Relevant bibliographies by topics / Four level converter

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  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
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Academic literature on the topic 'Four level converter'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2025
Last updated: 15 July 2025

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Journal articles on the topic "Four level converter"

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Chen, Jianfei, and Caisheng Wang. "Dual T-Type Four-Level Converter." IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics 35, no. 6 (2020): 5594–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tpel.2019.2957699.

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Roh, Chan. "Performance Comparisons of Three-Phase/Four-Wire Model Predictive Control-Based DC/AC Inverters Capable of Asymmetric Operation for Wave Energy Converters." Energies 15, no. 8 (2022): 2839. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15082839.

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A study on the capacity increase of a power converter according to the increase in the single capacity of wave energy converters and four-leg topology that can supply stable power even under unbalanced load conditions during independent operation is required. Therefore, in this paper, the performances of various four-leg inverters, from two-level inverters to three-level inverters, which are used as power converters for wave energy converters, are compared respectively. Since the four-leg converter has an unusual structure, the performance of each four-leg inverter was analyzed by applying the model predictive control that can easily and simply configure the controller. To verify the performance of each four-leg inverter, a comparison was performed under balanced load and unbalanced load conditions. Based on this, a suitable four-leg topology of the power converter for wave energy converters was confirmed.
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Wei, Chen, Xibo Yuan, Juan Zhou, Kangan Wang, Yonglei Zhang, and Xiaojie Wu. "Voltage Jump Suppression and Capacitor Voltage Fluctuation Analysis for a Four-Level Hybrid Flying Capacitor T-Type Converter." Energies 12, no. 4 (2019): 698. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en12040698.

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In low and medium voltage power conversion systems, multilevel converters are becoming more and more attractive due to improved power density. However, the complexity of topology and control is a big challenge for the application of multilevel converters. In this paper, a four-level (4L) hybrid flying capacitor (FC) T-type converter has been researched in detail. The topological advantage of the converter is displayed in comparison to existing four-level converters. According to the feature of the topology, the operating status has been analyzed and the reason for the voltage jump is researched in detail during the dead-time period. A strategy to reduce voltage jump by adjusting the switching states has be presented. The FC voltages can be balanced by selecting the appropriate switching states. The relationships between the fluctuations of FC voltages and the modulation index and power factor (PF) have been analyzed by simulation results. The performance of the 4L converter has been investigated in MATLAB/Simulink as well as on a down-scaled laboratory prototype.
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Chen, Jianfei, and Caisheng Wang. "Corrections to “Dual T-Type Four-Level Converter”." IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics 37, no. 7 (2022): 8751–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tpel.2022.3146179.

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P., Srinivas, and Amulya K. "Comparative Analysis of DITC Based Switched Reluctance Motor Using Asymmetric Converter and Four-Level Converter." Bulletin of Electrical Engineering and Informatics 5, no. 1 (2016): 109–19. https://doi.org/10.11591/eei.v5i1.555.

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High torque ripple is the main draw of Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) compared to other conventional motor. Torque ripples can be minimized by Direct Instantaneous Torque Control (DITC) technique. DITC responds against the torque error instantaneously by using hysteresis torque controller and regulate the torque output of the motor within hysteresis band.This paper compares the performance of Switched Reluctance Motor in terms of torque ripples with DITC strategy for both Asymmetric converter and Four-level converter. Asymmetric converter has three states namely magnetization, freewheeling and demagnetiztion states. With four-level converter, fast magnetization and fast demagnetization are also possible. Thus, the current build up and decay time is reduced which improves the dynamic performance. SRM is simulated using DITC scheme with Asymmetric converter and Four-level converter in MATLAB/SIMULINK to analyze torque ripples and it is observed that DITC with four level converter is better than that with Assymetrical converter.
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Bhargava, Anil Kumar, UTTAM KUMAR GUPTA, Mamta Rani, and Ajit Ajit. "Comprehensive Review of Power Electronic DC-DC Converters in Electric Vehicle Applications." Radius: Journal of Science and Technology 1, no. 1 (2024): 241005. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15008251.

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The rapid rise of electric vehicles (EVs) presents a sustainable alternative to traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving overall vehicle efficiency. This paper investigates the critical role of power electronic converters, especially DC-DC converters, within EV powertrains. Emphasizing the necessity of achieving appropriate voltage levels for battery and motor operation, it explores conventional and advanced DC-DC converter topologies, including the conventional boost converter (BC) and the interleaved four-phase boost converter (IBC). Additionally, the paper highlights the growing importance of wide bandgap semiconductors (WBGSs) such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN) in enhancing converter performance by enabling higher switching frequencies, improved thermal operation, and reduced losses. Through a comprehensive analysis, the study reveals the potential of WBGSs to improve the efficiency and reliability of EV charging systems, power converters, and electric motors, making them crucial for future EV advancements. This work aims to underline the importance of power electronic converter design and control in shaping the future of electric vehicles.
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Yugendra Chary, T., S. Anitha, M. Alamillo, and Ameet Chavan. "Level Converters for Ultra Low Power IoT Applications." International Journal of Engineering & Technology 7, no. 2.16 (2018): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i2.16.11409.

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For efficient ultra-low power IoT applications, working with various communication devices and sensors which operating voltages from subthreshold to superthreshold levels which requires wide variety of robust level converters for signal interfacing with low power dissipation. This paper proposes two topologies of level converter circuits that offer dramatic improvement in power and performance when compared to the existing level converters that shift signals from sub to super threshold levels for IoT applications. At 250 mV, the first proposed circuit - a modification of a tradition al current mirror level converter - offers the best energy efficiency with approximately seven times less energy consumption per operation than the existing design, but suffers from a slight reduction in performance. However, a second proposed circuit - based on a two-stage level converter - at the same voltage enhances performance by several orders of magnitude while still maintaining a modest improvement in energy efficiency. The Energy Delay Products (EDP) of the two proposed designs are equivalent and are approximately four times better than the best existing design. Consequently, the two circuit options either optimizes power or performance with improved overall EDP.
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Corzine, K. A., J. Yuen, and J. R. Baker. "Analysis of a four-level DC/DC buck converter." IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 49, no. 4 (2002): 746–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tie.2002.801075.

