Academic literature on the topic 'Frequency references'

Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Entwicklung und Untersuchung von optischen Absolutfrequenzreferenzen basierend auf rovibronischen Übergängen in molekularen Jod. Dabei werden Methoden der Doppler-freien Sättigungsspektroskopie angewendet, um einzelne Übergänge der Hyperfeinstruktur mit Linienbreiten unterhalb von 1 MHz im B-X System von molekularem Iod bei 532 nm, der zweiten harmonischen des Nd:YAG-Laser, aufzulösen. Elektronische Regelungstechniken ermöglichen eine präzise Stabilisierung der optischen Frequenz auf die Linienmitte der Übergänge mit einer Auflösung von Teilen in 10^5. Mit dem Ziel einer weltraumtauglichen Absolutfrequenzreferenz für zukünftige Weltraummissionen, wurden zwei Spektroskopiemodule konzipiert und in quasi-monolithischen Glaskeramik-Aufbauten, als sogenanntes elegant breadboard model und engineering model, realisiert. Diese Jodfrequenzreferenzen wurden im Detail in Bezug auf ihre Frequenzstabilität und Reproduzierbarkeit untersucht und Letzteres wurde für die angestrebte Weltraumqualifizierung ersten Umwelttests, sowohl vibrations- als auch thermischen Belastungstests, unterzogen. Für die Untersuchung der Frequenzstabilität dieser Jodreferenzen wurde ein auf einen optischen Resonator hoher Güte stabilisiertes Lasersystem für direkte Frequenzvergleiche bei 1064 nm realisiert. Die Analyse der Frequenzstabilität der Jod Referenzen zeigt eine Frequenzstabilität von 6x10^−15 bei 1 s, und weniger als 2x10^−15 bei 100 s Integrationszeit, was der bis heute besten veröffentlichten Frequenzstabilität entspricht die mit Jod Referenzen erreicht wurde. Mit der erreichten Frequenzstabilität ermöglichen diese Absolutfrequenzreferenzen präzise Lasersysteme für zukünftige Weltraummissionen wie z.B. zur Detektion von Gravitationswellen, zur Vermessung des Gravitationsfelds der Erde oder für Präzisionstest fundamentaler Theorien der Physik.<br>This thesis deals with the development and investigation of optical absolute frequency references based on rovibronic transitions in molecular iodine. Doppler-free saturation spectroscopy methods are employed to resolve individual transitions of the hyperfine structure with linewidths below 1 MHz in the B-X system of molecular iodine at 532 nm with the second harmonic of Nd:YAG lasers. Electronic feedback control systems are employed for laser frequency stabilization to the line center of the optical transitions with a line splitting of 10^5. With the goal of a space qualified optical absolute frequency reference for future laser-interferometric space missions, two spectroscopy setups were designed and realized in quasi-monolithic, glass-ceramic setups as so called elegant bread board model and engineering model. These iodine references were characterized in detail with respect to their frequency stability and reproducibility and the engineering model was subject to environmental tests, including vibrations and thermal cycling to verify its applicability in future space missions. For the investigation of the frequency instability of these iodine references, a frequency stabilized laser system was realized based on a temperature controlled high Finesse ULE cavity for direct frequency comparisons at 1064 nm. Analysis of the frequency stability of the iodine references revealed exceptionally low fractional frequency instability of 6x10^−15 at 1 s, averaging down to less than 2×10^−15 at 100 s integration time, constituting the best reported stability achieved with iodine references to date. With the demonstrated performance, these absolute frequency references enable precision laser systems required for future space missions that are dedicated to, e.g., the detection of gravitational waves, mapping of the Earth’s gravitational field or precision test of fundamental physics.

Silicon alternatives to quartz crystal based oscillators to electronic system clocking are explored. A study of clocking requirements reveals widely different specifications for different applications. Traditional CMOS oscillator-based solutions are optimized for low-cost fully integrated micro-controller clock applications. The frequency variability of these clock generators is studied and techniques to compensate for this variability are proposed. The efficacy of these techniques in reducing variability is proven theoretically and experimentally. MEMS-resonator based oscillators, due to their exceptional quality factors, are identified as suitable integrated replacements to quartz based oscillators for higher accuracy applications such as data converter clocks. The frequency variation in these oscillators is identified and techniques to minimize the same are proposed and demonstrated. The sources of short-term variation (phase noise) in these oscillators are discussed and an inclusive theory of phase noise is developed. Techniques to improve phase noise are proposed. Findings from this research indicate that MEMS resonator based oscillators, may in future, outperform quartz based solutions in certain applications such as voltage controlled oscillators. The implications of these findings and potential directions for future research are identified.

