Journal articles on the topic 'Freud, Lucian'

Este artigo tem como ponto de partida o exemplo da relação espelhada entre um livro e uma pintura de mesmo nome: o retrato que Lucian Freud fez do crítico de arte Martin Gayford e o diário que esse crítico escreveu sobre seu retratista, ambas as obras chamadas Homem com cachecol azul. A partir do exemplo, discuto a metáfora do espelho para caracterizar a arte, recorrendo para isso à teoria da representação artísticas elaborada pelo filósofo norte-americano Arthur Danto no artigo “O mundo da arte”, de 1964, e no primeiro capítulo do livro A transfiguração do lugar-comum, de 1981. Recorro, por fim, a dois exemplos artísticos de espelhamento na representação analisados por Danto em O abuso da beleza, de 2003, um quadro holandês do século dezessete e um poema de Rainer Maria Rilke.

The article is the first to consider the impact of the early work of Chaim Soutine, produced in the South of France around 1920, on a circle of painters working in Britain some 30 years later, notably Francis Bacon, Lucian Freud, Frank Auerbach and Leon Kossoff, as well as on the writer David Sylvester who promoted both their work and the key French artists such as Alberto Giacometti and Soutine who seemed to epitomise the new ‘existentialist’ climate. After the war Soutine became a cult figure in London, as he did in contemporary Paris and New York. He embodied the idea of the ‘tragic’ artist in his still-life imagery of flayed animals, his uncompromising, heavily-laden paint surfaces, and in his identity as a Jew who had died in 1943, an indirect victim of the Nazi occupation of France. I try to identify which works in particular were known to the English artists, themselves all Jewish except for Bacon, and to describe the very different ways in which they reacted to Soutine's art and adapted its lessons to their own artistic purposes.

Abstract This article is a response by the author to the contributions to the Historical Materialism symposium on Allegory and Ideology. The reply is framed in terms of the different theoretical strategies through which the articulation of ‘Marx’ and ‘Freud’ has been carried out, namely the precarious syntheses of Freudo-Marxism, the homological method pioneered by Lucien Goldmann, and the theory of allegorical levels and transcoding explored in Allegory and Ideology. It critically engages with the openings and challenges posed by the various contributions to the symposium, focusing in particular on matters of periodisation, and concluding with a reflection on how a theory of allegorical levels can be complemented by a materialist understanding of the ‘category’.

Libro de denso contenido, pero de estilo accesible al lector medianamente informado; obra de pequeño formato y dedicada a temas de amplio alcance: esas son apreciaciones que surgen tras la lectura de Psicología moderna e postmodema.Su autor, Luciano Mecacci, poco conocido en el mundo de habla hispana, es probablemente el más prolífico autor de la psicología italianade nuestros días. Su último libro - posterior al que comentamos,dedicado a los "desastres del psicoanálisis"- , es una ácida pero muybien fundamentada crítica a las ideas de Freud como práctica psicoterapéutica

Tanto l’ascesa al monte quanto il viaggio via treno possono assumere nella letteratura contemporanea una valenza purgatoriale. La montagna in particolare riveste un duplice valore: è il luogo dell’affermazione e del perfezionamento del singolo, e insieme apre un passaggio verso la dimensione dell’eternità, dell’essenza. Similmente il viaggio ferroviario – ideale prosecutore del viaggio per mare – costituisce sia uno strumento di esplorazione, sia una via di collegamento con l’oltremondo. Entrambi dunque assommano in sé quelle che Freud chiama pulsione di vita e pulsione di morte, la prima intesa come istanza espansiva, la seconda come ritorno all’unità indifferenziata.

flectere si nequeo superos, Acheronta mouebo.(Aen. 7.312)If I cannot bend the gods above, it is Acheron I shall move.So Juno claims, famously, expressing her determination to thwart the newlyforged alliance between Aeneas and the Italians, and setting in motion (through the agency of Allecto) the violence and passion that fuels the ‘Iliadic’ Aeneid—the ‘Energy of Hell’, as Philip Hardie calls it—energy necessary to sustain the momentum of a long narrative poem, a demonic ‘burst of power’ imitated by Vergil's successors—Lucan, Silius, and especially Statius, who opens the Thebaid with an embittered Oedipus summoning the dark forces of the underworld embodied in the Fury Tisiphone (Theb. 1.48ff.). Vergil's hexameter might also serve as a motto for Ramus to the degree that the journal has mounted a radical—and oedipal—critique over the last quarter century, assaulting the stuffy status quo in classical studies, finding a place ‘on the shelves of all the young and cool’, although those sons (and daughters), now a generation older, are themselves the new fathers, the new superi. Juno's claim so impressed Freud that he placed it on the title page of his magnum opus—The Interpretation of Dreams—anticipating psychoanalysis' assault on Western subjectivity and describing Freud's own exclusion from the academy, his circuitous ‘professional journey’. Years later Freud would maintain that the hexameter line provides a portrait of ‘repressed instinctual impulses’, suggesting that, long before the twentieth century, Vergil and his epic successors understood the project of psychoanalysis. ‘The poets and philosophers,’ Freud was fond of saying, ‘discovered the unconscious before I did.’

<p>O texto comenta os conceitos de <em>não familiar </em>ou <em>estranho </em>tratados por Freud em <em>Das Unheimliche </em>(1919), associando-os ao hábito e às rupturas do hábito para especificar a diferença da sua ocorrência na experiência individual, em que é significante de uma angústia, e na ficção, em que é figuração intencional. Distinguindo a figuração do não familiar na ficção antiga e na ficção moderna, propõe que na ficção antiga, como a de Luciano de Samósata, o não familiar é classificado platônica e aristotelicamente como fantástico, e na ficção moderna, como a de Beckett, como efeito da crítica e destruição dos regimes de verdade e verossimilhança que fundam a representação.</p>

El artículo se basa en una clínica analítica con adolescentes que traen películas a las sesiones. Luego, se toman los temas de la memoria y del recuerdo en sus aspectos freudianos clásicos; tanto como los lazos y las distancias que existen entre Freud, el cine y el psicoanálisis. La retórica (en el sentido de Yates y de Arasse) está articulada con la figuración para proponer así una aproximación clásica en el campo estructuralista (Barthes, Foucault) entre discurso y cine. El autor propone entonces una articulación específica entre retórica, estética y compromiso político en el cine. Los recursos del análisis estructural de los relatos conducen a proponer un modelo de las fórmulas narrativas del tema de las luchas. Finalmente, se propone una apertura al evocar la expresión de ojo de la cámara y ligándola al concepto de análisis fílmico de la mirada a la cámara (Vernet) para proponer en fin la concepción de mirada a través de la cámara. Esta sería una modalidad original, específica de los procesos adolescentes, dado que el adolescente se expone a la imagen que “lo mira” y, fundamentalmente, el artículo indica que: Esta mirada a través de la cámara está anudada a la transferencia.

Chromatin configuration in the germinal vesicle (GV) undergoes dynamic changes during oocyte growth, and the progressive chromatin condensation has been related to the acquisition of embryonic developmental potential. However, little is known about the mechanisms that regulate chromatin remodeling. In immature mouse oocytes, chromatin condensation and redistribution around the nucleolus are associated with transcriptional repression in both in vivo-derived and in vitro-cultured oocytes in the presence of an intact cumulus oophorus (de la Fuente et al. 2001 Dev. Biol. 229, 224). It is widely accepted that oocyte communication with the somatic cell compartment is essential for both oocyte growth and acquisition of meiotic competence (Eppig et al. 1997 Hum. Reprod. 12, 127). In particular, cumulus cells play an active role in modulating the levels of transcription in the nucleoplasm and in perinuclear domains as well as in chromatin configuration of GV stage oocytes. In cattle, a heterogeneous population of cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) has been found after isolation from the follicle, and this is characterized by a different functional degree of gap junction-mediated communication (Luciano et al. 2004 Biol. Reprod. 70, 465). This study was aimed at investigating the possible correlation between the chromatin configuration of immature bovine oocytes and the status of communication between the oocyte and cumulus cells, and oocyte developmental competence. In the first experiment, 138 COCs, isolated from follicles 2–6 mm in diameter, were injected with a 3% solution of Lucifer Yellow to assess the communication status between oocytes and cumulus cells. Successively, COCs were freed of cells, and denuded oocytes (DOs) were stained with Hoechst 33342 to determine the chromatin configuration. In a second experiment, 330 COCs were denuded and stained with Hoechst 33342 in order to assess chromatin configuration and then matured in vitro according to their GV stage. After IVM, DOs were fertilized, and presumptive zygotes were cultured for 7 days at which time blastocyst rate was assessed. Data were analyzed by ANOVA and Fisher's PLSD test. Three stages of GV oocytes were identified: GVI, with filamentous chromatin distributed in the nucleoplasm; GVII, with chromatin condensed into thick clumps; and GVIII, with chromatin condensed into a single clump. The GVIII stage showed a lower proportion of functional open communication than the GVI and GVII groups (8.5 vs. 45.7 and 46.1, respectively, P < 0.05). However, when compared with each other, the GVI stage oocytes showed lower embryonic developmental competence (12.9 in GVI vs. 22.1 and 24.2 in GVII and GVIII, respectively, P < 0.05). Our findings indicate that the status of communication between oocytes and cumulus cells could be related to the chromatin organization in immature bovine oocytes. A direct correlation between the communications grade, the modulation of oocyte transcriptional activity, and the acquisition of oocyte developmental competence remain to be confirmed. This work was supported by a 2003 UniMi Grant.