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Song, Min-Sup, Jaewon Kim, Hosung Jung, and Hyungchul Kim. "Full-Bridge Diode-Clamped Four-Level Asymmetric Switching Converter." Transactions of The Korean Institute of Electrical Engineers 73, no. 6 (2024): 1042–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.5370/kiee.2024.73.6.1042.

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Atif, Rao, Mannan Hassan, Muhammad Shahid, et al. "Simplified Model Predictive Current Control of Four-Level Nested Neutral Point Clamped Converter." Sustainability 15, no. 2 (2023): 955. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su15020955.

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Model predictive control (MPC) is an efficient and growing approach to power converter control. This paper proposes an improved and simplified model predictive current control (MPCC) technique for a four-level nested neutral point clamped (4L-NNPC) converter. Conventional MPCC exhibits better performances as compared to the conventional linear control system such as fast dynamic response, consideration of the system constraints, and nonlinearities. However, the application of the conventional model predictive current control (MPCC) approach on complex systems provokes a significant number of calculations, which is the main hurdle to its practical implementation. To fix this flaw, this paper proposes an effective algorithm to shorten the execution time of the conventional MPCC. In this proposed technique, 216 current predictions of the conventional MPCC are skipped and converted into one required voltage vector (RVV) prediction. With this equivalent reference voltage transformation, the calculation burden of MPCC is significantly reduced, while the output performance is not influenced. The results of the simplified MPCC for the 4L-NNPC converter are analyzed and compared with the conventional MPCC. The computational time is reduced by 19.56% using the simplified MPCC, while keeping an approximately similar error of output currents. The switching frequency and total harmonic distortion (THD) of the proposed method are reduced by 8.16% and 0.07%, respectively, as compared to the conventional technique. These results demonstrate the fact that that the performance of a conventional MPCC is enhanced with the proposed MPCC. The proposed algorithm can be applied to several inverter topologies.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Four level converter"

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Pan, Jianyu. "Control of Four-Level Hybrid Clamped Converter for Medium-Voltage Variable-Frequency Drives." The Ohio State University, 2019. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1562943204567575.

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Kehler, Leandro Becker. "Projeto e desenvolvimento de fontes auxiliares para transformadores de estado sólido." Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 2015. http://repositorio.ufsm.br/handle/1/8578.

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This master thesis presents the development of an auxiliary power supply to provide energy to sensors, gate drivers, instrumentation circuits and control of a three-stage Solid State Transformer (SST). These devices require an insulated power supply of ±15V and 5V. For reason of reliability and modularity, a distributed auxiliary source is proposed. Thus, it is necessary a power supply to provide energy to the low voltage (LV) side and another to the medium voltage (MV) side. With this proposal, the auxiliary power supply does not need to have the same galvanic insulation of the SST, 25kV. However, a local power supply must operate at high voltage levels and, consequently, contain a high step-down voltage gain. Relative to LV side, the most generally used topologies as an auxiliary power supply are discussed. However, these topologies cannot be used at the MV converters, due to the high voltage stress levels involved. A study of topologies used on medium and high voltage and which enable to reach a high step-down voltage gain is realized, and two interesting topologies for this application were found. One of them uses a Flying capacitor converter connected in cascade with a Double-Ended Flyback converter. The Flying capacitor converter lowers the DC bus voltage in a controlled manner to low voltage levels. So the Double-ended Flyback converter operates in LV and provides the insulated outputs to command circuits of SST. The other topology is a unidirectional four-level NPC converter operating as Double-ended Flyback converter. For this case, a modulation strategy that allows the converter to reach a high step-down voltage gain was also proposed. These topologies were evaluated and the one which showed the best result was the four-level Double-ended Flyback converter. This converter was implemented and the experimental results prove to be effective. For the LV side, a Half-bridge LLC resonant converter as auxiliary power supply was used. This converter operates in ZVS and performs the output voltage regulation through the operating frequency variation. The experimental results of this converter are also presented.<br>Este trabalho de mestrado apresenta o desenvolvimento de fontes auxiliares para alimentar sensores, circuitos de comando, instrumentação e o controle de um Transformador de Estado Sólido (SST) de três estágios. Estes dispositivos necessitam de alimentação isolada com tensões de ±15V e 5V e por questões de confiabilidade e modularidade, propõe-se a utilização de fontes auxiliares distribuídas. Assim, emprega-se uma fonte auxiliar para alimentar o lado de média tensão (MT) e outra para alimentar o lado de baixa tensão (BT). Com essa proposta, as fontes auxiliares não necessitam ter a mesma isolação galvânica do SST, 25kV. Entretanto, uma das fontes locais deve operar em níveis de tensão elevados e, por consequência, apresentar baixo ganho estático. No lado de BT, as principais topologias normalmente utilizadas como fonte auxiliar são discutidas. No entanto, devido aos altos níveis de tensão envolvidos, estas topologias não podem ser aplicadas ao conversor que opera em MT. Um estudo sobre topologias aplicadas a média tensão e que possibilitam alcançar um baixo ganho estático é realizado, sendo que duas topologias se mostram interessantes para esta aplicação. Uma consiste na utilização de um conversor de capacitores flutuantes conectado em cascata com um conversor Double-Ended Flyback. O conversor de capacitores flutuantes rebaixa a tensão do barramento CC, de forma controlada, para baixa tensão. Assim o Double-Ended Flyback opera em BT e fornece as saídas isoladas para alimentar os circuitos de comando do SST. A outra topologia trata-se de um conversor NPC de quatro níveis unidirecional operando como conversor Double-Ended Flyback. Para este caso, também foi proposta uma estratégia de modulação que permite o conversor alcançar o baixo ganho estático. Essas topologias foram avaliadas, apresentando melhor resultado a esta aplicação o conversor Double-ended Flyback de quatro níveis, conforme será demonstrado neste trabalho. Esse conversor foi implementado e os resultados experimentais comprovam o seu funcionamento. Para a fonte do lado de BT utilizou-se um conversor Half-Bridge LLC ressonante que opera em ZVS e realiza a regulação da tensão de saída pela variação da frequência de operação. Os resultados experimentais deste conversor também são apresentados.
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Rojas, Lobos Felix Eduardo [Verfasser], Ralph [Akademischer Betreuer] [Gutachter] Kennel, and Jon [Gutachter] Clare. "A High Performance Power Supply based on a Four-Leg Three-Level NPC Converter for Non-linear and Unbalanced Systems / Felix Eduardo Rojas Lobos. Betreuer: Ralph Kennel. Gutachter: Ralph Kennel ; Jon Clare." München : Universitätsbibliothek der TU München, 2016. http://d-nb.info/1111038929/34.