Les horloges atomiques miniatures présentent des stabilités de fréquence inégalées avec des volumes de quelquescentimètres cubes et des consommations inférieures à 100mW.Dans cette thèse, les paramètres optimaux concernant la conception et la fabrication des cellules à vapeur decésium, un des composant clés de ce type d’horloges, sont définis. Ainsi, les performances de plusieurs cellulesont été caractérisées en condition d’horloge à court et long terme. En parallèle, des solutions sont proposéespour pallier à certaines limitations telles que la plage de température opérationnelle, le coût de fabrication dudispositif et la facilité d’assemblage du module physique.Un nouveau mélange de gaz tampon composé de néon et d’hélium peut étendre la plage de fonctionnementau-dessus de 80 C, en adéquation avec les besoins industriels. A l’inverse des gaz tampon usuels, ce mélangeest compatible avec les dispensers de césium solides, dont la fiabilité est établie.Outre les gaz tampon, les revêtements permettent également de limiter la relaxation induite par les parois dela cellule. Ici, des revêtements d’octadécyltrichlorosilane sont étudiés. Un effet anti-relaxant a été observé dansdes cellules centimétriques et un procédé a été développé pour revêtir des cellules micro-fabriquées.D’autres sources de césium sont présentées pour s’affranchir des inconvénients propres aux dispensers solides.Un dispenser sous forme de pâte, qui peut être déposée collectivement, a été étudié et montre des densitésatomiques stables jusqu’à présent. Un concept de vannes hermétiques micro-fabriquées a été proposé poursceller hermétiquement et séparer des cellules d’un réservoir de césium commun.Les premières étapes vers un module physique micro-fabriqué sont ensuite présentées. En particulier, un designoriginal de cellule combinant des réseaux de diffraction à une cavité en silicium formée par gravure anisotropea été caractérisé et a montré des contrastes CPT remarquables malgré un volume de cavité réduit, ce qui permettraitde réaliser un module physique particulièrement compact. Enfin, des cellules intégrant des résistanceschauffantes et thermométriques ont été fabriquées et leur compatibilité vis-à-vis du champ magnétique généréa été caractérisée dans un prototype de module physique compact<br>Chip-scale atomic clocks (CSACs) provide unprecedented frequency stability within volumes down to a fewcubic centimeters and power consumptions as low as 100mW.In this work, we determine the optimal parameters regarding the design and the fabrication of cesium vaporcells, one of the key components of a CSAC. For this purpose, cells were characterized on both short and longtermperformances in clock setups. In addition, we propose solutions to overcome present limitations includingthe operating temperature range, the device microfabrication cost and the ease of integration of the physicspackage.A novel mixture of buffer-gas composed of neon and helium was found to potentially extend the operating rangeof the device above 80 C, meeting the industrial requirements. Unlike the well-known buffer gas compositions,this mixture is compatible with solid cesium dispensers whose reliability is established. As an alternativeto buffer gases, wall coatings are known to limit the relaxation induced by sidewalls. Here, we investigatedoctadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS) coatings. An anti-relaxation effect has been observed in centimeter-scale cellsand a process was developed to coat microfabricated cells.Other cesium sources have been investigated to overcome the drawbacks imposed by solid cesium dispensers. Apaste-like dispenser, which can be deposited collectively, was explored and has shown stable atomic densities sofar. Single-use zero-leak micro valves were also proposed to hermetically seal and detach cells from a commoncesium reservoir.Eventually, the first steps toward a microfabricated physics package were made. In particular, an originalcell design combining diffraction gratings with an anisotropically etched single-crystalline silicon sidewalls wascharacterized and exhibited remarkable CPT contrasts despite a reduced cavity volume, which could lead to amore compact physics package. Finally, cells with integrated heating and temperature sensing resistors werefabricated and their magnetic field compliance was characterized in a compact physics package prototype

Doctor of Philosophy<br>Department of Physics<br>Kristan L. Corwin<br>Optical frequency references have been widely used in applications such as navigation, remote sensing, and telecommunication industry. For stable frequency references in the near-infrared (NIR), lasers can be locked to narrow absorption features in gases such as acetylene. Currently, most Near NIR references are realized in free space setups. In this thesis, a low-loss hollow-core optical fiber with a diameter of sub millimeters is integrated into the reference setup to provide long interaction lengths between the filling gas and the laser field, also facilitate the optical interaction with low power levels. To make portable NIR reference, gas can be sealed inside the hollow-core fiber, by creating a photonic microcell. This work has demonstrated all-fiber optical frequency references in the Near IR by fabricating and integrating gas sealed photonic microcells in the reference setup. Also, a thoughtful study regarding the lineshape of the fiber-based reference has been accomplished. According the proper modeling of a shift due to lineshape, a correction was applied to our previous absolute frequency measurement of an NIR optical frequency reference. Furthermore, effects of the hollow-core fibers, including mode-dependence frequency shift related to surface modes are explored. In addition, angle splicing techniques, which will improve the performance of the fiber-based frequency reference have been created. Low transmission and return loss angle splices of photonic bandgap fiber, single mode PCF, and large core kagome to SMF-28 are developed and those fibers are demonstrated to be promising for photonic microcell based optical frequency references. Finally, a potentially portable optical metrology system is demonstrated by stabilizing a fiber-laser based frequency comb to an acetylene-filled optical fiber frequency reference. Further work is necessary to fabricate an all-fiber portable optical metrology system with high optical transmission and low molecular contamination.

Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 1991.<br>Includes bibliographical references (leaves 89-92).<br>by Peter Cheng-Lung Li.<br>M.S.

International Telemetering Conference Proceedings / October 27-30, 1997 / Riviera Hotel and Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nevada<br>This paper describes a kind of Microwave Digital Frequency Synthesizer used for S-band telemetry receivers. As well known many modern electronic systems employ a Frequency Synthesizer whose spectral purity is critical. The characteristics of a PLL (Phase-Locked Loop) Frequency Synthesizer, such as frequency resolution, phase noise, spurious suppression and switch time, should be compromised in our design. A heterodyne Frequency Synthesis is often considered as a good approach to solve the problem. But it is complicated in structure and circuit. A variable-reference-driven PLL Frequency Synthesizer was introduced which can give an improved trade-off among frequency resolution, phase noise, spurious suppression. In this paper the phase noise and spurious suppression characteristic of variable-reference-driven PLL Frequency Synthesizer is analyzed theoretically and compared with that of the heterodyne Frequency Synthesizer. For engineering application, a practical Microwave Digital Frequency Synthesizer used for telemetry receiver has been designed, which is characterized by simply structure, low phase noise and low spurious output. The output spectrum of experimental measurements is given.