Artykuł poświęcony jest analizie doświadczenia pasywności w wybranych dziełach Luciana Freuda. Malarz przedstawia na swych obrazach postacie nagich ludzi oraz psów rasy whippet pogrążonych we śnie lub bezruchu. Ludzka nagość wydaje się bezwstydna, nieomal zwierzęca – jednocześnie jaskrawo kontrastuje ze swobodnymi pozami chartów. Freud twierdził, że w swych dziełach chce uchwycić zwierzęcość człowieka, przedstawić jego cielesność, nagość. W jego dziełach daje się uchwycić interesujące zaburzenia tradycyjnych dychotomii człowiek-zwierzę, kultura-natura. Pies i człowiek tworzą osobliwą wspólnotę pasywności, opartą na wspólnym bezruchu, wycofaniu się ze świata.

El siguiente artículo profundiza en el trabajo de la pintora bosnio-canadiense Maya Kulenovic. A partir de su estética tenebrista, ambigua asimismo, con lazos remitentes tanto a El Fayum como a Caravaggio, tanto a Carrière como a Lucien Freud, indagaremos en el sentido existencial denotado en su serie Faces, poniéndola en relación con aspectos de la cosmovisión contemporánea.

A proposta desta comunicação é apontar as relações entre cinema, psicanálise e literatura partindo da análise de dois filmes:Blade Runner e Inteligência Artificial. O enlace se dá com a literatura de ficção de Philip K. Dick com Do androids dream of eletric sheep? e de Brian Aldiss com Supertoys last all summer long and other stories. Para estudo, a psicanálise de Freud com A interpretação dos sonhos e de Lacan com estudos acerca do desejo. Para análise, a literatura de ficção científica de Carl Freedman em Critical theory and science fiction. Apontamos para os sintomas da cultura contemporânea divisados em Lucia Santaella, O corpo como sintoma da cultura, e Yuval Harari com Sapiene Homo deusque investigam também o desejo humano para a deificação, a felicidade e a imortalidade. Exatamente o que as obras e filmes aqui apresentados mostrarão: o ser humano fabrica bonecos semelhantes a si mesmo na busca de eternizar sua imagem como os replicantes ou como a inocência do menino robô de Inteligência Artificial. Ao fim e ao cabo, a busca do desejo. Do desejo de ao menos continuar sonhando.

Er(r)go..., czas na lewacką sałatę. Przede wszystkim sprawa zwierzęca, sprawa poważna: zwierzobójstwo, krzywda zwierząt i nasze moralne tchórzostwo, zinstytucjonalizowane zarzynanie, chów wertykalny, hodowla intensywna, żywe nie-życie zwierząt, hekatomba ptaków, w Azji kury palone na stosie, festiwale psiego mięsa w Chinach, deanimalizacja zwierząt i ontologiczna degradacja bytów zwierzęcych, zwierzęcy lumpenproletariat. W tle historyczny marsz zwykłych ludzi po zwierzęce białko i zwierzęta idące na rzeź, wszyscy równym krokiem. A przecież mięso zachowuje całe cierpienie. Zwierzęta zadają nam pytania: Co jemy, gdy je jemy – Körper czy Leib? A zwierzęta pozaludzkie to „nieosobowe podmioty prawne” czy „rzeczy ruchome”? Ktoś się waha: może tofucznica zamiast jajecznicy? I różne próby odpowiedzi: wegetarianizm, semiwegetarianizm, fleksitarianizm, abolicjonizm, redukcjonizm, ingredientyzm, reduktarianizm, protopijny model postępu moralnego, wystopia, karnizm i neokarnizm, weganizm, cheating vegetarianism, lazy veganism, weganizm tożsamościowy, rewizyjny weganizm polityczny, weganizm bojkotowy, weganizm etyczny, czarny weganizm sióstr Ko, weganizm naiwny i w końcu, a jakże by inaczej, post-weganizm. Wszystko to w ogniu walki: z szowinizmem gatunkowym, z gatunkizmem, z niewolnictwem żywnościowym, z seksizmem, rasizmem, homofobią i klasizmem. Ktoś stwierdza: potrzebna filozofia czująca świat zamiast hermetycznej gadaniny. I oto nowe jest pytanie: bić albo nie bić? Między tekstami i w nich dzieją się przeróżne rzeczy. Pięknoduchy estetyzują życie, biała klasa średnia zawłaszcza przestrzeń etycznego, w praktykach wegańskich uwidaczniają się etnocentryczne epistemologie ignorancji, mnożą się wege fora, weganie demonstrują moralną wyższość wobec nie-wegan, Realne staje się tym, co zawsze wraca do tego samego miejsca, „ale” dochodzi do głosu, podmiot zmaga się z dosłownością, wiersz walczy z infekcją myślenia zadaniowego, kobiety mieszkające bez partnera jedzą mniej mięsa, wyobraźnia somatyczna zwraca się ku temu, co gorące i suche, zwierzęta, litując się nad nieporadnością człowieka, oddają mu swoje ciało na pokarm, krowy bogatych zjadają chleb biednych, liczba osób niejedzących mięsa wzrasta, ale szympansy wolą owoce z robakiem, zaś w retoryce wegańskiej dominuje podejście postrasowe. Tymczasem Lacan zakazuje czegoś, co i tak jest niemożliwe, Freud dzieli bliźniego na dwie części, Henry Ford inspiruje się sposobem funkcjonowania rzeźni, Deleuze proponuje ideę mięsa uniwersalnego, Marvin Harris walczy o białko, Central Market, parodia wiejskiego targowiska, składa mitologiczną obietnicę, a jeden poeta przygląda się światu toczonemu przez klisze językowe i przebija się przez prozaiczność plastiku, ale ten nie daje się składni. Cotzee w Texasie jeździ na rowerze bez sandałów, nie uprawia socjalizmu ani wolnej miłości, nie bierze zimnych pryszniców i nie je mięsa, nawet żeberek i kurczaka. Ale pyta: cztery łapy z jednego niedźwiedzia: a co z resztą zwierza? I jeszcze: co myśli wół zaliczony bez żadnej konsultacji z nim do gatunku niższego niż niedźwiedź? Jak Hala Mięsna ma iść z duchem czasu? Sztuka nie pozostaje w tyle. Akcjoniści Wiedeńscy powracają znów, by zjadać ekskrementy, kopulować ze zwierzętami, zarzynać, patroszyć i rozszarpywać. Huan ubrany w mięsny kombinezon przechadza się ulicami miasta, na obrazach kobiety i mężczyźni wiją się na podłodze wśród kawałków mięsa i gryzą surowe kawałki kurczaka, Jana Sterbak szyje sukienkę ze steków, Jannis Kounellis rozwiesza wzdłuż ścian na hakach kawały wołowiny, papież pojawia się na tle przepołowionego wołu, Heide Hatry powiada „Heide, ty świnio!”, a Lucien Freud po prostu jest mięsem. Mięso materiałem sztuki! – a bezdomni nie mają co jeść. Na szczęście w wierszach Bartczaka wyłania się nowa forma życia – szczeźnik – już nie człowiek ani nie zwierzę. Różne inne byty i nie-byty nam w tym wszystkim towarzyszą: byt pośledni, byt wyklęty, choć nie żołnierz, kolonialność bytów, mięso bezofiarne, mięso czyste, mięso bezmięsne, 101,4 kg mięsa na osobę, kapitalizm ze zwierzęcą twarzą, tajne wojny wegańskie, stosunek babci do jedzenia, mięsne konotacje męskości, wszystkożerca (wszystko?), 100 słynnych czarnych wegan, bawełna – nieetyczny produkt wegański, „okruchy filozoficzne o kotach”, mięsożerność podmiotowości, człowiek etnoklasowy, nieposłuszeństwo epistemologiczne i ontologiczne, owo-lakto-mięsny nadmiar, kobiety – agentki zmiany, technicznie drukowanie mięsa, nasza potencjalna nie nieludzkość, wewnętrzne życie zwierząt, aktywna ignorancja, realistyczne utopie, celebrytyzacja weganizmu, sploty metodologiczne. Może to byty nie-byty wątpliwe, ale jeden fakt nadal pozostaje bezsporny: fakt mięsożerny. Fakt mięsożerny! Fakt mięsożerny! Fakt mięsożerny! Wojciech Kalagahttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-4874-9734 P.S. Pragniemy poinformować naszych Czytelników i Autorów, iż począwszy od numeru 40 (1/2020) „Er(r)go” stanie się pismem dwujęzycznym: będziemy publikować materiały w języku polskim i angielskim. Zwiastunem tych nadchodzących zmian jest okładka tego numeru.