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Tan, Jiak-San. "Flexibility in MLVR-VSC back-to-back link." Thesis, University of Canterbury. Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/1119.

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This thesis describes the flexible voltage control of a multi-level-voltage-reinjection voltage source converter. The main purposes are to achieve reactive power generation flexibility when applied for HVdc transmission systems, reduce dynamic voltage balancing for direct series connected switches and an improvement of high power converter efficiency and reliability. Waveform shapes and the impact on ac harmonics caused by the modulation process are studied in detail. A configuration is proposed embracing concepts of multi level, soft-switching and harmonic cancellation. For the configuration, the firing sequence, waveform analysis, steady-state and dynamic performances and close-loop control strategies are presented. In order not to severely compromise the original advantages of the converter, the modulated waveforms are proposed based on the restrictions imposed mathematically by the harmonic cancellation concept and practically by the synthesis circuit complexity and high switching losses. The harmonic impact on the ac power system prompted by the modulation process is studied from idealistic and practical aspects. The circuit topology being proposed in this thesis is developed from a 12-pulse bridge and a converter used classically for inverting power from separated dc sources. Switching functions are deduced and current paths through the converter are analysed. Safe and steady-state operating regions of the converter are studied in phasor diagrams to facilitate the design of simple controllers for active power transfer and reactive power generations. An investigation into the application of this topology to the back-to-back VSC HVdc interconnection is preformed via EMTDC simulations.
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Perera, Lasantha Bernard. "Multi Level Reinjection ac/dc Converters for HVDC." Thesis, University of Canterbury. Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/1085.

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A new concept, the multi level voltage/current reinjection ac/dc conversion, is described in this thesis. Novel voltage and current source converter configurations, based on voltage and current reinjection concepts are proposed. These converter configurations are thoroughly analyzed in their ac and dc system sides. The fundamentals of the reinjection concept is discussed briefly, which lead to the derivation of the ideal reinjection waveform for complete harmonic cancellation and approximations for practical implementation. The concept of multi level voltage reinjection VSC is demonstrated through two types of configurations, based on standard 12-pulse parallel and series connected VSC modified with reinjection bridges and transformers. Firing control strategies and steady state waveform analysis are presented and verified by EMTDC simulations. The multi level current reinjection CSC is also described using two configurations based on standard 12-pulse parallel and series connected CSC modified with associated reinjection circuitry. Firing control strategies and steady state waveform analysis are presented and verified by EMTDC simulations. Taking the advantage of zero current switching in the main bridge valves, achieved through multi level current reinjection, an advanced multi level current reinjection scheme, consisting thyristor main bridges and self-commutated reinjection circuitry is proposed. This hybrid scheme effectively incorporates self-commutated capability into a conventional thyristor converter. The ability of the main bridge valves to commutate without the assistance of a turn-off pulse or line commutating voltage under the zero current condition is explained and verified by EMTDC simulations. Finally, the applications of the MLCR-CSC are discussed in terms of a back to back HVDC link and a long distance HVDC transmission system. The power and control structures and closed loop control strategies are presented. Dynamic simulation is carried out on PSCAD/EMTDC to demonstrate the two systems ability to respond to varying active and reactive power operating conditions.
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Francisco, Venustiano Canales Abarca. "Novel DC/DC Converters For High-Power Distributed Power Systems." Diss., Virginia Tech, 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/28612.

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One of the requirements for the next generation of power supplies for distributed power systems (DPSs) is to achieve high power density with high efficiency. In the traditional front-end converter based on the two-stage approach for high-power three-phase DPSs, the DC-link voltage coming from the power factor correction (PFC) stage penalizes the second-stage DC/DC converter. This DC/DC converter not only has to meet the characteristics demanded by the load, but also must process energy with high efficiency, high reliability, high power density and low cost. To meet these requirements, approaches such as the series connection of converters and converters that reduce the voltage stress across the main devices have been proposed. In order to improve the characteristics of these solutions, this dissertation proposes high-efficiency, high-density DC/DC converters for high-power high-voltage applications. In the first part of the dissertation, a DC/DC converter based on a three-level structure and operated with pulse width modulation (PWM) phase-shift control is proposed. This new way to operate the three-level DC/DC converter allows soft-switching operation for the main devices. Zero-voltage switching (ZVS) and zero-voltage and zero-current switching (ZVZCS) soft-switching techniques are studied, analyzed and compared in order to improve the characteristics of the proposed converter. This results in a series of ZVS and ZVZCS three-level DC/DC converters for high-power high-voltage applications. In all cases, results from 6kW prototypes operating at 100 kHz are presented. In addition, with the ultimate goal of improving the power density of the DC/DC converter, a study of several resonant DC/DC converters that can operate at higher switching frequencies is presented. From this study, a three-element ZVS three-level resonant converter for applications with wide input voltage and load variations is proposed. Experimental results at 745 kHz obtained without penalizing the efficiency of the PWM approaches are presented. The second part of the dissertation proposes a quasi-integrated AC/DC three-phase converter that aims to reduce the complexity and cost of the traditional two-stage front-end converter. This converter improves the complexity/low-efficiency tradeoff characteristics evident in the two-stage approach and previous integrated converters. The principle of operation for the converter is analyzed and verified on a 3kW experimental prototype.<br>Ph. D.
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Ke, Ziwei. "Single-Submodule Open-Circuit Fault Diagnosis for a Modular Multi-level Converter Using Articial Intelligence-based Techniques." The Ohio State University, 2019. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu156262961593976.

