Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Freshwater fish parasites'

This study is concerned with two strigeid genera which utilise fish as their second intermediate host and piscivorous birds as a definitive host, i.e. Apatemon (Apatemon) Sudarikov, 1959 and Ichthyocotylurus Odening, 1969. Although the lifecycle has been ascertained for most Ichthyocotylurus spp., confusion and disagreement still exist as to the constituent species, while all of the life-stages have been described for only a single member of the subgenus Apatemon (Apatemon). In order to clarify species membership to these taxa and indeed the taxonomic position of the subgenus Apatemon (Apatemon) further information was required on the life-cycles and life-stages of these strigeids. Although, metacercariae from this family have been recorded from a variety of British fishes, confirmed records, i.e. those supported with life-cycle data, are limited to a single species. It was this lack of confidence in identifying metacercariae recovered from fishes and the lack of known good criteria for distinguishing the adults that prompted the present study. Collections of metacercariae from a variety of hosts and locations were made, from which all subsequent life-cycle stages were obtained. The project aims were to establish the identity of the forms occurring in British fishes, by applying discriminatory techniques to the experimentally reared life-stages. In addition to traditional methods, techniques with little previous application to these genera were used and included, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), chaetotaxy, principal components analysis (PCA), and karyology. Furthermore, behavioural aspects such as the release patterns of cercariae from their molluscan hosts were studied to investigate whether they would prove to be of diagnostic value. Metacercariae obtained from the sampling survey were tentatively identified, using all currently employed methods for their determination, i.e. morphology, nature of cyst, host and site specificities, as Ichthyocotylurus erraticus (Rudolphi, 1809), I. variegatus (Creplin, 1825), Apatemon gracilis (Rudolphi, 1819) and A. annuligerum (Nordmann, 1832). Material collected from Finland was considered to contain both Ichthyocotylurus spp. recovered in the U.K., as well as I. platycephalus (Creplin, 1825) and I. pileatus (Rudolphi, 1802). The Ichthyocotylurus spp. were found to be more host specific than A. gracilis, although A. annuligerum was considered oioxenic to perch Perea fluiatilis L. Records of I. erraticus from gwyniad Coregonus lavaretus (L.) and grayling Thymallus thymallus (L.), and A. gracilis from arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.) constitute first listings from Britain. The large number of sensilla present on the body surface of these metacercariae, observed by SEM and chaetotaxy, precluded their diagnostic use. PCA was, however, found to be of value for distinguishing between species and determining morphological variation within a species. I. erraticus, I. variegatus and A. gracilis adults were successfully reared in experimental hosts using metacercariae from a variety of fish hosts, sites within a single fish host and geographical sites. The adults obtained enabled clarification of the identities assigned to the metacercariae. Those metacercariae believed to represent I. pileatus and A. annuligerum failed to establish in experimental hosts. Herring gulls and lesser black-backed gulls proved to be extremely good experimental hosts for both Ichthyocotylurus spp., with the vast majority of infections establishing and providing high yields of eggs and adults. These infections yielded information on the establishment, development, fecundity, site specificity, longevity and morphological variability of the adults. Aspects of the morphology and biology of I. variegatus adults recorded were found to support its validity as a species discrete from I. platycephalus which was in some doubt. The experimental hosts used for A. gracilis infections, domestic and mallard ducklings, were found to be less satisfactory. Challenges were performed with A. gracilis metacercariae from three sources, rainbow trout, salmon parr and stone loach. The latter source was the only one to result in egg producing adults, with specimens exhibiting normal morphology and demonstrating an increased longevity over adults raised from salmonid metacercariae. These findings suggest that the metacercarial host may affect the successful completion of the life-cycle. Eggs of known origin were collected for all three cultured strigeid species, enabling further life-cycle studies, these were incubated and miracidia successfully raised. Developmental periods were found to be temperature dependent and differed for the three species at 20°C: A. gracilis < I. erraticus < I. variegatus. Light microscopy revealed the morphology of all three species to be identical, as were the epidermal plate formulae and chaetotaxy, indicated by silver-staining. The nomenclature for the distribution of miracidial sensilla derived by Dimitrov et al. (1989) was amended to enable a full description of these species. Osmotic shock resulted in an improved deciliation of the miracidia compared to sonication and subsequent SEM observation confirmed the arrangement of body surface structures, while revealing sensilla forms. Behavioural aspects of I. variegatus miracidia were examined, with a maximum longevity (< 11 hours) recorded at the lowest temperature studied (l0 degrees C), and host finding demonstrated to occur by an increased turning response in the presence of substances emitted from the susceptible snail host, following an initial unresponsive dispersal phase. Ichthyocotylurus cercariae were found in naturally infected Valvata piscinalis which constitutes the first record in Britain of cercariae of this genus. Cercariae of I. erraticus and I. variegatus were successfully raised experimentally from miracidia of known identity and origin within naive, experimentally raised V. piscinalis hosts, while A. gracilis cercariae were obtained from laboratory reared Lymnaea peregra. Cercarial developmental periods within the molluscan host were found to be temperature dependent and markedly different for the strigeid genera investigated, as were their behaviour and morphology. The Ichthyocotylurus spp. exhibit a distinct diurnal emergence rhythm from their molluscan host, being shed during the hours of daylight, while A. gracilis cercariae demonstrate a reciprocal pattern, emerging during the hours of darkness. Behavioural contrasts were also observed in longevities, emergence strategies (route of exit) and swimming behaviour. The two Ichthyocotylurus spp. were extremely similar, the only cercarial features found to be of diagnostic use were: the presence or absence of eye-spots; their differing developmental periods from miracidium to cercaria; the number and distribution of sensilla when compared by PCA; and their differing longevities at 20 degrees C. Characters considered to be of value in differentiating between strigeid cercariae at the species level, including the armature, chaetotaxy pattern and resting posture, did not differ between these two species. SEM observations enabled descriptions of the variety and structure of sensilla present on different life-stages, while transmission electron microscopy revealed the internal structure of cercarial sensory structures. Experimentally raised cercariae were found to be infective and the life-cycle was completed for the three strigeid species. Host specificities were observed for I. erraticus and A. gracilis, being particularly stringent for the latter species, while site specificities recorded were as observed in natural infections. Metacercarial maturation periods (for encystment) were highly temperature dependent, being comparable for the two Ichthyocotylurus spp. and more rapid than for A. gracilis specimens.