O presente artigo discute textos que retratam a mulher dentro dos valores do mundo patriarcal brasileiro, juntamente, com textos em que as personagens ousam arrostar esse mesmo ideário. Em dois retratos feitos em forma de canções, as duas mulheres apresentadas não têm sequer nomes próprios e suas vidas existem em função do homem. Em outros dois, o conto A fuga, de Clarice Lispector, escrito em 1940 e publicado em 1979 e o cordel A mulher que vendeu o marido por 1,99, de Janduhi Dantas, duas mulheres protagonistas demandam em busca de autodeterminação. Ambas as personagens são casadas e são infelizes no casamento; ambas suportam condições adversas que as inquietam e oprimem e das quais desejam sair. Será utilizado o conceito do dominante de (JAKOBSON, 1983), como ferramenta teórica, assim como ferramentas dos estudos de gêneros (BUTLER, 2003; LOURO, 1997) e da literatura comparada (CARVALHAL, 1986).REFERÊNCIAS:ASSIS, Machado. Dom Casmurro. São Paulo: Editora Ática, 1996 [1899].BADINTER, Elisabeth. Um Amor conquistado: o mito do amor materno. Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1985.BARTHES, Roland. Mitologias. 9. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Bertrand Brasil, 1993.BUTLER, Judith P. Problemas de gênero: feminismo e subversão da identidade. Tradução de Renato Aguiar. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Civilização Brasileira, 2003.CALDEIRA, Teresa Pires do Rio. Cidade de Muros: crime, segregação e cidadania em São Paulo. São Paulo: Edusp/Ed. 34, 2000.CANEVACCI, M. Introdução. In: Dialética da Família: gênese, estrutura e dinâmica de uma instituição repressiva. São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1981.CARNEIRO, Sueli. Racismo, sexismo e desigualdade no Brasil. São Paulo: Selo Negro, 2008.CARVALHAL, Tânia Franco. Literatura comparada. São Paulo: Ática, 1986.COLASSANTI, Marina. Mulher daqui pra a frente. Rio de Janeiro: Nórdica, 1981.DANTAS, Janduhi. A mulher que vendeu o marido por 1,99. Patos: Editora Patos, 2009.DEL PRIORI, Mary (Org.). 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Periimplantite, realidade na Implantodontia: Qual a melhor conduta? Relato de caso. Adriana dos Santos Caetano, Vinícius Ferreira Bizelli, Paulo Vitor Ogliari, Edgard Franco Moraes JúniorCaracterização topográfica de implantes Ti-Cp com superfície usinada e modificada por laser. Ana Flávia Piquera Santos, Thallita P Queiroz, Antônio C Guastaldi, Gabriel M dos Santos, Laís Kawamata de Jesus, Ana Paula Farnezi Bassi, Idelmo Rangel Garcia Junior, Francisley Ávila de SouzaTratamento de fratura do complexo zigomático-orbitário através da fixação dos três pontos anatômicos do osso zigomático. André Hergesel de Oliva, Sormani Bento Fernandes de Queiroz, Valthierre Nunes de Lima, Gustavo Antonio Correa Momesso, João Paulo Bonardi, Fábio Roberto de Sousa Batista, Leonardo Perez Faverani, Osvaldo Magro FilhoO paciente pediátrico frente ao trauma bucomaxilofacial e sua etiologia na cidade de Araçatuba: um estudo retrospectivo. Cássio Messias Beija Flor Figueiredo, Izabela Soares Minari, Ana Paula Farnezi Bassi, Daniela Atili Brandini, Igor Mariotto Beneti, Francisley Ávila Souza, Idelmo Rangel Garcia JúniorManejo de fístula liquórica em fratura panfacial. Relato de caso. Estefânia Marrega Malavazi, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, João Paulo Bonardi, William Ricardo Pires, Ciro Borges Duailibe de Deus, Fábio Roberto de Souza Batista, André Hergesel de Oliva, Francisley Ávila SouzaEnxerto de tecido conjuntivo associado ao retalho deslocado lateralmente na estética periimplantar: relato de caso. Fred Lucas Pinto de Oliveira, Vivian Cristina Noronha Novaes, Breno Edson Sendão Alves, Nathália Januário de Araújo, David Jonathan Rodrigues Gusman, Daniela Pereira de Sá, Juliano Milanezi de AlmeidaIntubação submento-orotraqueal, aspectos anatômicos, principais indicações e descrição da técnica. Gabriel Pereira Nunes, Luis Fernando Azambuja Alcalde, Leandro Carlos Carrasco, Erik Neiva Ribeiro de Carvalho Reis, João Lopes Toledo Filho, Pedro Henrique Silva Gomes FerreiraUso dos antibióticos na cirurgia bucomaxilofacial. Revisão da literatura e relato de caso. Gabriela Caroline Fernandes, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, Mónica Johanna Palacio Muñoz, Leonardo de Freitas Silva, André Hergesel de Oliva, Leonardo Perez Faverani, Francisley Ávila Souza, Idelmo Rangel Garcia JúniorFraturas múltiplas em face e os acidentes de trânsito em Araçatuba. Izabela Soares Minari, Cássio Messias Beija Flor Figueiredo, Ana Paula Farnezi Bassi, Daniela Atili Brandini, Igor Mariotto Beneti , Daniela Ponzoni, Francisley Ávila Souza, Idelmo Rangel Garcia JúniorRemoção de raiz dentária impelida no seio maxilar com o uso de fibra ótica. Relato de caso . João Matheus Fonseca e Santos, Stefany Barbosa, Gustavo Antônio Correa Momesso, Tarik Ocon Braga Polo, Ana Paula Farnezi Bassi, Leonardo Perez FaveraniTrauma facial por acidente motociclístico: relato de caso. Lara Cristina Cunha Cervantes, Luara Teixeira Colombo, Gabriela Caroline Fernandes, João Paulo Bonardi, Leonardo de Freitas Silva, Erik Neiva Ribeiro de Carvalho Reis, Leonardo Perez FaveraniRemoção de tórus mandibular por indicação protética. Luana Sauvesuk, Luana Ribeiro do Vale, Daniela Ponzoni, Francisley Ávila Souza, Osvaldo Magro Filho, Alessandra Marcondes Aranega, Leonardo Perez Faverani, Ana Paula Farnezi BassiFratura do complexo zigomático orbitário: relato de caso. Luara Teixeira Colombo, Lara Cristina Cunha Cervantes, João Paulo Bonardi, Leonardo de Freitas Silva, Valthierre Nunes de Lima, Leonardo Perez FaveraniManipulação de tecido mole na implantodontia. Relato de caso. Natália de Campos, Edgard Franco Moraes JuniorGengivectomia, osteotomia e frenectomia na correção do sorriso gengival. Nathália Januario de Araujo, Álvaro Francisco Bosco, Vivian Cristina Noronha Novaes, Paula Lazilha Faleiros, David Jonathan Rodrigues Gusman, Fred Lucas Pinto de Oliveira, Breno Edson Sendão Alves, Juliano Milanezi de Almeida Avaliação do processo de incorporação óssea de biomaterial sintético a base de hidroxiapatita/β-tricálcio fosfato em bloco instalado em mandíbula de coelhos. Análise histológica. Rodrigo Capalbo-da-Silva, Luis Carlos de Almeida Pires, Paulo Sérgio Perri de Carvalho, Lais Kawamata de Jesus, Ana Flávia Piquera Santos, Francisley Ávila SouzaRelato de caso raro: fratura bilateral de côndilo e sínfise mandibular. Sara Tiemi Felipe Akabane, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, Erik Neiva Ribeiro de Carvalho Reis, William Ricardo Pires, Tárik Oncon Braga Polo, Leonardo Perez Faverani, Francisley Ávila Souza, Daniela PonzoniUso de piezocirúrgico para remoção de um odontoma mandibular complexo. Relato de caso clínico. Stefany Barbosa, João Matheus Fonseca e Santos, Cássio Messias Beija Flor Figueiredo, Gustavo Antonio Correa Momesso, Valthierre Nunes de Lima, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, Daniela Ponzoni, Leonardo Perez FaveraniReabilitação de maxila atrófica em paciente transplantado renal com implantes zigomáticos. Valthierre Nunes de Lima, Sormani Bento Fernandes de Queiroz, Jaqueline Suemi Hassumi, Nayla Caroline Santos Yamamoto, Karen Rawen Tonini, Leonardo de Freitas Silva, Tárik Ocon Braga Polo, Leonardo Perez FaveraniResolução de complicações estéticas com regeneração óssea guiada. Vinícius Ferreira Bizelli, Adriana dos Santos Caetano, Adriano Campesi Tonin, Edgard Franco Moraes JúniorReconstrução e reabilitação de mandibula atrófica após fratura iatrogênica. Adriana dos Santos Caetano, Vinícius Ferreira Bizelli, Paulo Vitor Ogliari, Edgard Franco Moraes JúniorFratura de complexo zigomáticomaxilar por prática esportiva – relato de caso. Dálete Samylle Ferreira Moraes, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, Erik Neiva Ribeiro de Carvalho Reis, Francisley Ávila Souza, Leonardo Perez Faverani, William Ricardo Pires, Osvaldo Magro Filho, Idelmo Rangel Garcia JúniorManejo de ferimento corto-contuso extenso em face: relato de caso. Elisa Mara de Abreu Furquim, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, Juliana Zórzi Coléte, Gabriel Ramalho Ferreira, Leonardo Perez Faverani, Idelmo Rangel Garcia JúniorManejo de ferimento contuso-contuso em região periorbitária: relato de caso clínico. 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Gabriela Caroline Fernandes, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, Juliana Zorzi Coléte, Leonardo de Freitas Silva, André Hergesel de Oliva, Daniela Ponzoni, Alessandra Marcondes Aranega, Leonardo Perez FaveraniAvaliação do bio-oss collagen® no reparo de defeitos ósseos críticos em calvária de ratos. Guilherme André Del’Arco Ramires, Jucileia Maciel, Gustavo Antonio Correa Momesso, Leonardo Perez Faverani, Daniela Ponzoni, Ana Paula Farnezi BassiAvulsão dentária tratada por reimplante em paciente portadora de epilepsia. Iana Rodrigues Briggo, Willian Ricardo Pires, Xiomara Mónica Johanna Palacio Muñoz, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, Celso Koogi Sonoda, Sônia Regina Panzarini, Francisley Ávila Souza, Idelmo Rangel Garcia JúniorAvaliação do dano tecidual e do reparo causado por osteotomias para implantes com fresas convencionais e de motor piezoelétrico. Jadison Junio Conforte, Fabricio Euclides Pimentel Baracho Martins, Roberta Okamoto, Paulo Sérgio Perri de Carvalho, Daniela PonzoniTratamento de fratura nasal severa: relato de caso clínico. Karen Lumi Nakasato, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, William Ricardo Pires, Leonardo de Freitas Silva, Ciro Borges Duailibe de Deus, Gustavo Antônio Correa Momesso, Tárik Ocon Braga Polo, Leonardo Perez FaveraniEstudo da interface formada entre osso e implante de tiaiv com superfícies usinada e modificada. Avaliação biomecânica em coelhos. Laís Kawamata de Jesus, Rodrigo Capalbo-da-Silva, Ana Flávia Piquera Santos, Caroline Loureiro, Paulo Sérgio Perri de Carvalho, Ana Paula Farnezi Bassi, Alessandra Marcondes Aranega, Francisley Ávila SouzaRemoção de corpo estranho de lábio inferior com uso de intensificador de imagem: relato de caso. Lara Mariano Pinheiro, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, João Paulo Bonardi, André Luís da Silva Fabris, Juliana Zórzi Coléte, Igor de Oliveira Puttini, Ciro Borges Duailibe de Deus, Leonardo Perez Faverani.Avaliação da reparação óssea em defeitos críticos de calvária de ratos utilizando partículas de osso de origem bovina. Letícia de Freitas Mendes Brasil, Ana Paula Farnezi Bassi, Paulo Sérgio Perri de Carvalho, Daniela Ponzoni, Francisley Ávila Souza.Cranioplastia com resina de pometilmetacrilato em fratura extensa de osso frontal. Letícia de Oliveira Gonçalves, Xiomara Mónica Johanna Palacio Muñoz, João Paulo Bonardi, Leonardo de Freitas Silva, Erik Neiva Ribeiro de Carvalho Reis, Francisley Ávila Souza, Idelmo Rangel Garcia Júnior, Daniela PonzoniAssistência odontológica hospitalar para pessoas com deficiência do CAOE da faculdade de odontologia de Araçatuba. Luan Pier Benetti, Alessandra Marcondes Aranega, Fátima Hassan Baz Lauretto, Antônio Donizete Soares, Juliana Franco De Angelis, Tânia Sílvia Carneiro BaggioEstudo comparativo entre substituto ósseo heterógeno composto de origem bovina e biomaterial sintético a base de fosfato β-tricálcio para enxerto sinusal maxilar. Nathália Januario de Araujo, Maury Ponikwar de Souza, Paulo Sérgio Perri de Carvalho, Juliano Milanezi de Almeida, Idelmo Rangel Garcia Júnior, Francisley Ávila SouzaA difícil decisão por extrações dentárias como tratamento de mutilações labiais em pessoas com deficiência neurológica. Sandy Lais Tatibana, Alessandra Marcondes Aranega, André Luís da Silva Fabris, Liliane Passanezi A. Louzada, Regina Rodrigues Luciano, Idelmo Rangel Garcia Júnior, Luan Pier BenettiAvaliação histológica e histométrica do processo de reparo em defeitos de calvária de ratos com membrana de pcl e colágeno porcino. Tamires Melo Francati, Ana Carolina Rezende de Moraes Ferreira, Leonardo Perez Faverani, Guilherme André Del'Arco Ramires, Daniela Ponzoni, Ana Paula Farnezi BassiFratura de côndilo mandibular unilateral tratada com elasticoterapia: relato de caso. Thaisa Casteli Bonfim, Willian Ricardo Pires, Gabriel Mulinari dos Santos, Xiomara Mónica Johanna Palacio Muñoz, Celso Koogi Sonoda, Leonardo Perez Faverani, Francisley Ávila Souza, Idelmo Rangel Garcia Júnior

