base dell’indice di correlazione di Spearman, ha suggerito una correlazione negativa tra l'area del sistema haversiano e il tempo di decalcificazione (rs= -0,55; p=0,01), mentre non ha evidenziato alcuna correlazione significativa con il PMI (p=0,89). Nessuna correlazione significativa è stata trovata tra l'area del canale di Havers ed il tempo di decalcificazione (p=0,81) o il PMI (p=0,87). Il numero di lacune era direttamente proporzionale al numero di nuclei osservati (rs=0,83; p=<0,05), mentre non sono state trovate correlazioni significative con il numero di lacune e l'intervallo post mortem (p=0,71). I risultati ottenuti hanno mostrato una correlazione positiva tra il tempo di decalcificazione e la concentrazione di DNA small nel protocollo Standard (rs=0,48; p=0,03), mentre nessuna correlazione significativa è stata trovata con gli altri protocolli. Nessuna correlazione significativa è stata trovata tra il numero di nuclei di osteociti osservati e la concentrazione di DNA, così come non si è evidenziata alcuna associazione tra la degradazione dell'osso ed il dato qualitativo e quantitativo del DNA. Dei tre metodi di estrazione studiati, uno dei protocolli modificati ha mostrato una performance lievemente migliore, suggerendo un impatto benefico dell'aggiunta di EDTA, proponendosi come valida alternativa a quello standard. La carenza di ricerche in questo ambito evidenzia la necessità di ulteriori indagini volte ad indagare la correlazione tra le caratteristiche microscopiche e la resa del DNA.
Bone analysis plays an important role in forensic cases when unidentified skeletonized human remains are found. The frequency of casework involving bone fragments in forensic medicine is on the rise. Among the factors that contribute to this increase are criminal activity (e.g. blast trauma, gunshot injury and blunt force trauma) and taphonomic factors. Histological evaluation has been used to better understand diagenesis and DNA preservation in post-mortem bones. To these days, little is known about where and how DNA is preserved within bone samples and only few studies have investigated the relationship between bone histological feature and DNA yield as a way to predict successful nuclear DNA typing. DNA typing in remains of human bones is particularly hard due to the extreme degradation of DNA. When working with materials that contain few viable cells, it is essential to develop strategies for highly efficient extraction of DNA. Nowadays there are many different DNA extraction protocols from bones but still there is no consensus about which one is the best. The objective of this research was to conduct histological and genetic analysis in 20 femur sample collected from unidentified human bodies found in an advanced state of decomposition in mid-west Brazil. In order to reach this aim, thin sections of fragmentary bones were analyzed under a microscope and the main histological features were collected. Afterwards, the same fragmentary bone sections were subjected to genetic investigations performed with the same kit applied in three different methods, to ascertain which was the best at extracting DNA from bones. It was investigated the Standard DNA extraction protocol for bone by the Crime Prep Adem-Kit (Pessac, France) and two modified protocols using EDTA-based approaches. Both histological and genetic results were compared to verify any possible correlation. The microscopic aspect showed high Oxford Histological Index scores in both undecalcified and decalcified sections, highlighting a good histomorphological bone preservation, in line with their post-mortem interval (“contemporary” bones, from 6 to 13 years). Statistical analysis using Spearman's rank-order correlation suggested a negative correlation between the Area of the Haversian System and the decalcification time (rs= -0.55; p=0.01), but no significant correlation with the PMI (p=0.89). No significant correlations were found with Haversian Canal area and decalcification time (p=0.81) or PMI (p=0.87). The number of lacunae was directly proportional to number of nuclei (rs=0.83; p=<0.05), whilst no significant correlations were found with number of lacunae and post-mortem interval (p=0.71). The bone integrity index, calculated as a ratio between the number of nuclei and lacunae for each specimen, was 0.027 ± 0.018, with a range from 0 to 0.051. Results obtained showed a positive correlation between the decalcification time and the DNA concentration for small autosomal retrieved in protocol A (rs=0.48; p=0.03), whilst no significant correlation were found with the other protocols. No significant correlation was found between osteocytes nuclei number observed and the DNA concentration, and there was no association between the bone degradation and DNA quality and quantity. Of the three investigated DNA extraction methods, one of the adapted protocols showed a slightly better performance, suggesting a beneficial impact of EDTA supplementation. Therefore, the proposed modified protocol could be used in alternative to the standard one. The lack of significant research in this topic highlights the need for further investigation in the possible correlation between DNA yield and microscopic features. Keywords: forensic genetics, bones, histology, DNA, human remains, decomposition, post-mortem diagenesis.