A study of myxozoan parasites has been investigated in hosts from freshwater environments in the UK. Over 17,000 oligochaetes, almost 5,000 juvenile cyprinids representing 7 species and over 60 invertebrate species have been examined for the presence of myxozoan parasites. In addition, studies on the lifecycle of Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae (the causative agent of salmonid proliferative kidney disease, PKD) and of selected cyprinid myxozoans were conducted. A total of 21 actinospore types in seven collective groups were isolated and described from oligochaetes collected from seven different river systems in England and Wales. Twelve of the actinospores isolated appear to be new to science. Differences were noted in types of actinospores released at different sites and between seasons. Most actinospores were released from oligochaetes in spring and summer with prevalence of release ranging from 0.11% up to 5.83%. The most common actinospores were members of the collective group Echinactinomyxon with seven types identified, followed by the collective group Triactinomyxon, of which 6 types were identified. Five actinospores types were each encountered only once during the study. In juvenile cyprinid fish, 14 identifiable species of myxozoans in the genera Myxidium, Myxobolus and Sphaerospora plus three developmental stages were detected by histological examination. The most common myxozoans in cyprinids were Myxobolus pseudodispar and Myxobolus pfeifferi. Roach contained the most number of myxozoan species. Only seven myxozoan species were found in chub, but pathological responses and intensity of infections, particularly with M. pseudodispar, M. pfeifferi and Myxobolus buckei were greater when compared to other cyprinids examined. Juvenile cyprinids only appear to mount a pathological response to myxozoans once sporogony is initiated and some of those responses were considered severe enough to be detrimental to host survival. Mathematical models were produced using parasite data and incorporating a variety of data, including fish length, year class strength and environmental data to attempt to demonstrate a population level effect of disease. Many of the models developed clearly show that parasitism by Myxobolus spp. and Bucephalus polymorphus in juvenile fish is strongly correlated with population success in selected UK rivers. Laboratory experiments to transmit Myxobolus spp., Myxidium spp. and Sphaerospora spp. from selected cyprinid hosts to oligochaetes were unsuccessful. The most likely explanation is that the genetic strain of Tubifex tubifex used in the trials was not susceptible to infections by the myxospores selected. Specific DNA primers for Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae were used on samples of over 60 invertebrate species collected from sites enzootic for PKD and on all 21 actinospore types isolated during the current study. All PCR reactions were negative for the presence of T. bryosalmonae DNA. Naive rainbow trout exposed to T. bryosalmonae spores from naturally infected bryozoans by bath challenge for 10 minutes developed PKD. Intraperitoneal injection of spores failed to induce the disease. The favoured route of entry by the parasite appears to be through mucous cells in the skin epithelium.

Parasites can have considerable consequences for their freshwater fish hosts, irrespective of whether they are intermediate or final hosts. The ecological consequences of infection arise from processes including parasite manipulation, where the parasite manipulates the host to increase their chance of transmission to the next host in the lifecycle, and parasite-mediated competition, where a consequence of infection is an alteration in the symmetry of competition between hosts and their uninfected conspecifics, or with other species. Whilst there is a great deal of existing knowledge on some of these consequences, there also remain some considerable knowledge gaps. This research covered the role of parasite exposure and water temperature on infection consequences, the foraging responses of fishes to intermediate hosts of the fish parasite Pomphorhynchus laevis that has an indigenous and non-indigenous range in Great Britain, the ecological consequences of this parasite for some freshwater fishes across these ranges, the issue of ‘enemy release’ and ‘parasite acquisition’ in introduced freshwater fishes, and the ecological consequences of infection by some native parasites for native freshwater fish. When the freshwater fish chub (Squalius cephalus) was exposed to different levels of intermediate hosts (Gammarus pulex) of P. laevis under two water temperature treatments, ambient and warmed, it revealed this interaction had considerable consequences for both parasite prevalence and the infection parameters. Whilst parasite prevalence was substantially higher at the elevated temperature, where infections did develop at lower temperatures, they were associated with fewer but larger parasites resulting in significantly higher parasite burdens, indicating complex consequences for host-parasite relationships under conditions of warming. Studies into parasite manipulation have frequently used the P. laevis: G. pulex parasite-intermediate host system for investigating how infections can result in behavioural modifications to the host that then results in their elevated risk of being predated by a fish. Here, comparative behavioural functional response experiments were used to test differences in the consumption rates of three fishes exposed to either uninfected or infected G. pulex, testing the hypothesis that the consumption rate of infected G. pulex would be significantly higher. The Type II functional response curves indicated that the results of the experiments were contrary to this hypothesis, with subsequent behavioural and foraging experiments also supporting these results. These counter-intuitive outcomes were also contrary to most other studies that suggested a parasite would manipulate its intermediate host in a way that promotes its transmission to a final host and facilitating the continuation of its life cycle. The reasons for these outputs were discussed as likely to relate to different selection pressures in this host-parasite system, given this is a generalist parasite with a wide range of potential fish final hosts. This was revealed by studies on this parasite from four fish species from five rivers that demonstrated high parasite prevalence in all species studied and suggested that small-bodied fishes, such as bullhead Cottus gobio, might play important roles in the P. laevis lifecycle. These prevalences, and the pathological consequences of the P. laevis infections, were also consistent across their indigenous and non-indigenous range, suggesting parasite origin had minimal consequences on their virulence and on the susceptibility of hosts to infection. That parasite origin often has minimal ecological consequences for their ecological impacts was reinforced by work on the ‘enemy release hypothesis’ in non-native fish in England and Wales. This revealed very few non-native parasites had been introduced with their non-native fish hosts. Those that had been introduced tended to be specialist parasites with direct lifecycles that had little opportunity to be transmitted to native fishes. Instead, the acquisition of native parasites by the non-native fishes was frequently observed, leading to potential concerns these fish would act as reservoir hosts and spill-back the parasites to the native fishes. Given the low probability of parasite introduction, the ecological consequences of three native parasites with complex lifecycles were then tested on three native fishes, and revealed consistent patterns of trophic niche divergence between infected and uninfected population sub-groups. Whilst the actual mechanism underpinning this, such as parasite-mediated competition, could not be tested, these results did reveal that the consequences of infection can be far-reaching for hosts and can be measured through a variety of methodologies. In summary, the research provided some comprehensive insights into many aspects of the pathological and ecological consequences of infection for some freshwater fishes from native/ non-native and indigenous/ non-indigenous parasites. In doing so, it has raised a series of new questions and hypotheses for further investigation, with the host-parasite systems used here capable of answering these.