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Peng, Mark Shane 1975. "Circuit level synthesis for delta-sigma converters." Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1999. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/9722.

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Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 1999.<br>Includes bibliographical references (p. 65-66).<br>Analog circuit design is a relatively complicated art that requires a high degree of erudition in the field. With this in mind, this thesis presents work on an analog circuit synthe­sis tool to minimize analog circuit design time. Specifically, the author has designed and implemented a discrete-time, one-bit, oversampling delta-sigma analog-to-digital modula­tor circuit synthesis tool in MATLAB script. With the parameters of center frequency, loop order, oversampling ratio, and minimum capacitor size, a user can utilize the pro­gram to generate a semi-optimized transistor level description of the modulator that can subsequently he used in SPICE. Parlaying Richard Schreier's work on a delta-sigma tool­box for MATLAB, the switched capacitor circuit contains robustly generated differential operational amplifiers and comparators. Furthermore, switched capacitors are scaled for minimal kT/C noise while switch sizes are synchronously adjusted to accommodate these values. Results of the SPICE simulations of the generated circuits compare favorably with the behaviorally predicted results.<br>by Mark Shane Peng.<br>S.M.
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Vadlmudi, Tripurasuparna. "A nano-CMOS based universal voltage level converter for multi-VDD SoCs." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2007. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3602/.

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Power dissipation of integrated circuits is the most demanding issue for very large scale integration (VLSI) design engineers, especially for portable and mobile applications. Use of multiple supply voltages systems, which employs level converter between two voltage islands is one of the most effective ways to reduce power consumption. In this thesis work, a unique level converter known as universal level converter (ULC), capable of four distinct level converting operations, is proposed. The schematic and layout of ULC are built and simulated using CADENCE. The ULC is characterized by performing three analysis such as parametric, power, and load analysis which prove that the design has an average power consumption reduction of about 85-97% and capable of producing stable output at low voltages like 0.45V even under varying load conditions.
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Castellucci, Valeria. "Sea Level Compensation System for Wave Energy Converters." Doctoral thesis, Uppsala universitet, Elektricitetslära, 2016. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-295603.

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The wave energy converter developed at Uppsala University consists of a linear generator at the seabed driven by the motion of a buoy on the water surface. The energy absorbed by the generator is negatively affected by variations of the mean sea level caused by tides, changes in barometric pressure, strong winds, and storm surges. The work presented in this doctoral thesis aims to investigate the losses in energy absorption for the present generation wave energy converter due to the effect of sea level variations, mainly caused by tides. This goal is achieved through the modeling of the interaction between the waves and the point absorber. An estimation of the economic cost that these losses imply is also made. Moreover, solutions on how to reduce the negative effect of sea level variations are discussed. To this end, two compensation systems which adjust the length of the connection line between the floater and the generator are designed, and the first prototype is built and tested near the Lysekil research site. The theoretical study assesses the energy loss at about 400 coastal points all over the world and for one generator design. The results highlight critical locations where the need for a compensation system appears compelling. The same hydro-mechanic model is applied to a specific site, the Wave Hub on the west coast of Cornwall, United Kingdom, where the energy loss is calculated to be about 53 %. The experimental work led to the construction of a buoy equipped with a screw jack together with its control, measurement and communication systems. The prototype, suitable for sea level variations of small range, is tested and its performance evaluated. A second prototype, suitable for high range variations, is also designed and is currently under construction. One main conclusion is that including the compensation systems in the design of the wave energy converter will increase the competitiveness of the technology from an economic point of view by decreasing its cost per kWh. The need for a cost-effective wave energy converter with increased survivability emphasizes the importance of the presented research and its future development.
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Books on the topic "Four level converter"

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Walsh, Bruce, and Michael Lynch. Changes in Genetic Variation Induced by Drift. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830870.003.0011.

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In the absence of the input of new variation, drift eventually removes all of the additive-genetic variance in a population. When nonadditive genetic variance is present, some of this variation can be transiently converted into additive variance, resulting in the latter occasionally increasingly (for a time) under inbreeding. This chapter examines the conditions under which such a conversion can occur, which leads to a discussion of the more complex covariances between inbred relatives, requiring the introduction of several new genetic-variance components to be introduced. It also examines the expected equilibrium levels of additive variance under drift-mutation equilibrium.
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Lyapin, V. G. Electrical engineering and electronics. Publishing house of the Russian state agrarian University UN-TA im. K. A. Timiryazeva, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.26897/978-5-9675-2029-7-2024-105.

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The workbook contains tasks and methods of laboratory work in accordance with the bachelor's de-gree programs for the disciplines "Electrical Engineering and Electronics", "Electrical Engineering, Electron-ics and Electric Drive", "General Electrical Engineering and Electronics", "General Electrical Engineering and Electronics.Automation." Each section of the workbook includes the procedure for performing labora-tory works, forms of reports on completed works and control questions to check the level of knowledge. The publication can be used by students of all forms of training in the areas of training 13.03.01 "Heat power en-gineering and heat engineering", 15.03.02 "Technological machines and equipment", 19.03.01 "Biotechnol-ogy", 20.03.01 "Technosphere safety", 23.03.01 "Technology of transport processes", 23.03.02 "Land transport and technological complexes", 23.03.03 "Operation of transport and technological machines and complexes", 27.03.01 "Standardization and metrology", 27.03.02 "Quality management", 35.03.06 "Agroen-gineering", as well as useful in the performance of qualification work, analytical, numerical and experimental study of power supply systems, electric drive, electrical technology and converter technology
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Roggenkamp, Martha, Jacob Sandholt, and Daisy G. Tempelman. Innovation in the EU Gas Sector. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198822080.003.0015.