“As the old technologies become automatic and invisible, we find ourselves more concerned with fighting or embracing what’s new”—Dennis Baron, From Pencils to Pixels: The Stage of Literacy Technologies In a world where nothing is certain… and even the objectivity of science is qualified by relativity and uncertainty, the single human voice, telling its own story, can seem the only authentic way of rendering consciousness. – David Lodge (“Sense and Sensibility”) Leon Edel expressed the central puzzle of writing biography as “every life takes its own form and a biographer must find the ideal and unique literary form that will express it” (qtd. in Novarr 165). My primary challenge in writing Poisoned: The Trials of Mary Dean – a biography in the form of a (fictionalised) first-person memoir purportedly written by the subject herself – was the location of a textual voice for Mary that, if not her own, could have credibly belonged to a woman of her time, place and circumstance. The ‘Dean case’ caused a sensation across Australia in the mid-1890s when George Dean was arrested for the attempted murder of his 20-year-old wife, Mary. George was a handsome Sydney ferry master who had played the romantic lead in a series of spectacular rescues, flinging himself into the harbour to save women passengers who had fallen overboard. When on trial for repeatedly poisoning his wife, his actions and motivations were not probed; instead, Mary’s character and behaviour and, by extrapolation, those of the entire female sex, were examined and analysed. This approach climaxed in defence counsel claims that Mary poisoned herself to frame her husband, but George was found guilty and sentenced to hang, the mandatory punishment for attempted murder at that time. Despite the persuasive prosecution evidence and the jury’s unanimous verdict, the Sydney press initiated a public outcry. After a series of inflamed community meetings and with a general election approaching, the Premier called for a Royal Commission into Dean’s conviction. This inquiry came to the extraordinary conclusion that: the facts, as shown, are quite as compatible with the hypothesis that Mrs. Dean ... administered the arsenic to herself – possibly at the prompting of her mother and without any intention of taking a fatal dose – as that the poison was administered to her by her husband with an intent to kill. (Regina v George Dean 16) George was freed with a Royal Pardon and Mary was publicly reviled as a pariah of the lowest order. This unhappy situation continued even after it was revealed that her husband had confessed his guilt to his solicitor, and charges of conspiracy and perjury were brought against George and his lawyers who were then members of the New South Wales Parliament. Although the lawyers both escaped relatively unscathed, George Dean was gaoled for 14 years. This was despite Mary’s story having obvious potential for a compelling biographical narrative. To begin with, she experiences the terror of suspecting her own husband is poisoning her as she convalesces after the birth of their child. She survives repeated doses of strychnine and arsenic, only to confront the humiliating certainty that her husband was desperate to be rid of her. Then, weak and ill, she has to endure the ordeal of police-court proceedings and a criminal trial when she is damned as a witch conspiring with her wicked mother to ruin her husband. Withstanding assertions that her childhood home was a brothel and she a prostitute, she spends long weeks in hospital knowing her husband is under sentence of execution, only to be released, destitute, with a sickly child she has poisoned with her own breast milk. Still physically debilitated, she is called before a Royal Commission where she is again violently cross-examined and, on the day of her twenty-first birthday, is confronted with the knowledge that not only was her mother a transported convict, but that she is, herself, of illegitimate birth. When the Commission finds in her husband’s favour, Mary has to watch her poisoner pardoned, freed and feted as a popular celebrity, while she faces an increasingly viperous press, and is jeered at and spat on in the streets. Next, she is forced to testify at yet another series of public trials and finally, even when her husband confesses his crime and is gaoled for perjury (his Royal Pardon saving him from again facing an attempted murder charge), she is ostracised as the penniless wife of a common criminal and illegitimate daughter of a transported convict. Despite this, and having little more than the shame of divorce to look forward to, Mary nevertheless regains her health and, four years after her final court appearance, marries a respectable shopkeeper. A year later, in 1902, she gives birth to her second child. together with examples written by women of her time, class and education, fabricating an extended letter (written by Mary, but based on historical evidence) seemed a viable textual solution. For centuries, domestic letters were a major means of autobiographical expression for ‘non-literary’, working-class women and, moreover, a textual format within which Mary (silenced for over a century) could finally relate her own version of events. These decisions aligned with what John Burnett has identified as the most common motivations for a working-class person to write an autobiographical narrative: “belief that he [sic] had some important … personal triumph over difficulties and misfortune … to leave for one’s children or grandchildren” (11). This relatively common human desire also tailored neatly with a central theme animating Mary’s life – that ignorance about the past can poison your future. To create a textual voice for Mary in her narrative, I utilised the literary process of ‘ventriloquising’ or providing a believable (fictional) voice for a historical character – the term ‘literary ventriloquism’ was coined by David Lodge in 1987 for how novelists create (and readers ‘hear’) the various voices in literary works (100). While biographies including Andrew Motion’s Wainewright the Poisoner (2000) and, as Richard Freadman has noted, Gertrude Stein’s The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas (1933) have effectively employed varieties of biographical ventriloquism, this is a literary device more frequently used by fiction writers. It is also interesting to note that when skilled fiction writers employ ventriloquism, their resulting works are often perceived as much as biography-histories as imaginative pieces. Peter Carey’s The True History of the Kelly Gang (2000) is the invented document of which Kelly biographers dream, an autobiographical account supposedly written by Kelly so his infant daughter might “comprehend the injustice we poor Irish suffered” (5), but the voice Carey created was so credible that historians (including Ian Jones and Alex McDermott) debated its authenticity. This was despite Carey making no claims for the historical accuracy of his work. Of course, I primarily tested my text against such press interviews, Mary’s own letters and the articulations of her voice reported in the trial and other court records. Not that the latter group of texts can be taken as ‘verbatim’ transcriptions. Although court and other legal records provide, as Karen Dubinskyhas noted, “a window into instances of personal life … we can hear people talking about love, emotional and sexual intimacy, power, betrayal and broken promises” (4), such texts are profoundly mediated documents. The citations we now read in print passed through many hands – Mary’s testimonies would have been initially noted by the court stenographer, then transcribed, corrected, edited, typeset, corrected again, printed and bound – with each stage in the process incorporating inaccuracies, omissions and changes into the text. And, however accurate, such transcripts are never complete, neither indicating the tone in which answers were given, nor the speakers’ hesitations, pauses or accompanying gestures. The transcripts I used also record many examples of Lyndal Roper’s “forced discourse”, where Mary was directed to give only usually abbreviated responses to questions, questions which no doubt often directed the tone, content and even wording of her answers (54). Despite these limitations, it was following Mary in court through these texts, cringing at the humiliation and bullying she was subjected to, rallying when she showed spirit and almost cheering when she was finally vindicated, which allowed me to feel a real human connection with her as my subject. It was via these texts (and her own letters) that I also became aware that Mary Dean had been a person who, at the same time as she was living her life, was also (as are we all) remembering, forgetting and, probably, fabricating stories about that life – stories which, at times, challenged and contradicted each other. My aim was always to move beyond finding a persuasive textual voice for Mary, that is one which seemed authentic (and suitable for a novel), to one able to tell some of the contradictory stories of Mary’s life, as she no longer could. Ultimately, I wanted every utterance of my textual rendering of her speech to declare (as J. M. Coetzee has one of his characters say): “I live, I suffer, I am here. With cunning and treachery, if necessary, I fight against becoming one of the forgotten ones of history” (3). Works Cited Allen, Judith A. Sex and Secrets: Crimes Involving Australian Women Since 1880. Melbourne: Oxford U P, 1990. Burnett, John, ed. Useful Toil: Autobiographies of Working People from the 1820s to the 1920s. London: Allen Lane, 1976. Carey, Peter. The True History of the Kelly Gang, St. Lucia: U of Queensland P, 2000. Coetzee, J. M. In the Heart of the Country. London: Secker and Warburg, 1977. Daily Telegraph, 9 October 1895: 5. Dubinsky, Karen. Improper Advances: Rape and Heterosexual Conflict in Ontario, 1880-1929. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1993. Freadman, Richard. â??Prose and Cons of a Bizarre Lifeâ?. The Age 27 May 2000: Saturday Extra, 7. Holmes, Katie. Spaces in Her Day: Australian Womenâ??s Diaries of the 1920s-1930s. St. Leonards: Allen and Unwin, 1995. â??Interview with Mrs. Dean.â? Truth 5 May 1895: 7. Jones, Ian. â??Not in Nedâ??s Natureâ?. The Weekend Australian 18-9 Aug. 2001: R12-3. Lodge, David. â??After Bakhtin.â? The Linguistics of Writing. Ed. Nigel Fabb, Derek Attridge, Alan Durant and Colin MacCabe. New York: Methuen, 1987: 89-102. Lodge, David. â??Sense and Sensibilityâ?. The Guardian Unlimited 2 Nov. 2002. [accessed 12/11/02] <http://books.guardian.co..uk/review/story/0,12084,823955,00.php> McDermott, Alex. â??Ned Kellyâ??s Yawp.â? Australian Book Review Mar. 2002: 16-8. McDermott, Alex. â??The Apocalyptic Chant of Edward Kellyâ?. The Jerilderie Letter. Melbourne: Text, 2001. v-xxxiv. Motion, Andrew. Wainewright the Poisoner. London: Faber, 2000. Novarr, David. The Lines of Life: Theories of Biography, 1880-1970. West Layfayette, In.: Perdue U P, 1986. Peers, Juliet. What No Man Had Ever Done Before. Malvern, Vic.: Dawn Revival, 1992. Regina v George Dean: Report of the Royal Commission, Appointed Seventh Day of May, 1895. Sydney: Government, 1895. Roper, Lyndal. Oedipus and the Devil: Witchcraft, Sexuality and Religion in Early Modern Europe. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. Seymour, Mary. Letter to George Clements, 12 October 1891. Letters to Frank Brereton, 22 October 1891, 30 December 1891, 25 April 1892. Regina v George Dean: Report of the Royal Commission: 244-46. Spender, Dale. â??Journal on a Journal.â? Womenâ??s Studies International Forum 10.1 (1987): 1-5. Sydney Morning Herald. 9 October 1895: 8, 10 October 1895: 5. Links http://books.guardian.co..uk/review/story/0 Citation reference for this article MLA Style Brien, Donna Lee. "Imagining Mary Dean " M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture <http://www.media-culture.org.au/0401/07-brien.php>. APA Style Brien, D. (2004, Jan 12). Imagining Mary Dean . M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture, 7, <http://www.media-culture.org.au/0401/07-brien.php>