A checklist of parasites of freshwater fish in the UK is an important source of information concerning hosts and their distribution for all aspects of scientific research. An interactive, electronic, web-based databse, Aquatic Parasite Information has been designed, incorporating all freshwater and brackish species of fish, parasites, taxonomy, synonyms, authors and associated hosts, together with records for their distribution. One of the key features of Aquatic Parasite Information is this checklist can be updated. Interrogation of Aquatic Parastie Information has revealed that some parasites of freshwater and brackish species of fish, such as the unicellular groups or those metzoans that are difficult to identify using morphological characters, are under reported. Aquatic Parasite Information identified the monogenean family Dactylogyridae and the cestodes infecting UK freshwater fish as under-represented groups, owing to the difficulties identifying them morphologically. Both the Dactylogyridae and cestodes have implications for pathology, outbreaks of disease and morbidity in freshwater fish in the UK, therefore accurate identification is critical. Studies were undertaken using both standard morphological techniques of histology and molecular techniques to identify dactylogyrid species and tapeworms commonly found parasitizing fish in the UK. Morphological studies demonstrated that histological processes could lead to distortion of the specimins and permanent mounting may affect the orientation which may obscure vital characteristics. Moleculr techniques were successfully employed using ITS1 for the Dactylogyridae and cox1 and r28s for the cestodes, to demonstrate genetic variability for the interspecific identification of species. Histology, scanning electron microscopy and molecular techniques have also identified an Atractolytocestus sp. tapeworm, parasitizing carp in the UK, as a potentially new species. Analysis of parasite records extracted from Aquatic Parasite Information has implicated freshwater fishery management policies as impacting on the dissemination and distribution of parasites, resulting in the spread of some species and decline of others.

Fewer than 200 fish species are found in freshwater habitats in Australia, of which 144 are confined exclusively to freshwater. At least 22 species of exotic freshwater fish have been introduced into Australia, and 19 of these have established self-sustaining populations. However, the parasite fauna of both native and exotic freshwater fishes in Australia is poorly known. This is particularly the case in the south-west of Western Australia, where there have been no previous comprehensive studies of the parasites of 14 native species and nine or more exotic species of fish found in freshwater habitats. This study represents a survey of the parasites of freshwater fishes in the South West Coast Drainage Division and reports 44 putative species of parasites in 1429 individual fishes of 18 different species (12 native and six exotic) from 29 locations. Parasites were found in 327 (22.88%) fishes, and of the infected fishes, 200 (61.16%) were infected with only one species of parasite and 127 (38.84%) were infected with two or more species of parasites. For helminth and arthropod parasites, which were more comprehensively surveyed than protozoan and myxozoans, I found 37 species compared to 77 species found in a recent study of fishes from the East Coast Drainage Division. The present study demonstrated that parasitic infection was significantly more common in native fish species (mean prevalence of infection with any species of parasite = 0.36 ± 0.09) than in exotic fish species (0.01 ± 0.12). Parasites were found in all native fish species, but in only two exotic fish species that were examined. Parasite regional and component community diversity were estimated by species richness (the number of species, S) and by an index of taxonomic diversity (HT). Both parasite species richness and parasite taxonomic diversity were significantly greater in native fish species (mean S = 10.5 ± 2.3; mean HT = 1.19 ± 0.14) than in exotic fish species (mean S = 1.6 ± 3.3; mean HT = 0.27 ± 0.20). These relationships were consistent over all geographic locations that were sampled. The reduced parasite load of exotic species compared to native species has been previous reported across a wide range of taxa. It is thought to arise partly because founding populations of hosts have a low probability of harbouring the species’ total parasite fauna, and partly because parasites that infect introduced exotic species may not be able to maintain their life cycle in the new environment. It has been suggested that a reduced parasite load increases the competitive ability of exotic species compared to native species (the parasite release hypothesis) and this may partly explain the abundance and apparent competitive success of exotic over native species of freshwater fish in the South West Coast Drainage Division. For native species of fish, there were major differences among species in both prevalence of parasitic infection and parasite community diversity, but this variation was not related to fish size, whether the fish were primarily freshwater or primarily estuarine, or whether they were primarily demersal or pelagic. In this study, I report two new parasites in south western Australian waters. Both are copepod parasites; Lernaea cyprinacea and a new species of Dermoergasilus. The Dermoergasilus appears to be native to the south-west of Western Australia and has been described as Dermoergasilus westernensis. It differs from previously described species in the genus principally by the armature of the legs. This new species was found on the gills of freshwater cobbler, Tandanus bostocki and western minnow, Galaxias occidentalis in two different river systems. Lernaea cyprinacea is an introduced parasitic copepod found on the skin and gills of freshwater fishes in many areas of the world. The parasite has not previously been reported in Western Australia. We found infestations of L. cyprinacea on four native fish species (G. occidentalis; Edelia vittata; Bostockia porosa; T. bostocki) and three introduced fish species (Carassius auratus; Gambusia holbrooki; Phalloceros caudimaculatus) at two localities in the Canning River, in the south-west of Western Australia. The parasite has the potential to have serious pathogenic effects on native fish species, although it appears to be currently localised to a small section of the Canning River. Over all localities from which fishes were sampled in the present study, the proportion of native freshwater fishes with parasitic infections and the component community diversity of the parasite fauna of native fishes were both negatively related to habitat disturbance, in particular to a suite of factors (river regulation, loss of riparian vegetation, eutrophication and presence of exotic fish species) that indicate increased human usage of the river and surrounding environment. The reduced parasite load and diversity in native fishes from south-west rivers with greater human usage was due principally to the loss of a number of species of trematode, cestode and nematode endoparasites which use fishes as intermediate hosts. Other studies have also found that endoparasites with complex life cycles are most likely to be adversely affected by environmental changes, presumably because any environmental changes which impact on either free-living parasite stages or on any of the hosts in the complex train of parasite transmission will reduce parasite population size and may cause local extinction of the parasite species. The most heavily infected species of native freshwater fish in the South West Coast Drainage Division was T. bostocki with 96% of all individuals containing at least one species of parasite. As with most freshwater fishes of south-west Australia, T. bostocki is limited in its distribution to waterways with relatively low salinity. The degree of parasitism and histopathology of internal and external organs in T. bostocki from the Blackwood River was examined over a period of rapid, seasonal changes in water salinity. As salinity increased, the infracommunity richness and prevalence of ectoparasites on the skin of fishes decreased, while the infracommunity richness and prevalence of endoparasites increased. This was associated with a decrease in histopathological lesion scores in the skin and an increase in histopathological lesion scores in internal organs, particularly the intestine. I hypothesise that the seasonal spike in salinity had two contrasting effects on parasitic infections of T. bostocki. Firstly, it increased the mortality rate of parasites directly exposed to water, leading to a decrease in ectoparasitic infection and associated pathology. Secondly, it suppressed immune function in fish, leading to a decreased mortality rate of parasites not directly exposed to water and a more severe pathological response to endoparasitism.