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The EU natural gas system has been developed since the 1960s, following discovery of the Groningen gas field. Climate change and security of supply challenges are affecting the natural gas market, provoking greener innovation including the introduction of renewable gases, such as biogas, which needs to be converted to biomethane (natural gas quality) before injection into the natural gas system and transported cross-border. This chapter examines the legal framework on EU and national level. Special attention is paid to: the extent to which biogas/biomethane is considered a renewable energy source; safety and quality standards; access and connection rules. National gas quality standards may, however, prove to be an obstacle for transportation cross-border. In addition, there is a trend towards cross-border contractual trade in biomethane and slowly emerging organizational developments facilitating cross-border trade in biomethane.
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Amanzio, Martina, and Sara Palermo. Conceptualizing Placebo as Active Component and Adjunct in Psychological Treatment. Edited by Sara Maltzman. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199739134.013.20.

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Studies on placebo analgesic effects have shown that they can mimic the neurophysiological effects of active medication and can result in subjective pain relief. Classical conditioning and expectancy have been implicated as mechanisms mediating the placebo response. Given that the effects of placebo, psychological treatments, and active medications appear to be mediated by overlapping neurophysiological systems, intricate interactions of pharmacological and psychosocial factors must be assumed to converge at the neurobiological level. Study of the placebo response offers a paradigm and opportunity to study the effect of the psychosocial context per se, placebo treatment, psychotherapy, and active medication effects, thus offering exciting possibilities for improving the healthcare of patients and their ability to obtain the best possible health outcomes.
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Gallistel, C. Randy. The Neurobiological Bases for the Computational Theory of Mind. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190464783.003.0013.

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The language of thought hypothesis is one of Fodor’s seminal contributions to cognitive science. Prominent among the objections to it has been the argument that there is no neurobiological evidence for materially realized symbols in the brain. If memory is materially realized by enduring alterations in synaptic conductances, then this is true, because the synaptic-conductance hypothesis is simply the ancient associative learning hypothesis couched in neurobiological language. Associations are not symbols and cannot readily be made to function as such, thus neurobiologists are unable to say how simple information—for example, the durations of intervals in simple Pavlovian conditioning paradigms—are stored in altered synaptic conductances. Recent results from several laboratories converge, strongly suggesting that memories do not reside in altered synaptic conductances but rather at the molecular level inside neurons. The chapter reviews the experimental evidence for this revolutionary conclusion, as well as the plausibility arguments for it.
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Dignam, Alan, and John Lowry. 6. Raising capital: debentures: fixed and floating charges. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198753285.003.0438.

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Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter discusses corporate borrowing through debentures or debenture stock, as well as fixed and floating charges that companies issue to creditors as security interests. It begins by outlining some important distinctions between the ability of small and large companies to raise loan capital. It then considers the priority of secured creditors and the registration requirements for charges, the issue of whether or not a fixed charge could be created over a company’s book debts, provisions for automatic crystallisation that converts the floating charge into an equitable fixed charge over company assets, and reform of security interests.
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Dignam, Alan, and John Lowry. 6. Raising capital: debentures: fixed and floating charges. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198811831.003.0006.

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Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter discusses corporate borrowing through debentures or debenture stock, as well as fixed and floating charges that companies issue to creditors as security interests. It begins by outlining some important distinctions between the ability of small and large companies to raise loan capital. It then considers the priority of secured creditors and the registration requirements for charges, the issue of whether or not a fixed charge could be created over a company’s book debts, provisions for automatic crystallisation that converts the floating charge into an equitable fixed charge over company assets, and reform of security interests.
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Swade, Doron. The History of Computing: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University PressOxford, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198831754.001.0001.

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Abstract This book describes the central events, machines, and people in the history of computing, and traces how innovation has brought us from pebbles used for counting, to the modern age of the computer. It has a strong historiographical theme that offers a new perspective on how to understand the historical narratives we have constructed, and examines the unspoken assumptions that underpin them. It describes inventions, pioneers, milestone systems, and the context of their use. It starts with counting, and traces change through calculating aids, mechanical calculation, and automatic electronic computation, both digital and analogue. It shows how four threads—calculation, automatic computing, information management, and communications—converged to create the ‘information age’. It examines three master narratives in established histories that are used as aids to marshal otherwise unmanageable levels detail. The treatment is rooted in the principal episodes that make up canonical histories of computing.
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De Bono, Christopher, Magali Théveniau-Ruissy, and Robert G. Kelly. Cardiac fields and myocardial cell lineages. Edited by José Maria Pérez-Pomares, Robert G. Kelly, Maurice van den Hoff, et al. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198757269.003.0004.

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We focus on the origin of myocardial cells in the first and second heart fields in splanchnic mesoderm in the early embryo. Genetic lineage tracing using Cre recombinase activated conditional reporter genes has made a major contribution to our understanding of cardiac progenitor cells and will be discussed together with other experimental approaches to analysing cell lineages at the clonal level. Interactions between myocardial, epicardial and endocardial lineages are essential for coordinated function and homeostasis of the normal heart. Perturbation of heart field development and myocardial lineage contributions to the heart through developmental or acquired pathologies results in and modulates the progression of cardiac disease. Understanding the origin of myocardial lineages during embryonic development and how they converge to generate an integrated heart is thus a major biomedical objective. Furthermore, reactivation of developmental programmes is likely to be of major importance in strategies aimed at repair of the damaged heart.
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Esler, Karen J., Anna L. Jacobsen, and R. Brandon Pratt. Ecosystems processes. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198739135.003.0007.