The “Suspicion” issue of M/C Journal explores suspicion as both critical approach and cultural concept, inviting us to engage with its interpretive potential in a world where mistrust has become the norm. Contemporary Western culture is characterised by a climate of increased border security and surveillance, especially since 9/11. Judith Butler identifies an increase in paranoia and censorship associated with these factors, which has greatly affected freedom of speech, politics, the press, and what constitutes the public sphere. These shifts have had considerable impact on how we relate to words and images. In such a culture of distrust—of authority, of politics, and of supposed objective truth—how revealing or misleading is suspicion as a critical methodology? This issue of M/C Journal attempts to unravel that question; although it promises no answers, what it does offer is insight into the complexities of using suspicion to critique a range of texts, not all of which lend themselves so easily to a suspicious reading. The hermeneutics of suspicion, an approach introduced by Paul Ricoeur, assumes that the manifest or surface meaning of a text is a veil that masks its true agenda. As a critical approach, suspicion reads against the text, calling into question the authenticity of representation. The essays collected here use suspicion to explore contemporary fiction, film, and imagery, attempting not only to expose their hidden meanings, but to uncover the perspicacity of the suspicious approach itself. In her feature paper, “Critique and the Hermeneutics of Suspicion,” Rita Felski discusses the place of suspicion in contemporary critical theory, questioning its neglect in favour of critique, which is deemed more “intellectually rigorous” and less prone to the potential pitfalls of subjectivity. Felski challenges us to reconsider this view, positing that the “muted affective state” of suspicion may offer “an antidote to the charisma of critique,” bringing an element of pleasure and “game-like sparring” to the process of analysing a text. Felski acknowledges that “contemporary styles of critical argument are affective as well as analytical, conjuring up distinctive dispositions and relations to their object.” And indeed each of the articles in this collection are concerned, across a range of disciplines, with a text’s potential to elicit an affective response, whether from within a text, outside of it, or from some uncertain position in between.Suspicion can draw us into a text and force us to think more deeply about it, even as that text may seem to evade a suspicious reading. In “‘There’s Suspicion, Nothing More’: Suspicious Readings of Michael Haneke’s Cache,” Alison Taylor discusses Haneke’s challenging 2005 film, which presents viewers with a conundrum that has no resolution. Although the film invites a suspicious reading as we follow the attempts of the protagonist, Georges, to discover who is responsible for making surveillance tapes of his home, the culprit is never identified; our suspicion is both pre-empted and never resolved. Taylor charts a frustrated suspicious response on the part of the film’s audience, its critics, scholars, and even its characters, and argues that the film is in fact a critique of the interpretive process, as it plays with and upends the expectations of the viewer.Niva Kaspi similarly questions the interpretive process, as she investigates the source of narrative suspicion towards a terrorist/victim discourse in Don DeLillo’s post 9/11 novel, Falling Man, for readers and characters alike. In “Bill Lawton by Any Other Name: Language Games and Terror in Falling Man,” Kaspi suggests that the way the text plays with language, naming and re-naming the terrorist-suspect—bin Laden is misheard by the protagonist’s son and his friends, the Siblings, and misnamed Bill Lawton—and other “tricks” and “errors,” activates our suspicion, so that “the reader, after a while, distances somewhat from the text, scanning for alternative possibilities and approaching interpretation with a tentative sense of doubt.” We come to view the printed text with suspicion, and hence question our responses to the hyper-public, press-mediated discourses that followed the events of 9/11. Nick Levey’s “‘Analysis Paralysis’: Suspicion, Trust, and David Foster Wallace’s ‘Wager’” explores how Wallace’s work deliberately evades decoding and interpretation, asking us to consider how fruitful the opposite approach to suspicion—trust—may be in light of how few answers the book yields. Infinite Jest itself poses a critique of suspicion, as only the characters in the novel who do not question their surroundings and circumstances achieve any sort of closure. Levey’s paper examines Wallace’s concern with “the existential implications of suspicion, in what might be lost in following doubt to its most ‘radical’ conclusions.” The existential implications of suspicion are further explored in Sarah Richardson’s analysis of Alison Bechdel’s autobiographical graphic novel Fun Home, “‘Old Father, Old Artificer’: Queering Suspicion in Alison Bechdel’s Fun Home.” Bechdel’s graphic memoir charts her relationship with her troubled father, who hid his homosexuality behind “a veneer of perfect provincial Christian fatherhood and respectability.” Although Bechdel initially interprets her father’s history suspiciously, she moves towards a “positive queering of her family history and the embrace of her father’s legacy.” Thus Bechdel’s turn away from suspicion is restorative and ultimately creative.Nicola Scholes, on the other hand, explores the dilemma in facing a text that turns deliberately and self-consciously towards suspicion. In “The Difficulty of Reading Allen Ginsberg’s ‘Kaddish’ Suspiciously,” Scholes identifies the challenge of seeking hidden meanings in Ginsberg’s poem due to its self-exposing nature. Contrary to the potential a hermeneutic of suspicion has to expose and reveal hidden truths, “Kaddish” blatantly “parades its unpalatable truths.” However Scholes argues that a suspicious reading of “Kaddish” is still possible; indeed, it can mine the poem’s depths even further, “resisting its self-inscribed psychoanalysis to expose the gender politics of Allen’s exposé.”Gender and sexuality may infinitely complicate or subvert suspicious analysis, as two papers in this issue aptly demonstrate. Samantha Lindop’s “The Homme Fatal and the Subversion of Suspicion in Mr Brooks and The Killer Inside Me” explores the oft-neglected figure of the homme fatal, questioning whether we can regard this figure with the same suspicion-grounded psychoanalytic perspective typically applied to the femme fatale of classic film noir. Focusing on neo-noir films Mr Brooks and The Killer Inside Me, Lindop exposes the homme fatal as a figure who subverts the suspicious gaze with his self-reflexive knowledge of Freudian theory. By contrast, the female protagonist in crime fiction is a figure who attracts suspicion on a number of narrative levels. As Katherine Howell argues in “The Suspicious Figure of the Female Forensic Pathologist Investigator in Crime Fiction,” female forensic pathologists in novels by popular crime writers Patricia Cornwell and Tess Gerritsen are portrayed as suspicious not simply for their performance of conventionally masculine gender roles—that of investigator and pathologist—but for their identification with the dead. These characters occupy abject space—they exist on the borderlines of life and death, self and other, masculine and feminine—and are thus coded as suspect from within the text.As the innately suspicious atmosphere of crime fiction and film noir brings us face to face with issues of morality and mortality, so too does Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck’s 2007 film The Lives of Others, which draws on the recent history of East Germany under Stasi rule. In her paper “Love in the Time of Socialism: Negotiating the Personal and the Social in Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck’s The Lives of Others,” Rowena Grant-Frost explores the film’s blurring of public and private—a boundary that depends on the climate of suspicion created by the Stasi as a form of State control. Through focusing on the film’s love story rather than its social milieu, Grant-Frost discusses the “affective experiences associated with constant surveillance,” suggesting this as a means for “contrasting and critiquing the way in which surveillance, power, and control operate.”But can an understanding of the suspicion at the heart of systems of surveillance, power, and control that so pervade our contemporary world help to develop our moral awareness? Chari Larsson’s “Suspicious Images: Iconophobia and the Ethical Gaze” asks what happens when the images we are constantly exposed to in our media-saturated culture transgress and violates limits, and when, as spectators, we have an ethical and moral responsibility to bear witness. Considering the relationship between iconophobia—suspicion of, and anxiety towards, images—and spectatorship, Larsson draws on art critic Georges Didi-Huberman’s discussion of the prohibition of Holocaust representation, and extrapolates his insights to analyse Laura Waddington’s 2004 film, Border, about asylum seekers in Northern France. Larsson suggests that both Didi-Huberman and Waddington argue for a model of spectatorship that undermines the relationship between viewer and image, so that “the terms of spectatorship may be relocated from suspicion to an ethical, participatory mode of engagement.”Perhaps, in the end, distrust is all we can trust as we attempt to decode the meaning of any text. What seems most important is for us to understand how to apply suspicion wisely; as the papers in this issue demonstrate, suspicious readings do not simply attempt to expose hidden meanings, but reconnect us with the pleasures of that discovery process, and equip us with the self-reflexive ability to question both a text and the efficacy of our approach to it. As Felski points out, while critique lets us sweep away a text’s surface and suspicion asks us to mine its depths, both approaches call for a “knowingness, guardedness, suspicion and vigilance” that offers new insights and prompts us to think more critically, more deeply, and more fruitfully.This issue of M/C Journal was inspired by the “Reading the Suspect” Work in Progress Conference for which Rita Felski delivered the keynote address at the University of Queensland in July 2010. ReferencesButler, Judith. Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence. London: Verso. 2004.Felski, Rita. "Suspicious Minds." "Reading the Suspect": 14th Work-In-Progress Conference. University of Queensland. St Lucia, Qld. 30 July 2010. Keynote Address. Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. Trans. Denis Savage. New Haven: Yale U P, 1970. 32–56.