L'exposition à des mélanges complexes de substances chimiques dans l'environnement peut avoir de graves conséquences pour les animaux sauvages. En milieux naturels, ces organismes sont également affectés par de nombreux autres facteurs de stress, y compris le parasitisme. L'exposition chimique et l'infection parasitaire ont toutes deux été bien étudiées et documentées, mais dans de nombreux cas, elles ont été étudiées indépendamment l'une de l'autre. Cependant, il est crucial d'évaluer simultanément leur effet combiné étant donné que certains parasites peuvent interférer sur le devenir des polluants chez leur hôte grâce à leur capacité de bioaccumulation. Sur la base d'une étude de terrain, complétée par une approche expérimentale, j'ai étudié le devenir et les conséquences de six familles de contaminants organiques, et certains de leurs métabolites, dans un système hôte-parasite composé d'un poisson d'eau douce et de son parasite intestinal, Pomphorhynchussp. issus de la Marne, en France. Plus précisément, j'ai cherché à savoir si ces vers intestinaux étaient capables d'accumuler des substances toxiques et comment leur présence affectait la réponse au stress de leur hôte exposé aux contaminants environnementaux, à différents échelles biologiques à l'aide de biomarqueurs généraux (télomère, lysozyme, peroxydase, antioxydants, dommages oxydatifs, microbiote intestinal, indices de Fulton et hépatosomatique). Nous avons démontré que ces vers intestinaux étaient capables d'accumuler des contaminants organiques, de détoxifier leurs hôtes et que leurs effets sur l’hôte basculaient de négatifs à positifs à mesure que l'exposition aux contaminants organiques augmentait
Exposure to complex mixtures of environmental contaminants may have severe consequences in free-living. Under natural conditions, organisms are also exposed to other stressors, including parasites. Both chemical exposure and parasite infection have been well studied and documented, but have in many cases been investigated independently from one another. However, it is crucial to simultaneously assess their combined effect on wild organisms given that parasites may interfere with the fate of environmental contaminants within their host through their bioaccumulation capacity. Based on a field study, completed by an experimental approach, I investigated the fate and consequences of six families of organic contaminants, and some of their metabolites, in a host-parasite system composed of a freshwater fish, the European chub, Squalius cephalus, and its intestinal parasite, Pomphorhynchus sp. from the Marne River, France. Specifically, I investigated whether intestinal parasites were able to accumulate toxicants and how their presence affected the stress response of their definitive host exposed to environmental contaminants, at different biological levels with the use of general biomarkers (telomere, lysozyme, peroxidase, antioxidants, oxidative damage, gut microbiota, Fulton’s index and hepatosomatic index). Importantly, we demonstrated that intestinal worms were able to accumulate organic contaminants, detoxify their hosts and that their effects on the host shifted from negative to positive as chemical exposure increased

The arrival of a non-native species to has the potential to shape native communities by influencing ecological interactions such as predation, foraging, competition and disease transfer. A designation of invasive is applied to an introduced non-native species that has the potential to threaten the continued wellbeing of a native species, pose a risk to human health or negatively impact the economy. The European bullhead (Cottus perifretum) is a freshwater benthic-dwelling fish that is native to England but considered invasive in Scotland. The species was first reported in Scotland in the 1950's and thriving populations are now established in the waters of the Clyde, Forth and Tweed catchments. Bullhead presence is thought to negatively impact native stone loach (Barbatula barbatula) and brown trout (Salmo trutta) parr, due to shared preferences for habitat and prey resources. They are also thought to prey upon the eggs of native Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout, two species that are of high commercial value in Scotland. In other areas of introduction, bullheads have been found to increase parasite infection rates in native fishes. The species therefore has the capacity to incite competition and alter parasite/host interactions in areas of introduction, to the potential detriment of native fauna and the Scottish economy. The European bullhead has been the subject of considerable taxonomic scrutiny in recent years, resulting in its reclassification as a species complex. What was once considered a single species with a distribution encompassing Europe, Russia, Asia and Scandinavia, has been shown to consist of at least 15 distinct species. Genetic examination of bullheads from England confirmed the presence of Cottus perifretum, not Cottus gobio as traditionally listed in all UK literature and legislation. Native English bullhead is currently protected under Annex II of the European Commission Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC, based on the historic assumption that the species present is C. gobio. Analysis of the taxonomic identity of Scottish bullheads has remained outstanding. In this study the invasive status of bullhead was explored by examining feeding and parasitological interactions between bullheads and native freshwater communities in south-east Scotland. An assessment of the feeding preferences of native brown trout and stone loach in the presence and absence of bullheads tested competition for prey resources. Parasitological interactions were investigated by examining the shared parasite fauna of bullheads and native fish and invertebrate species. Bullheads from the Clyde and Forth catchments were analysed to provide a molecular and morphological description of this introduced species. Phylogenetic analysis of COX1 sequences obtained from Scottish bullheads, and a pair-wise distance calculation based on a Kimura 2-parameter model, showed that samples clustered in a distinct clade with English C. perifretum. Significant intraspecific variation was reported in all morphological features examined, but pooled data also revealed a resemblance to the published description provided for C. perifretum. Scottish bullhead is therefore confirmed to be an introduced pocket of the native English species, which is considered under threat in some areas due to habitat modifications and population decline. Comparisons between the dietary compositions of bullheads, brown trout and stone loach showed that the prey selection of brown trout and stone loach varied in the sample locations that contained co-occuring bullheads, when compared to locations where bullheads were absent. However, no direct evidence of trophic competition between bullheads and either brown trout or stone loach was reported. An examination of parasitological interactions recovered eight parasite species from four distinct taxonomic groups in total, of which four species (Echinorhynchus truttae, Apatemon gracilis, Diplostomum volvens and Raphidascaris acus) were shared between bullheads and one or more native fishes. Echinorhynchus truttae was also shared with gammarid crustaceans. Bullhead presence was found to coincide with D. volvens infections in European minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) and a reduced prevalence of E. truttae in brown trout. Diplostomum volvens was only reported from minnow found in sites with bullheads, strongly suggesting bullheads were responsible for introducing this parasite to native minnows. Bullheads functioned as an alternative host for E. truttae, diluting brown trout parasite loads and reducing overall infection rates in sites where bullhead and brown trout co-exist. The findings reported for both feeding preference and parasite burdens in the presence and absence of bullheads suggest that bullheads do have some effect on the ecology of native species, but these are considered minimal and unlikely to impact the long-term survival of native species. Eradication of Scottish bullhead may contradict the conservation effort that is currently in place. Given the current lack of evidence to validate bullhead's invasive qualities and the recent confirmation of its genetic lineage, revisiting the designation of the bullhead as invasive is warranted. Active eradication should be treated with caution until a significant negative impact can be proven.