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Ecosystems are assemblages of organisms interacting with one another and their environment (Chapter 1). Key to the functioning of ecosystems is the flow of energy, carbon, mineral nutrients, and water in these systems. The numerous processes involved are chiefly driven by climate, soil, and fire (Chapter 2). In cases where the key drivers are the same in different areas, then ecosystems should converge in their structure and function, which has been a motivation for comparing across mediterranean-type climate (MTC) regions. Convergence of MTC regions has been evaluated, but such comparisons at the ecosystem level are challenging because ecosystems are complex and dynamic entities. Here we review carbon, nutrient, and water dynamics of mediterranean-type ecosystems in the context of ecosystem function. As nutrients in soils are low in some MTC regions, we review how this has led to unique adaptations to meet this challenge.
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Book chapters on the topic "Four level converter"

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Tania, H. M., Jagadish Kumar Patra, Vinson John, D. Elangovan, and G. Arunkumar. "Four Level Boost Converter for Linear Loads." In Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering. Springer Singapore, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1540-3_39.

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Kazmierkowski, M. P., M. Sędlak, S. Stynski, and M. Malinowski. "Hierarchical Control of Four-Leg Three-Level Grid-Connected Converter for RES." In Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering. Springer International Publishing, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11248-0_1.

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Seixas, Mafalda, Rui Melício, and Victor M. F. Mendes. "Simulation of Offshore Wind Turbine Link to the Electric Grid through a Four-Level Converter." In Technological Innovation for Collective Awareness Systems. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-54734-8_36.

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Song, Bang-Sup. "Data-Converter Circuits." In System-level Techniques for Analog Performance Enhancement. Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-27921-3_4.

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Labrique, Francis, and Jean-Paul Louis. "Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation for Two-level Three-phase Voltage Inverters." In Power Electronic Converters. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118621196.ch1.

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Prodic, Aleksandar, Sheikh Mohammad Ahsanuzzaman, Behzad Mahdavikhah, and Timothy McRae. "Hybrid and Multi-level Converter Topologies for On-Chip Implementation of Reduced Voltage-Swing Converters." In Power Systems-On-Chip. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119377702.ch7.

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Lee, Kyo-Beum, and June-Seok Lee. "Three-Level Converter Tolerant Control for Switch Faults." In Power Systems. Springer Singapore, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4992-7_3.

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Jia, Haijie, Dongdong Hou, Long Yan, Menglei Ding, and Xiang Zhang. "A Bidirectional Half-Bridge Three-Level LLLC Converter." In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Information Technologies for Rail Transportation (EITRT) 2021. Springer Singapore, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9913-9_31.

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Wang, Hui. "Three-Level Indirect Matrix Converter for Adjustable Speed Drives." In Power Systems. Springer Nature Switzerland, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-69902-3_6.

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Yin, Yunfei, Lei Liu, Zhijian Hu, Hao Lin, and Ligang Wu. "Direct Power Control for Three-Level NPC Converters." In Robust Control Strategies for Power Electronics in Smart Grid Applications. Springer Nature Switzerland, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53188-0_4.

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Conference papers on the topic "Four level converter"

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Karmakar, Subir, and Bhim Singh. "Four-Level Diode-Clamped Based Twenty-Four Pulse VSC for HVDC Converter Applications." In 2024 IEEE 11th Power India International Conference (PIICON). IEEE, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/piicon63519.2024.10995116.

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Ebrahimi, Javad, Fatemeh Nasr Esfahani, Suzan Eren, and Alireza Bakhshai. "An Active Capacitor Voltage Balancing Method for a Four-Level Single Flying Capacitor Converter." In IECON 2024 - 50th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society. IEEE, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/iecon55916.2024.10905229.

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Fu, Xiaojie, Sheng Yan, Yujia Guo, et al. "Hardware Design of SiC-based 3 kV High-Power Four-Level Hybrid Clamped Converter." In 2024 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE). IEEE, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/ecce55643.2024.10861161.

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Dehuri, Sandeep Kumar, and Makarand M. Lokhande. "Design and Control of an Improved Four-Phase SRM Drive Using a 4-Level Converter." In 2025 IEEE 1st International Conference on Smart and Sustainable Developments in Electrical Engineering (SSDEE). IEEE, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1109/ssdee64538.2025.10967937.

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Reusser, Carlos A., Ramón Herrera-Hernández, Felipe Alvarado Poirier, and Ramon Zamora. "Current and DC-Link Voltage-Drift Active Hysteresis Control of a Four Level Quasi Nested Converter." In 2024 IEEE 9th Southern Power Electronics Conference (SPEC). IEEE, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/spec62217.2024.10893272.

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Pang, Jupeng, Wei Zhou, Kui Wang, Zedong Zheng, and Yongdong Li. "A Novel Control Strategy for a Four-Level ANPC-Based DAB Converter to Achieve Soft Switching in Full Power Range." In 2024 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE). IEEE, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/ecce55643.2024.10861787.

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Ishraq, Naveed, and Ayan Mallik. "Robust Fixed-Frequency Sliding Mode Control based on Sequential Control Logic for a Four-level FCML Totem-pole PFC Converter." In 2024 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE). IEEE, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/ecce55643.2024.10860895.

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Monfared, Kourosh Khalaj, Hossein Iman-Eini, and Yousef Neyshabouri. "Cost comparison of four-level NNPC converter with four-level FC and NPC converters." In 2022 13th Power Electronics, Drive Systems, and Technologies Conference (PEDSTC). IEEE, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/pedstc53976.2022.9767237.

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Jiaojiao Liu, Lei Li, and Yonghuan Ding. "Four level AC converter and application." In 2012 7th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA). IEEE, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/iciea.2012.6360880.

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Chen, Jianfei, and Caisheng Wang. "A Five-Switch Four-Level Converter." In 2020 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE). IEEE, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ecce44975.2020.9235790.

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Reports on the topic "Four level converter"

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Abdolmaleki, Kourosh, and Andrew Rawlinson. PR-453-134504-R01 Pipeline On-Bottom Stability Software Upgrade Milestone I. Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI), 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.55274/r0010867.