This article investigates the possibilities for understanding waste as a resource, with a particular focus on understanding food waste as a food resource. It considers the popular yeast spread Vegemite within this frame. The spread’s origins in waste product, and how it has achieved and sustained its status as a popular symbol of Australia despite half a century of Australian gastro-multiculturalism and a marked public resistance to other recycling and reuse of food products, have not yet been a focus of study. The process of producing Vegemite from waste would seem to align with contemporary moves towards recycling food waste, and ensuring environmental sustainability and food security, yet even during times of austerity and environmental concern this has not provided the company with a viable marketing strategy. Instead, advertising copywriting and a recurrent cycle of product memorialisation have created a superbrand through focusing on Vegemite’s nutrient and nostalgic value.John Scanlan notes that producing waste is a core feature of modern life, and what we dispose of as surplus to our requirements—whether this comprises material objects or more abstract products such as knowledge—reveals much about our society. In observing this, Scanlan asks us to consider the quite radical idea that waste is central to everything of significance to us: the “possibility that the surprising core of all we value results from (and creates even more) garbage (both the material and the metaphorical)” (9). Others have noted the ambivalent relationship we have with the waste we produce. C. T. Anderson notes that we are both creator and agent of its disposal. It is our ambivalence towards waste, coupled with its ubiquity, that allows waste materials to be described so variously: negatively as garbage, trash and rubbish, or more positively as by-products, leftovers, offcuts, trimmings, and recycled.This ambivalence is also crucial to understanding the affectionate relationship the Australian public have with Vegemite, a relationship that appears to exist in spite of the product’s unpalatable origins in waste. A study of Vegemite reveals that consumers can be comfortable with waste, even to the point of eating recycled waste, as long as that fact remains hidden and unmentioned. In Vegemite’s case not only has the product’s connection to waste been rendered invisible, it has been largely kept out of sight despite considerable media and other attention focusing on the product. Recycling Food Waste into Food ProductRecent work such as Elizabeth Royte’s Garbage Land and Tristram Stuart’s Waste make waste uncomfortably visible, outlining how much waste, and food waste in particular, the Western world generates and how profligately this is disposed of. Their aim is clear: a call to less extravagant and more sustainable practices. The relatively recent interest in reducing our food waste has, of course, introduced more complexity into a simple linear movement from the creation of a food product, to its acquisition or purchase, and then to its consumption and/or its disposal. Moreover, the recycling, reuse and repurposing of what has previously been discarded as waste is reconfiguring the whole idea of what waste is, as well as what value it has. The initiatives that seem to offer the most promise are those that reconfigure the way waste is understood. However, it is not only the process of transforming waste from an abject nuisance into a valued product that is central here. It is also necessary to reconfigure people’s acculturated perceptions of, and reactions to waste. Food waste is generated during all stages of the food cycle: while the raw materials are being grown; while these are being processed; when the resulting food products are being sold; when they are prepared in the home or other kitchen; and when they are only partly consumed. Until recently, the food industry in the West almost universally produced large volumes of solid and liquid waste that not only posed problems of disposal and pollution for the companies involved, but also represented a reckless squandering of total food resources in terms of both nutrient content and valuable biomass for society at large. While this is currently changing, albeit slowly, the by-products of food processing were, and often are, dumped (Stuart). In best-case scenarios, various gardening, farming and industrial processes gather household and commercial food waste for use as animal feed or as components in fertilisers (Delgado et al; Wang et al). This might, on the surface, appear a responsible application of waste, yet the reality is that such food waste often includes perfectly good fruit and vegetables that are not quite the required size, shape or colour, meat trimmings and products (such as offal) that are completely edible but extraneous to processing need, and other high grade product that does not meet certain specifications—such as the mountains of bread crusts sandwich producers discard (Hickman), or food that is still edible but past its ‘sell by date.’ In the last few years, however, mounting public awareness over the issues of world hunger, resource conservation, and the environmental and economic costs associated with food waste has accelerated efforts to make sustainable use of available food supplies and to more efficiently recycle, recover and utilise such needlessly wasted food product. This has fed into and led to multiple new policies, instances of research into, and resultant methods for waste handling and treatment (Laufenberg et al). Most straightforwardly, this involves the use or sale of offcuts, trimmings and unwanted ingredients that are “often of prime quality and are only rejected from the production line as a result of standardisation requirements or retailer specification” from one process for use in another, in such processed foods as soups, baby food or fast food products (Henningsson et al. 505). At a higher level, such recycling seeks to reclaim any reusable substances of significant food value from what could otherwise be thought of as a non-usable waste product. Enacting this is largely dependent on two elements: an available technology and being able to obtain a price or other value for the resultant product that makes the process worthwhile for the recycler to engage in it (Laufenberg et al). An example of the latter is the use of dehydrated restaurant food waste as a feedstuff for finishing pigs, a reuse process with added value for all involved as this process produces both a nutritious food substance as well as a viable way of disposing of restaurant waste (Myer et al). In Japan, laws regarding food waste recycling, which are separate from those governing other organic waste, are ensuring that at least some of food waste is being converted into animal feed, especially for the pigs who are destined for human tables (Stuart). Other recycling/reuse is more complex and involves more lateral thinking, with the by-products from some food processing able to be utilised, for instance, in the production of dyes, toiletries and cosmetics (Henningsson et al), although many argue for the privileging of food production in the recycling of foodstuffs.Brewing is one such process that has been in the reuse spotlight recently as large companies seek to minimise their waste product so as to be able to market their processes as sustainable. In 2009, for example, the giant Foster’s Group (with over 150 brands of beer, wine, spirits and ciders) proudly claimed that it recycled or reused some 91.23% of 171,000 tonnes of operational waste, with only 8.77% of this going to landfill (Foster’s Group). The treatment and recycling of the massive amounts of water used for brewing, rinsing and cooling purposes (Braeken et al.; Fillaudeaua et al.) is of significant interest, and is leading to research into areas as diverse as the development microbial fuel cells—where added bacteria consume the water-soluble brewing wastes, thereby cleaning the water as well as releasing chemical energy that is then converted into electricity (Lagan)—to using nutrient-rich wastewater as the carbon source for creating bioplastics (Yu et al.).In order for the waste-recycling-reuse loop to be closed in the best way for securing food supplies, any new product salvaged and created from food waste has to be both usable, and used, as food (Stuart)—and preferably as a food source for people to consume. There is, however, considerable consumer resistance to such reuse. Resistance to reusing recycled water in Australia has been documented by the CSIRO, which identified negative consumer perception as one of the two primary impediments to water reuse, the other being the fundamental economics of the process (MacDonald & Dyack). This consumer aversion operates even in times of severe water shortages, and despite proof of the cleanliness and safety of the resulting treated water. There was higher consumer acceptance levels for using stormwater rather than recycled water, despite the treated stormwater being shown to have higher concentrations of contaminants (MacDonald & Dyack). This reveals the extent of public resistance to the potential consumption of recycled waste product when it is labelled as such, even when this consumption appears to benefit that public. Vegemite: From Waste Product to Australian IconIn this context, the savoury yeast spread Vegemite provides an example of how food processing waste can be repurposed into a new food product that can gain a high level of consumer acceptability. It has been able to retain this status despite half a century of Australian gastronomic multiculturalism and the wide embrace of a much broader range of foodstuffs. Indeed, Vegemite is so ubiquitous in Australian foodways that it is recognised as an international superbrand, a standing it has been able to maintain despite most consumers from outside Australasia finding it unpalatable (Rozin & Siegal). However, Vegemite’s long product history is one in which its origin as recycled waste has been omitted, or at the very least, consistently marginalised.Vegemite’s history as a consumer product is narrated in a number of accounts, including one on the Kraft website, where the apocryphal and actual blend. What all these narratives agree on is that in the early 1920s Fred Walker—of Fred Walker and Company, Melbourne, canners of meat for export and Australian manufacturers of Bonox branded beef stock beverage—asked his company chemist to emulate Marmite yeast extract (Farrer). The imitation product was based, as was Marmite, on the residue from spent brewer’s yeast. This waste was initially sourced from Melbourne-based Carlton & United Breweries, and flavoured with vegetables, spices and salt (Creswell & Trenoweth). Today, the yeast left after Foster Group’s Australian commercial beer making processes is collected, put through a sieve to remove hop resins, washed to remove any bitterness, then mixed with warm water. The yeast dies from the lack of nutrients in this environment, and enzymes then break down the yeast proteins with the effect that vitamins and minerals are released into the resulting solution. Using centrifugal force, the yeast cell walls are removed, leaving behind a nutrient-rich brown liquid, which is then concentrated into a dark, thick paste using a