Argulus foliaceus (Linnaeus, 1758) is a member of the branchiuran family Argulidae and has a worldwide distribution, causing major economic impacts for freshwater aquacultured fish species worldwide. In the UK, it has economic impacts for both aquaculture and sports fishing industries. Previous studies observed haemorrhagic and inflammatory responses after Argulus infection, which has been taken to support the idea that the parasite secretes chemicals during the feeding process to assist with the ingestion of blood and epithelial tissue. The present study suggests that the blood-feeding ectoparasite of fish, A. foliaceus, may use similar mechanisms for evading host immune responses to those used by sea lice and other haematophagous arthropods. No previous studies have directly investigated the nature of the bioactive compounds / proteins, assumed to be released from these ectoparasites, and which are considered to contribute to feeding processes and host-parasite interactions during infection. Thus, the work described in this thesis was undertaken with the objective of identifying, describing and characterising the secretory components that have previously been suggested to be secreted from glandular cells associated with the feeding appendages of Argulus foliaceus. The current study applied transcriptomic and proteomic techniques in conjunction with in situ methods to investigate known immunomodulatory genes that may serve a function in parasite-host interactions. Overall, the findings of this project have generated considerable additional knowledge concerning the biology of Argulus spp. and have provided a list of proteins that may be used by the parasite to facilitate feeding processes by secreting these active molecules into the host and hence modulating their immune defence mechanisms. This information can be used as a baseline for developing freshwater lice control strategies to help prevent the spread of Argulosis in aquaculture by applying vaccination as means of control using the candidate antigens described in this study to specifically target Argulus spp. Knowledge generated by the work described in this thesis can also contribute to the development of drugs for controlling Argulus or functional components of feed that may serve to protect fish against this parasite. Furthermore, data from this thesis enhances the knowledge of the distribution of toxin/venom or venom-like substances in crustaceans and arthropods in general.

Die Arbeit verfolgt das Ziel, eine Übersicht über die bei verschiedenen Süßwasserfischarten festgestellten Myxosporidien zu geben. Aus Gewässern der DDR-Bezirke Potsdam, Berlin, Frankfurt (Oder), Cottbus und Dresden wurden 1.850 Fische (1.015 Karpfen, 258 Regenbogenforellen, 143 Silberkarpfen, 104 Plötzen sowie weitere 22 Fischarten in geringer Zahl untersucht. Es wurden 40 Myxosporidienarten folgender taxonomischer Gruppen nachgewiesen: Myxidiidae (7), Sphaerosporidae (6), Chloromyxidae (4) und Myxobolidae (23). In der Arbeit sind Maße, Fotos und Zeichnungen der Parasiten enthalten. Es wurden Angaben über die Taxonomie, Organspezifität, Saisondynamik, Epizootiologie und Auswirkungen auf die Fischgesundheit gemacht. Es erfolgte ein Vergleich mit früheren Arbeiten in der DDR auf diesem Gebiet. Der Artenbestand an Myxosporidien konnte um 39 Arten erweitert werden. Anhand faunistischer Arbeiten aus benachbarten Ländern wurden die Bedeutung und Perspektiven zum Auftreten von Myxosporidiosen in der DDR herausgestellt.
This work aims to give an overview about the detected Myxosporeans in different species of freshwater fishes. From inland waters of the GDR districts Potsdam, Berlin, Frankfurt (Oder), Cottbus and Dresden 1.850 fishes (1.015 carps, 258 rainbow trouts, 143 silver carps, 104 roach and more 22 Fish species in small numbers were studied. 40 Myxosporean species of following taxonomic groups were detected: Myxidiidae (7), Sphaerosporidae (6), Chloromyxidae (4) und Myxobolidae (23). In this work are presented dimensions, photos and drawings of the parasites. Details are given on taxonomy, organ specificity, season dynamics, epizootiology and the impact on fish health A comparison with previous work in the GDR on this subject was carried out. The species inventory on Myxosporidia could be extended to 39 species. Based on faunal work from neighboring countries the importance and prospects for occurrence of Myxosporidiosis in the GDR were highlighted.

Unionoid mussels are globally threatened and their conservation requires species-specific knowledge on their ecology and parasite-host interaction. Unio crassus is one of Europe’s most threatened unionoid species and has a temporary obligate parasitic life stage (glochidia) on fish. A lack of suitable hosts is probably a major limitation for mussel recruitment, but host species composition, suitability and availability in time and space have yet to be fully explored. This thesis examines different aspects of the host fish species, including their composition, suitability and ecological importance, in relation to U. crassus, using both field and laboratory studies. The effects of mussel and host density on mussel reproductive potential were considered, as were aspects of evolutionary adaptations between mussels and fish and how climate change may affect their interaction. The results show that U. crassus is a host generalist, parasitizing a variety of fish species. Host suitability and density, which varied among fish species and rivers, affected the level of glochidia encapsulation, hence mussel reproductive potential, more so than the density of mussels taking part in reproduction. Ecologically important hosts included both highly suitable primary hosts, and less suitable hosts that were highly abundant. Whether or not U. crassus has specific adaptations to its hosts to enhance juvenile transformation remains unclear. No distinct pattern of local adaptation was found, nor was there an effect of host fish presence on the timing of glochidia release by adult mussels. Instead, temperature played a major role, with results suggesting that changes in spring water temperature regimes can cause temporal and spatial mismatches in the mussel-host interaction. This thesis indicates that investigations of local mussel-host interactions help in identifying mechanisms important for unionoid conservation management and prioritization.