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The PRCI software (version 3.0) which assesses hydrodynamic stability of submarine pipelines was revised. There are three 'levels' of analysis available in this software. The main technical revisions are for: - Level 1 : -The addition of the logarithmic boundary layer formulation. - Level 2: -The addition of the logarithmic boundary layer formulation -The addition of the JONSWAP spectrum -The addition of the Verley and Lund pipe-soil clay model -The resolution of the issue of excessive embedment in current dominated conditions. - Level 3 are: -The addition of the logarithmic boundary layer formulation -The addition of the JONSWAP spectrum. In terms of software, the Fortran code, which undertakes the calculation, was converted to a more recent version and a number of improvements made. The user interface was re-written in languages and an environment which are currently supported. Code was written for the future implementation of the absolute stability method of DNV-RP-F109. An investigation of lift forces which act on a submarine pipeline when subject to current at low angles of attack was undertaken. This showed that, though usual practice underestimates the lift force, the magnitude of the difference is not significant in terms of pipeline stability. This work has a related webinar.
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Amir, Rachel, David J. Oliver, Gad Galili, and Jacline V. Shanks. The Role of Cysteine Partitioning into Glutathione and Methionine Synthesis During Normal and Stress Conditions. United States Department of Agriculture, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2013.7699850.bard.

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The objective of this research is to study the nature of the competition for cysteine (Cys), the first organic sulfur-containing compound, between its two main metabolites, glutathione (GSH) and methionine (Met). GSH plays a central role in protecting plants during various stresses, while Met, an essential amino acid, regulates essential processes and metabolites in plant cells through its metabolite S-adenosyl-Met. Our results, which are based on flux analysis and measurements of Met- metabolites, show that the flux towards Met synthesis is high during non-stress conditions, however the flux is significantly reduced under stress conditions, when there is high synthesis of GSH. Under oxidative stress the expression level of the regulatory enzyme of Met synthesis, cystathionine g-synthase (CGS) was reduced. By using three different systems, we have found that that GSH down regulates the expression level of CGS, thus reducing Met synthesis. We have found that this regulation occurs at the post-transcriptional level, and further studies have shown that it occurs at post-translationaly. To reveal how oxidative stress affects the flux towards Met and GSH, flux analysis was performed. We have found that the level of Met is significantly reduced, while the level of glutathione significantly increases during stress. Under stress conditions most of the glutathione is converted from GSH to GSSG (the oxidised form of glutathione). These results suggest that under normal growth conditions, Cys is channelled towards both pathways to support GSH accumulation and the synthesis of growth-essential Met metabolites. However, during oxidative stress, when a high level of GSH is required to protect the plants, the levels of GSH increase while those of CGS are reduced. This reduction leaves more Cys available for GSH synthesis under stress conditions. In addition we have also studied the effects of high GSH level on the transcriptome profile. The analysis revealed that GSH affects the expression level of many major genes coding to enzymes or proteins associated with photosynthesis, starch degradation, hormone metabolism (especially genes associated with jasmonate), biotic stress (especially genes associated with PR-proteins), cytochrome P450 genes, regulation of transcription and signaling (especially genes associated with receptor kinases and calcium). These results suggest that indeed GSH levels affect different pathways and metabolites in plants.
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Amend. PR-186-133738-R01 Procedure for Determining Lower Bound Yield Strength of Pipe from Hardness Data. Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI), 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.55274/r0010847.

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This project is a JIP project with the overall objective of demonstrating that hardness data from randomly selected pipe samples could be used to determine the lower bound YS of an entire pipeline segment at a quantified confidence level, and that results would be conservative in comparison to results determined using the methods currently described in 49 CFR Part 192 and 195. Three different types of field portable hardness testers and a laboratory Rockwell B tester were used on 50 pipe sample. The hardness testing using field portable testers was performed in accordance with ASME CRTD-Vol. 91. The hardness test results were converted to a calculated lower bound YS values using the correlations described in ASME CRTD-Vol. 57. The calculated lower bound YS was compared to the results of standard API 5L tensile tests. In addition, the metallurgical attributes of each pipe were characterized to determine if certain subsets of pipes produced better (or worse) correlations of lower bound YS calculated from hardness data to YS determined from tensile tests. The results showed that hardness data can be used to determine conservative values of lower bound YS using a range of different confidence levels.
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Most, Hedda, Magda Moner-Girona, Paola Casati, Manuel Llorca, James Haselip, and Elena Fumagalli. Investigating the Interplay Between Electricity Access and Food Security: Insights from Refugee Settlements in Zambia, Malawi, and Uganda. Copenhagen School of Energy Infrastructure, 2025. https://doi.org/10.22439/csei.pb.019.

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The connection between access to electricity and food security has become increasingly relevant in the context of protracted displacement, where humanitarian and development needs converge. In our recently published empirical research (see Most et al., 2025), we examine this link by drawing on household-level data from six refugee settlements across Zambia, Malawi, and Uganda. The findings highlight the critical, yet often understudied, role that energy access plays in enabling safe, reliable, and nutritious food consumption for displaced populations.
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Cleary, Summers, Michelle Kinseth, and Michelle Uchitel. Land Cover Summary Statistics for Antietam National Battlefield. National Park Service, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.36967/2301818.

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This technical report documents the acquisition of source data, and calculation of land cover summary statistics datasets for Antietam National Battlefield. The source data and land cover calculations are available for use within the National Park Service (NPS) Inventory &amp; Monitoring (I&amp;M) Program. Land cover summary statistics datasets can be calculated for all geographic regions within the extent of the NPS; this report includes statistics calculated for the conterminous United States. The land cover summary statistics datasets are calculated from multiple sources, including Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium products in the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) and United States Geological Survey?s (USGS) Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center products in the Land Change Monitoring, Assessment, and Projection (LCMAP) raster dataset. These summary statistics calculate land cover at up to three classification scales: Level 1, modified Anderson Level 2, and Natural versus Converted land cover. The output land cover summary statistics datasets produced here for Antietam National Battlefield utilize the most recent versions of the source datasets (NLCD and LCMAP). These land cover summary statistics datasets are used in the NPS I&amp;M Program, including the NPS Environmental Settings Monitoring Protocol and may be used by networks and parks for additional efforts.
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Cleary, Summers, Michelle Kinseth, and Michelle Uchitel. Land Cover Summary Statistics for Antietam National Battlefield. National Park Service, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.36967/2300391.