vacuum process. This is seasoned with significant amounts of salt—although less today than before—and flavoured with vegetable extracts (Richardson).Given its popularity—Vegemite was found in 2009 to be the third most popular brand in Australia (Brand Asset Consulting)—it is unsurprising to find that the product has a significant history as an object of study in popular culture (Fiske et al; White), as a marker of national identity (Ivory; Renne; Rozin & Siegal; Richardson; Harper & White) and as an iconic Australian food, brand and product (Cozzolino; Luck; Khamis; Symons). Jars, packaging and product advertising are collected by Australian institutions such as Sydney’s Powerhouse Museum and the National Museum of Australia in Canberra, and are regularly included in permanent and travelling exhibitions profiling Australian brands and investigating how a sense of national identity is expressed through identification with these brands. All of this significant study largely focuses on how, when and by whom the product has been taken up, and how it has been consumed, rather than its links to waste, and what this circumstance could add to current thinking about recycling of food waste into other food products.It is worth noting that Vegemite was not an initial success in the Australian marketplace, but this does not seem due to an adverse public perception to waste. Indeed, when it was first produced it was in imitation of an already popular product well-known to be made from brewery by-products, hence this origin was not an issue. It was also introduced during a time when consumer relationships to waste were quite unlike today, and thrifty re-use of was a common feature of household behaviour. Despite a national competition mounted to name the product (Richardson), Marmite continued to attract more purchasers after Vegemite’s launch in 1923, so much so that in 1928, in an attempt to differentiate itself from Marmite, Vegemite was renamed “Parwill—the all Australian product” (punning on the idea that “Ma-might” but “Pa-will”) (White 16). When this campaign was unsuccessful, the original, consumer-suggested name was reinstated, but sales still lagged behind its UK-owned prototype. It was only after remaining in production for more than a decade, and after two successful marketing campaigns in the second half of the 1930s that the Vegemite brand gained some market traction. The first of these was in 1935 and 1936, when a free jar of Vegemite was offered with every sale of an item from the relatively extensive Kraft-Walker product list (after Walker’s company merged with Kraft) (White). The second was an attention-grabbing contest held in 1937, which invited consumers to compose Vegemite-inspired limericks. However, it was not the nature of the product itself or even the task set by the competition which captured mass attention, but the prize of a desirable, exotic and valuable imported Pontiac car (Richardson 61; Superbrands).Since that time, multinational media company, J Walter Thompson (now rebranded as JWT) has continued to manage Vegemite’s marketing. JWT’s marketing has never looked to Vegemite’s status as a thrifty recycler of waste as a viable marketing strategy, even in periods of austerity (such as the Depression years and the Second World War) or in more recent times of environmental concern. Instead, advertising copywriting and a recurrent cycle of cultural/media memorialisation have created a superbrand by focusing on two factors: its nutrient value and, as the brand became more established, its status as national icon. Throughout the regular noting and celebration of anniversaries of its initial invention and launch, with various commemorative events and products marking each of these product ‘birthdays,’ Vegemite’s status as recycled waste product has never been more than mentioned. Even when its 60th anniversary was marked in 1983 with the laying of a permanent plaque in Kerferd Road, South Melbourne, opposite Walker’s original factory, there was only the most passing reference to how, and from what, the product manufactured at the site was made. This remained the case when the site itself was prioritised for heritage listing almost twenty years later in 2001 (City of Port Phillip).Shying away from the reality of this successful example of recycling food waste into food was still the case in 1990, when Kraft Foods held a nationwide public campaign to recover past styles of Vegemite containers and packaging, and then donated their collection to Powerhouse Museum. The Powerhouse then held an exhibition of the receptacles and the historical promotional material in 1991, tracing the development of the product’s presentation (Powerhouse Museum), an occasion that dovetailed with other nostalgic commemorative activities around the product’s 70th birthday. Although the production process was noted in the exhibition, it is noteworthy that the possibilities for recycling a number of the styles of jars, as either containers with reusable lids or as drinking glasses, were given considerably more notice than the product’s origins as a recycled product. By this time, it seems, Vegemite had become so incorporated into Australian popular memory as a product in its own right, and with such a rich nostalgic history, that its origins were no longer of any significant interest or relevance.This disregard continued in the commemorative volume, The Vegemite Cookbook. With some ninety recipes and recipe ideas, the collection contains an almost unimaginably wide range of ways to use Vegemite as an ingredient. There are recipes on how to make the definitive Vegemite toast soldiers and Vegemite crumpets, as well as adaptations of foreign cuisines including pastas and risottos, stroganoffs, tacos, chilli con carne, frijole dip, marinated beef “souvlaki style,” “Indian-style” chicken wings, curries, Asian stir-fries, Indonesian gado-gado and a number of Chinese inspired dishes. Although the cookbook includes a timeline of product history illustrated with images from the major advertising campaigns that runs across 30 pages of the book, this timeline history emphasises the technological achievement of Vegemite’s creation, as opposed to the matter from which it orginated: “In a Spartan room in Albert Park Melbourne, 20 year-old food technologist Cyril P. Callister employed by Fred Walker, conducted initial experiments with yeast. His workplace was neither kitchen nor laboratory. … It was not long before this rather ordinary room yielded an extra-ordinary substance” (2). The Big Vegemite Party Book, described on its cover as “a great book for the Vegemite fan … with lots of old advertisements from magazines and newspapers,” is even more openly nostalgic, but similarly includes very little regarding Vegemite’s obviously potentially unpalatable genesis in waste.Such commemorations have continued into the new century, each one becoming more self-referential and more obviously a marketing strategy. In 2003, Vegemite celebrated its 80th birthday with the launch of the “Spread the Smile” campaign, seeking to record the childhood reminisces of adults who loved Vegemite. After this, the commemorative anniversaries broke free from even the date of its original invention and launch, and began to celebrate other major dates in the product’s life. In this way, Kraft made major news headlines when it announced that it was trying to locate the children who featured in the 1954 “Happy little Vegemites” campaign as part of the company’s celebrations of the 50th anniversary of the television advertisement. In October 2006, these once child actors joined a number of past and current Kraft employees to celebrate the supposed production of the one-billionth jar of Vegemite (Rood, "Vegemite Spreads" & "Vegemite Toasts") but, once again, little about the actual production process was discussed. In 2007, the then iconic marching band image was resituated into a contemporary setting—presumably to mobilise both the original messages (nutritious wholesomeness in an Australian domestic context) as well as its heritage appeal. Despite the real interest at this time in recycling and waste reduction, the silence over Vegemite’s status as recycled, repurposed food waste product continued.Concluding Remarks: Towards Considering Waste as a ResourceIn most parts of the Western world, including Australia, food waste is formally (in policy) and informally (by consumers) classified, disposed of, or otherwise treated alongside garden waste and other organic materials. Disposal by individuals, industry or local governments includes a range of options, from dumping to composting or breaking down in anaerobic digestion systems into materials for fertiliser, with food waste given no special status or priority. Despite current concerns regarding the security of food supplies in the West and decades of recognising that there are sections of all societies where people do not have enough to eat, it seems that recycling food waste into food that people can consume remains one of the last and least palatable solutions to these problems. This brief study of Vegemite has attempted to show how, despite the growing interest in recycling and sustainability, the focus in both the marketing of, and public interest in, this iconic and popular product appears to remain rooted in Vegemite’s nutrient and nostalgic value and its status as a brand, and firmly away from any suggestion of innovative and prudent reuse of waste product. That this is so for an already popular product suggests that any initiatives that wish to move in this direction must first reconfigure not only the way waste itself is seen—as a valuable product to be used, rather than as a troublesome nuisance to be disposed of—but also our own understandings of, and reactions to, waste itself.Acknowledgements Many thanks to the reviewers for their perceptive, useful, and generous comments on this article. All errors are, of course, my own. The research for this work was carried out with funding from the Faculty of Arts, Business, Informatics and Education, CQUniversity, Australia.ReferencesAnderson, C. T. “Sacred Waste: Ecology, Spirit, and the American Garbage Poem.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment 17 (2010): 35-60.Blake, J. The Vegemite Cookbook: Delicious Recipe Ideas. Melbourne: Ark Publishing, 1992.Braeken, L., B. Van der Bruggen and C. 