Många sötvattenmusslor har en komplex livscykel där larverna (glochidier) under sin utveckling till frilevande musslor parasiterar på gälarna hos lämpliga värdfiskar. Flera av våra musslor, såsom den tjockskaliga målarmusslan (Unio crassus), är globalt hotade och för att kunna bevara och förvalta dessa arter på bästa sätt behöver vi lära oss mer om deras ekologi och samspelet mellan musslan och dess värdfiskar. Avsaknaden av värdfiskar innebär förmodligen en stor begränsning för rekryteringen av juvenila musslor, men det finns trots detta en begränsad kunskap om hur artsammansättningen i fisksamhället och dess tillgänglighet påverkar musselpopulationer.  Min avhandling undersöker olika aspekter av interaktioner mellan U. crassus och dess värdfiskar, som hur värdfisksamhällen och fiskarters värdlämplighet påverkar musslans reproduktionspotential. Jag har även studerat hur tätheter av olika fiskarter och vuxna musslor påverkar rekryteringen, eventuella evolutionära anpassningar samt om en förhöjd temperatur skulle kunna påverka interaktionen mellan U. crassus och dess värdfiskar. Resultaten visar att U. crassus är en generalist som parasiterar på en mängd olika fiskarter. Jag fann dock en stor variation i dominerande fiskarter och lämpliga värdar mellan olika åar, vilket påverkade reproduktionspotentialen hos musslorna mer än vad tätheten vuxna musslor som deltog i reproduktionen gjorde. Som ekologiskt viktiga värdar fanns således både särskilt lämpliga, primära värdarter, men också mindre lämpliga arter som förekom i höga tätheter. Ingen tydlig lokal anpassning kunde observeras, och fiskens närvaro påverkade inte tidpunkten för när de vuxna musslorna släppte sina glochidielarver. Däremot fann jag att temperaturen spelade en viktig roll för musslans reproduktion, där ökad temperatur föreslås ha negativa effekter på interaktionen mellan musslan och dess värdfiskar. Avhandlingen visar på vikten av att studera interaktioner mellan den tjockskaliga målarmusslan och dess värdar på lokal skala för att bättre kunna identifiera och prioritera viktiga naturvårdsåtgärder.
UnioCrassusforLIFE (European LIFE+ project: LIFE10 NAT/SE/000046)

Orientador: Edson Aparecido Adriano
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia
Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-26T12:26:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Naldoni_Juliana_D.pdf: 10311500 bytes, checksum: a497c164e89d09cfdbe8ccfcf87ef274 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014
Resumo: Mixosporídeos são cosmopolitas e infectam peixes em diversas regiões do mundo. Atualmente são conhecidas cerca de 2.400 espécies, das quais a grande maioria é parasito de peixes, tanto de ambiente natural como de sistemas de criação, sendo algumas espécies responsáveis por altas taxas de mortalidade em várias partes do mundo. Este trabalho teve como objetivo o estudo da diversidade de mixosporídeos parasitos de Pseudoplatystoma corruscans (pintado), Salminus franciscanus (dourado) e Brycon orthotaenia (matrinxã) da bacia do rio são Francisco, município de Pirapora, MG, Brasil. Foram realizados estudos morfológicos, ultraestruturais, histotológicos e moleculares de cinco novas espécies de mixosporídeos, sendo uma do gênero Henneguya em pintado, duas do gênero Myxobolus infectando dourado e duas infectando matrinxã. Henneguya sp. n. 1 apresentou plasmódios brancos e alongados no tecido conjuntivo das brânquias de pintado. A análise ultraestrutual revelou a parede plasmodial com delicadas projeções em direção aos tecidos do hospedeiro e a presença de uma fina camada de material finamente granular isolando o parasito do contato com o tecido do hospedeiro. A análise histológica revelou que o desenvolvimento do plasmódio causou a compressão no tecido conjuntivo e epitelial, deformação dos filamentos e a fusão lamelar. A análise filogenética, baseada no gene 18S rDNA e utilizando somente espécies dos gêneros Henneguya e Myxobolus parasitos de siluriformes, revelou o agrupamento de acordo com a família dos peixes hospedeiros. Myxobolus sp. n. 1 apresentou plasmódios brancos e arredondados entre os raios da nadadeira de dourado. A análise ultraestrutural revelou uma camada de fibroblastos circundando o plasmódio, impedindo o contato com as células do hospedeiro. Myxobolus sp. n. 2 apresentou plasmódios brancos e arredondados no fígado de dourado. Myxobolus sp. n. 3 e Myxobolus sp. n. 4 apresentaram plasmódios brancos e arredondados, sendo que a primeira ocorreu no baço e a segunda no rim de matrinxã. A análise ultraestrutural de Myxobolus sp. n. 2, Myxobolus sp. n. 3 e Myxobolus sp. n. 4 revelou o contato direto entre a parede do plasmódio do parasito e o tecido dos hospedeiros. As paredes dos plasmódios das cinco espécies aqui estudadas foram compostas por membrana simples. O processo de esporogênese das cinco espécies foi assincrônico, com células germinativas e jovens estágios de desenvolvimento dos esporos ocorrendo na periferia do plasmódio e esporos imaturos e maduros foram observados na região central. A análise filogenética, baseado no gene 18S rDNA e usando somente espécies dos gêneros Henneguya e Myxobolus parasitos de peixes da América do Sul mais as quatro novas espécies de Myxobolus parasitas de briconídeos, mostrou a especificidade de hospedeiro e a afinidade de órgão/tecido, como um importante sinal evolutivo para Myxobolus/Henneguya