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This technical report documents the acquisition of source data, and calculation of land cover summary statistics datasets for Antietam National Battlefield. The source data and land cover calculations are available for use within the National Park Service (NPS) Inventory &amp; Monitoring (I&amp;M) Program. Land cover summary statistics datasets can be calculated for all geographic regions within the extent of the NPS; this report includes statistics calculated for the conterminous United States. The land cover summary statistics datasets are calculated from multiple sources, including Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium products in the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) and United States Geological Survey?s (USGS) Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center products in the Land Change Monitoring, Assessment, and Projection (LCMAP) raster dataset. These summary statistics calculate land cover at up to three classification scales: Level 1, modified Anderson Level 2, and Natural versus Converted land cover. The output land cover summary statistics datasets produced here for Antietam National Battlefield utilize the most recent versions of the source datasets (NLCD and LCMAP). These land cover summary statistics datasets are used in the NPS I&amp;M Program, including the NPS Environmental Settings Monitoring Protocol and may be used by networks and parks for additional efforts.
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Lewandowski, Piotr, Albert Park, and Simone Schotte. Global Divergence in the De-routinization of Jobs. Asian Development Bank, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/wps230160-2.

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This study introduces a methodology to estimate the economy-specific task content of occupations across economies at different income levels. The results show that occupations in low- and middle-income economies are more routine-intensive than in high-income economies and the gap continues to widen. Investment in skills, technology use, and participation in global value chains are key factors for work content and productivity to converge with those in high-income economies.
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Abdolmaleki, Kourosh. PR-453-134504-R05 On Bottom Stability Upgrade - MS III. Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI), 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.55274/r0012195.

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The extension of the PRCI on bottom stability (OBS) software's applicability to shallow water is assessed. Version 3 of the software has a limitation on water depth; only depths greater than 6 m (20 ft) are accepted. This limitation is likely related to the increasing inaccuracy of linear wave theory as the wave height to water depth ratio increases, as well as caution about breaking wave limits. The usage of linear wave theory inside the software can be categorized into two different types: � Linear regular waves - these are used in the Level 1 module to determine the motions of the water particles as part of the calculation of the hydrodynamic forces; � Linear irregular waves - these are present in the Level 2, Level 3 and ASM modules, where the surface wave energy spectra are converted to the near-seabed wave velocities through the use of a transfer function based on linear wave theory. It is noted that for irregular waves, all wave spectral formulations currently implemented in the OBS software, do not account for water depth. This document addresses the finite water depth and shallow water restrictions and presents a discussion and investigation in two categories: 1. The direct use of the linear theory to describe waves in the Level 1 calculation module; and 2. The direct use of linear spectral transfer functions in the Level 2, Level 3, and ASM modules. The scope of this activity is to prepare a solution for consideration by PRCI and implement the agreed course of action. The solution proposed will be based on the continued use of the linear wave theory. It is noted that higher order wave theories would be more appropriate for shallow water conditions, but due to the currently established methodology in the software, implementation of higher order wave theory is not included within this scope.
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Cleary, Summers, and Summers Cleary. Land Cover Summary Statistics for Greater Yellowstone Network Park Units. National Park Service, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.36967/2302418.

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This report documents the acquisition of source data, and calculation of land cover summary statistics datasets for four National Park Service Greater Yellowstone Network park units and six custom areas of analysis: Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area, Grand Teton National Park, John D. Rockefeller Jr.?Memorial Parkway, Yellowstone National Park, and the six custom areas of analysis. The source data and land cover calculations are available for use within the National Park Service (NPS) Inventory and Monitoring Program. Land cover summary statistics datasets can be calculated for all geographic regions within the extent of the NPS; this report includes statistics calculated for the conterminous United States. The land cover summary statistics datasets are calculated from multiple sources, including Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium products in the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) and the United States Geological Survey?s (USGS) Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center products in the Land Change Monitoring, Assessment, and Projection (LCMAP) raster dataset. These summary statistics calculate land cover at up to three classification scales: Level 1, modified Anderson Level 2, and Natural versus Converted land cover. The output land cover summary statistics datasets produced here for the four Greater Yellowstone Network park units and six custom areas of analysis utilize the most recent versions of the source datasets (NLCD and LCMAP). These land cover summary statistics datasets are used in the NPS Inventory and Monitoring Program, including the NPS Environmental Settings Monitoring Protocol and may be used by networks and parks for additional efforts.
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Pineda-Mendez, Raul A., Qiming Guo, Mario A. Romero, and Andrew P. Tarko. In-Service Safety Evaluation of Indiana Impact Attenuators and Barrier End Treatments. Purdue University, 2025. https://doi.org/10.5703/1288284317765.

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Crashes related to barrier end treatments and impact attenuators generally have higher severity levels than those colliding with barrier faces. To select the most effective end treatments, the in-service safety evaluation of such end treatments under various operational conditions was needed. This study linked 7 years of crash records with the corresponding end treatments using inventory from the Indiana Road Network Dataset. Factors affecting crash severity, including speed, weather, roadway features, and vehicle types, were extracted and integrated with crashes in the modeling sample. Both random parameter and fixed effect ordered logit models were used to estimate the effects of various end treatments on crash severity under studied conditions. The probabilities of severity levels outcomes were estimated for barrier end treatments and impact attenuators. These probability distributions were converted into economic costs with proper adjustments for the estimated underreporting rates. The corresponding crash and cost reduction factors were also estimated. The expected average crash costs under various operational conditions should help select a roadside safety device that performs best for the road and traffic conditions.
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