Abstract: Myxosporeans are cosmopolitan parasites and infect fish in various regions of the world. So far, are known about 2,400 species, of which the vast majority are parasites of fishes, from natural environment and fish farms, and some species responsible for high mortality rates in various parts of the world. This work aimed to study the diversity of myxosporeans of Pseudoplatystoma corruscans (pintado), Salminus franciscanus (dourado) and Brycon orthotaenia (matrinxã) from the São Francisco River, municipality of Pirapora, MG, Brazil. Morphological, ultrastructural, histological and molecular studies of five new species of myxosporeans were performed, being one species of the genus Henneguya infecting pintado, two of the genus Myxobolus infecting dourado and two infecting matrinxã. Henneguya sp. n. 1 had white and elongated plasmodia in the connective tissue of the gill filaments. The ultrastructural analysis revealed the plasmodial wall with delicate projections towards the tissues of the host, and the presence of a thin layer of fibrous material isolating the parasite of the contact with the host tissue. Histological analysis revealed that the development of the plasmodium caused compression of the connective and epithelial tissue, deformation of the filament and lamellar fusion. Phylogenetic analysis, based on 18S rDNA gene, and using only Henneguya and Myxobolus parasites of siluriformes revealed clustering according to the family of the host fish. Myxobolus sp. n. 1 had white and rounded plasmodia that developed between the fin rays of dourado. The ultrastructural analysis showed a fibroblast layer surrounding the plasmodium, preventing contact of the parasite with the host tissues. Myxobolus sp. n. 2 had white and rounded plasmodia that developed in the liver also of dourado. Myxobolus sp. n. 3 and Myxobolus sp. n. 4 infected matrinxã, being that the first had white and rounded plasmodia in the spleen and the second in the kidney. The ultrastructural analyses of Myxobolus sp. n. 2, Myxobolus sp. n. 3 and Myxobolus sp. n. 4 revealed direct contact between the plasmodial wall and the host tissue. The plasmodial wall of the five myxosporeans species subject of this study was composed by single membrane. The process of sporogenesis in these five species was asynchronous, with germ cells and young development stages of spores occurring in the periphery of the plasmodia and immature and mature spores in the central region. Phylogenetic analysis based on 18S rDNA gene and using only Henneguya and Myxobolus parasites of fish from South America plus the four new Myxobolus species parasites of bryconids, shows host specificity and organs/tissue affinity as important evolutionary signs to Myxobolus/Henneguya
Doutorado
Parasitologia
Doutora em Parasitologia

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T20:15:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2006-Rodney Kozlowiski de Azevedo.pdf: 3055958 bytes, checksum: 2e496a089e21831ca514683a7278eb94 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-03-06
Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior
Between December 2004 to November 2005, were collected 50 specimens of Geophagus brasiliensis (Quoy e Gaimard, 1824) and 35 specimens of Astronotus ocellatus (Cope, 1872) from the River Guandu, near to the Station of Treatment of water (ETA) (22?48'32"S, 43?37'35"W), State of Rio de Janeiro, for the study of their communities of metazoan parasites. In G. brasiliensis, nine species of metazoan parasites were collected: 3 digeneans, 1 nematode, 2 hirudineans, 2 acantocephalans and 1 gloquidian. Most of parasite specimens collected were digeneans (95.9 %), being Posthodiplostomum macrocotyle Dubois, 1937 (metacercariae) founded in the eyes the more prevalent species (88.0%) and with highest mean intensity value (12.4), followed for the metacercariae of Austrodiplostomum compactum (Lutz, 1928) (metacercariae) and the hirudinean of family Glossiphoniidae showed prevalence of 14.0% and 10.0% respectively. In A. ocellatus, six species of metazoan parasites were collected: 1 monogenean, 1 nematode, 1 hirudinean, 1 acantocephalan, 1 crustacean, and 1 gloquidian. Most of parasite specimens collected were monogenetic (91.9 %), being Gussevia sp. founded in the gills the more prevalent species (71.4%) and with highest mean intensity value (17.6), followed for the acanthochepalan Polymorphus sp. showed prevalence of 17.1%. The parasite species of G. brasiliensis and A. ocellatus showed the typical aggregated pattern of distribution.
Entre os meses de dezembro de 2004 ? novembro de 2005 foram coletados 50 esp?cimes de Geophagus brasiliensis (Quoy e Gaimard, 1824) e 35 esp?cimes de Astronotus ocellatus (Cope, 1872) provenientes do Rio Guandu, pr?ximo ? barragem da Esta??o de tratamento de ?gua (ETA) (22?48 32 S, 43?37 35 O), Estado do Rio de Janeiro, para o estudo de suas comunidades de metazo?rios parasitos. Em G. brasiliensis foram encontradas nove esp?cies de metazo?rios parasitos: 3 digen?ticos, 1 nemat?ide, 2 hirud?neos, 2 acantoc?falos e 1 larva gloqu?dia. A maioria dos esp?cimes de parasitos coletados foram digen?ticos (95,9%), sendo Posthodiplostomum macrocotyle Dubois, 1937 (metacerc?ria) a esp?cie mais prevalente (88,0%) e com a maior intensidade m?dia (12,4) sendo a maioria dos esp?cimes encontrados parasitando os olhos, seguido pelo digen?tico Austrodiplostomum compactum (Lutz, 1928) (metacerc?ria) e pelo hirud?neo da fam?lia Glossiphoniidae, que apresentaram preval?ncias de 14,0% e 10,0% respectivamente. Em A. ocellatus foram encontradas seis esp?cies de metazo?rios parasitos: 1 monogen?tico, 1 nemat?ide, 1 hirud?neo, 1 acantoc?falo, 1 crust?ceo e 1 larva gloqu?dia. A maioria dos esp?cimes de parasitos coletados foram monogen?ticos (91.9%), sendo Gussevia sp. a esp?cie mais prevalente (71,4%) e com a maior intensidade m?dia (17,6) sendo todos os esp?cimes encontrados parasitando as br?nquias, seguido pelo acantoc?falo Polymorphus sp. que apresentou uma preval?ncia de 17,1%. Os parasitos encontrados em G. brasiliensis e A. ocellatus apresentaram o t?pico padr?o de distribui??o agregado.

M.Sc.
The Bushveld smallscale yellowfish, Labeobarbus polylepis (Boulenger, 1907), is an ecologically, socially and economically important species. These indigenous freshwater fish are found above an altitude of 600m, and occur in the Inkomati and Phongolo River Systems and the southern tributaries of the Limpopo River System. In the past, it was suspected that morphological differences exist between the different L. polylepis populations, due to the occurrence of the rubberlip formation of individuals from the Elands River. Specimens of five L. polylepis populations were collected from the Phongolo, Assegaai, Elands and Komati rivers and Ngodwana Dam, Mpumalanga, South Africa. A L. natalensis population was collected from the Umvoti River and used as an out-group. Nine meristic counts and 46 morphometric measurements were taken. The measurements were changed into percentage ratios based on the fork length of each individual. The data was statically analysed and includes Multidimensional scaling techniques (MSD’s) and Principle Component Analysis (PCA’s). Statistical analysis split the five populations into three groups. The one group consists of fish from the Phongolo and Assegaai rivers, the second group consists of fish from the Elands River and Ngodwana Dam and the third group is mainly Komati River fish. The third group is the only group that does not overlap with any other group. There were morphological differences between the groups, but they were not significant. The L. natalensis population is morphologically similar to L. polylepis populations obtained from the Phongolo and Assegaai rivers. Twenty enzyme coding loci in two L. polylepis populations from the Phongolo and Elands rivers were analysed by horizontal starch gel-electrophoresis. Electrophoretic analysis of heart, muscle and liver tissue samples revealed genetic variation at 15% (Elands River) and 35% (Phongolo River) of the protein coding loci studied. Average heterozygosity values based on Hardy-Weinberg expectation were 0.019 (Elands River) and 0.059 (Phongolo River), with a genetic distance value of 0.004 between these populations.

Freshwater fish have been model hosts in the study of the community and evolutionary ecology of parasites for decades. Most studies have dealt only with adult parasites, although larval stages often dominate fish parasite communities. In addition, few studies include replicates of both host species and sampling localities. For this thesis, both larval and adult parasites were surveyed in six fish species ( Notemigonus crysoleucas, Pimephales notatus, Perca flavescens, Etheostoma nigrum, Lepomis gibbosus, Ambloplites rupestris ) collected from six localities in the St. Lawrence River and molecular techniques were used to distinguish species of strigeid metacercariae (Platyhelminthes: Trematoda). Novel primers were developed to sequence the barcode region of the cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene and sequences of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of ribosomal DNA were also obtained. Both markers indicated unexpectedly high numbers of species in strigeid metacercariae, but resolution between species was clearer with COI than with ITS sequences. Strigeid species inhabiting the lens of the eye of fish were significantly less host specific than species inhabiting other tissues, possibly due to limited immune activity in the lens. Patterns of host specificity were consistent across the separate fish communities, which included fish species that are ecologically distinctive but closely related. Together, these findings suggest that physiological incompatibility between host and parasite is a more important determinant of host specificity than the ecological availability of host species to parasites in strigeid metacercariae. The high host specificity of most strigeid species had important effects on the parasite communities as a whole. Closely related fish species showed a significant tendency to have similar parasite communities that was much stronger than the tendency of parasite communities in spatially proximate fish to be similar. Geographic distance was strongly associated with parasite community similarity only when comparisons were limited to fish of the same species. Host taxonomy explained much more structure in parasite communities than spatial categories, suggesting that host phylogeny is more important than habitat in determining parasite community composition and abundance.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Zoology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2020
The present study was carried out in the Kwena Dam, with the aim of determining selected water quality parameters, parasite diversity and condition factor (K) of Clarias gariepinus (sharptooth catfish), Cyprinus carpio (common carp) and Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia). This study was conducted in autumn (April 2016), winter (July 2016), spring (October 2016) and summer (February 2017). The present study was the first to investigate the parasite composition of these three fish species in the Kwena Dam. A total number of 26 Clarias gariepinus, 21 Cyprinus carpio and 57 O. mossambicus specimens were collected using gill nets of different mesh sizes (30 mm – 120 mm). Each fish was weighed, measured and euthanised by severing the spinal cord. Mucus smears from the skin, fins and gills were examined for ectoparasites using a stereo-microscope. The fish were then dissected and all organs examined for endoparasites. All parasites were fixed and preserved according to standard methods for each parasite group. In situ water parameters were determined using a handheld multi-parameter instrument for each sampling season. In addition, water samples were collected seasonally and sent to an accredited laboratory where they were analysed for selected metals and nutrients. Water quality parameters and the presence of metals in water are of importance in determining the water quality of an aquatic environment. Most water quality parameters were within the Target Water Quality Range (TWQR) for aquatic ecosystems. Aluminium, selenium and zinc had concentrations above the TWQR for aquatic ecosystems. Nutrient concentrations were within the TQWR during all sampling seasons. The water quality did not differ significantly between seasons during the present study. Four parasite groups were reported infecting Cyprinus carpio and these included Monogenea (Dactylogyrus extensus and Dactylogyrus minutus), Digenea (Diplostomum sp.), Cestoda (Atractolytocestus huronensis), Branchiura (Argulus japonicus) and Copepoda (Neoergasilus japonicus). Parasites collected from Clarias gariepinus belonged to four groups, namely Protozoa (Trypanosoma sp.), Monogenea (Quadriacanthus sp. and Gyrodactylus sp.), Nematoda (Paracamallanus cyathopharynx and Contracaecum sp.) and Branchiura (Dolops ranarum). Parasites collected from O. mossambicus belonged to five groups, namely Monogenea (Cichlidogyrus halli, Cichlidogyrus sclerosus, Cichlidogyrus tilapiae and Enterogyrus conoratus), Nematoda (Contracaecum sp.), Cestoda (Neogryporhynchus sp.), Acanthocephala (Acanthogyrus tilapiae) and Branchiura (Dolops ranarum). iv The number of parasite species for the four seasons were as follows: summer (13) > autumn and winter (12) > spring (11). From the Shannon-Wiener index results, O. mossambicus had a higher parasite diversity than Clarias gariepinus and Cyprinus carpio. The Parasite Index (IP) and Inverted Parasite Index (IPI) of the three fish species indicated that the water from the dam is not polluted. The condition factor (K) for all fish species indicated that fish collected from the dam during all sampling seasons were in a good condition and parasite load had little effect on K for all fish species. The use of PI and IPI in conjunction with the fish K can be regarded as a useful tool in freshwater and fish health monitoring. The present results report new geographical records of the parasites of Clarias gariepinus, Cyprinus carpio and Oreochromis mossambicus. Since no parasitological research was done before the present study at the Kwena Dam, the results of the present study form baseline data for future parasitology studies and can consequently be useful in the management and conservation of the Kwena Dam.
DSI–NRF SARChI Chair (Ecosystem Health) of the University of Limpopo and the Limpopo Department of Economic Development and Tourism (LEDET)