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Introduction The genealogy of Feminist Standpoint Theory in the 1970s prioritised “locationality”, particularly the recognition of social and historical locations as valuable contribution to knowledge production. Pioneering figures such as Sandra Harding, Dorothy Smith, Patricia Hill Collins, Alison Jaggar, and Donna Haraway have argued that the oppressed must have some means (such as language, cultural practices) to enter the world of the oppressor in order to access some understanding of how the world works from the privileged perspective. In the essay “Meeting at the Edge of Fear: Theory on a World Scale”, the Australian social scientist Raewyn Connell explains that the production of feminist theory almost always comes from the global North. Connell critiques the hegemony of mainstream Northern feminism in her pyramidal model (59), showing how theory/knowledge is produced at the apex (global North) of a pyramid structure and “trickles down” (59) to the global South. Connell refers to a second model called mosaic epistemology which shows that multiple feminist ideologies across global North/South are juxtaposed against each other like tiles, with each specific culture making its own claims to validity.However, Nigerian feminist Bibi Bakare-Yusuf’s reflection on the fluidity of culture in her essay “Fabricating Identities” (5) suggests that fixing knowledge as Northern and Southern—disparate, discrete, and rigidly structured tiles—is also problematic. Connell proposes a third model called solidarity-based epistemology which involves mutual learning and critiquing with a focus on solidarity across differences. However, this is impractical in implementation especially given that feminist nomenclature relies on problematic terms such as “international”, “global North/South”, “transnational”, and “planetary” to categorise difference, spatiality, and temporality, often creating more distance than reciprocal exchange. Geographical specificity can be too limiting, but we also need to acknowledge that it is geographical locationality which becomes disadvantageous to overcome racial, cultural, and gender biases — and here are few examples.Nomenclatures: Global-North and Global South ParadigmThe global North/South terminology differentiating the two regions according to means of trade and relative wealth emerged from the Brandt Report’s delineation of the North as wealthy and South as impoverished in 1980s. Initially, these terms were a welcome repudiation of the hierarchical nomenclature of “developed” and “developing” nations. Nevertheless, the categories of North and South are problematic because of increased socio-economic heterogeneity causing erasure of local specificities without reflecting microscopic conflicts among feminists within the global North and the global South. Some feminist terms such as “Third World feminism” (Narayan), “global feminism” (Morgan), or “local feminisms” (Basu) aim to centre women's movements originating outside the West or in the postcolonial context, other labels attempt to making feminism more inclusive or reflective of cross-border linkages. These include “transnational feminism” (Grewal and Kaplan) and “feminism without borders” (Mohanty). In the 1980s, Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality garnered attention in the US along with Gloria Anzaldúa’s Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (1987), which raised feminists’ awareness of educational, healthcare, and financial disparities among women and the experiences of marginalised people across the globe, leading to an interrogation of the aims and purposes of mainstream feminism. In general, global North feminism refers to white middle class feminist movements further expanded by concerns about civil rights and contemporary queer theory while global South feminism focusses on decolonisation, economic justice, and disarmament. However, the history of colonialism demonstrates that this paradigm is inadequate because the oppression and marginalisation of Black, Indigenous, and Queer activists have been avoided purposely in the homogenous models of women’s oppression depicted by white radical and liberal feminists. A poignant example is from Audre Lorde’s personal account:I wheeled my two-year-old daughter in a shopping cart through a supermarket in Eastchester in 1967, and a little white girl riding past in her mother’s cart calls out excitedly, ‘oh look, Mommy, a baby maid!’ And your mother shushes you, but does not correct you, and so fifteen years later, at a conference on racism, you can still find that story humorous. But I hear your laughter is full of terror and disease. (Lorde)This exemplifies how the terminology global North/South is a problem because there are inequities within the North that are parallel to the division of power and resources between North and South. Additionally, Susan Friedman in Planetary Modernisms observes that although the terms “Global North” and “Global South” are “rhetorically spatial” they are “as geographically imprecise and ideologically weighted as East/West” because “Global North” signifies “modern global hegemony” and “Global South” signifies the “subaltern, … —a binary construction that continues to place the West at the controlling centre of the plot” (Friedman, 123).Focussing on research-activism debate among US feminists, Sondra Hale takes another tack, emphasising that feminism in the global South is more pragmatic than the theory-oriented feminist discourse of the North (Hale). Just as the research-scholarship binary implies myopic assumption that scholarship is a privileged activity, Hale’s observations reveal a reductive assumption in the global North and global South nomenclature that feminism at the margins is theoretically inadequate. In other words, recognising the “North” as the site of theoretical processing is a euphemism for Northern feminists’ intellectual supremacy and the inferiority of Southern feminist praxis. To wit, theories emanating from the South are often overlooked or rejected outright for not aligning with Eurocentric framings of knowledge production, thereby limiting the scope of feminist theories to those that originate in the North. For example, while discussing Indigenous women’s craft-autobiography, the standard feminist approach is to apply Susan Sontag’s theory of gender and photography to these artefacts even though it may not be applicable given the different cultural, social, and class contexts in which they are produced. Consequently, Moroccan feminist Fatima Mernissi’s Islamic methodology (Mernissi), the discourse of land rights, gender equality, kinship, and rituals found in Bina Agarwal’s A Field of One’s Own, Marcia Langton’s “Grandmothers’ Law”, and the reflection on military intervention are missing from Northern feminist theoretical discussions. Moreover, “outsiders within” feminist scholars fit into Western feminist canonical requirements by publishing their works in leading Western journals or seeking higher degrees from Western institutions. In the process, Northern feminists’ intellectual hegemony is normalised and regularised. An example of the wealth of the materials outside of mainstream Western feminist theories may be found in the work of Girindrasekhar Bose, a contemporary of Sigmund Freud, founder of the Indian Psychoanalytic Society and author of the book Concept of Repression (1921). Bose developed the “vagina envy theory” long before the neo-Freudian psychiatrist Karen Horney proposed it, but it is largely unknown in the West. Bose’s article “The Genesis and Adjustment of the Oedipus Wish” discarded Freud’s theory of castration and explained how in the Indian cultural context, men can cherish an unconscious desire to bear a child and to be castrated, implicitly overturning Freud’s correlative theory of “penis envy.” Indeed, the case of India shows that the birth of theory can be traced back to as early as eighth century when study of verbal ornamentation and literary semantics based on the notion of dbvani or suggestion, and the aesthetic theory of rasa or "sentiment" is developed. If theory means systematic reasoning and conceptualising the structure of thought, methods, and epistemology, it exists in all cultures but unfortunately non-Western theory is largely invisible in classroom courses.In the recent book Queer Activism in India, Naisargi Dev shows that the theory is rooted in activism. Similarly, in her essay “Seed and Earth”, Leela Dube reveals how Eastern theories are distorted as they are Westernised. For instance, the “Purusha-Prakriti” concept in Hinduism where Purusha stands for pure consciousness and Prakriti stands for the entire phenomenal world is almost universally misinterpreted in terms of Western binary oppositions as masculine consciousness and feminine creative principle which has led to disastrous consequences including the legitimisation of male control over female sexuality. Dube argues how heteropatriarchy has twisted the Purusha-Prakriti philosophy to frame the reproductive metaphor of the male seed germinating in the female field for the advantage of patrilineal agrarian economies and to influence a homology between reproductive metaphors and cultural and institutional sexism (Dube 22-24). Attempting to reverse such distortions, ecofeminist Vandana Shiva rejects dualistic and exploitative “contemporary Western views of nature” (37) and employs the original Prakriti-Purusha cosmology to construct feminist vision and environmental ethics. Shiva argues that unlike Cartesian binaries where nature or Prakriti is inert and passive, in Hindu Philosophy, Purusha and Prakriti are inseparable and inviolable (Shiva 37-39). She refers to Kalika Purana where it is explained how rivers and mountains have a dual nature. “A river is a form of water, yet is has a distinct body … . We cannot know, when looking at a lifeless shell, that it contains a living being. Similarly, within the apparently inanimate rivers and mountains there dwells a hidden consciousness. Rivers and mountains take the forms they wish” (38).Scholars on the periphery who never migrated to the North find it difficult to achieve international audiences unless they colonise themselves, steeping their work in concepts and methods recognised by Western institutions and mimicking the style and format that western feminist journals follow. The best remedy for this would be to interpret border relations and economic flow between countries and across time through the prism of gender and race, an idea similar to what Sarah Radcliffe, Nina Laurie and Robert Andolina have called the “transnationalization of gender” (160).Migration between Global North and Global SouthReformulation of feminist epistemology might reasonably begin with a focus on migration and gender politics because international and interregional migration have played a crucial role in the production of feminist theories. While some white mainstream feminists acknowledge the long history of feminist imperialism, they need to be more assertive in centralising non-Western theories, scholarship, and institutions in order to resist economic inequalities and racist, patriarchal global hierarchies of military and organisational power. But these possibilities are stymied by migrants’ “de-skilling”, which maintains unequal power dynamics: when migrants move from the global South to global North, many end up in jobs for which they are overqualified because of their cultural, educational, racial, or religious alterity.In the face of a global trend of movement from South to North in search of a “better life”, visual artist Naiza Khan chose to return to Pakistan after spending her childhood in Lebanon before being trained at the University of Oxford. Living in Karachi over twenty years, Khan travels globally, researching, delivering lectures, and holding exhibitions on her art work. Auj Khan’s essay “Peripheries of Thought and Practise in Naiza Khan’s Work” argues: “Khan seems to be going through a perpetual diaspora within an ownership of her hybridity, without having really left any of her abodes. This agitated space of modern hybrid existence is a rich and ripe ground for resolution and understanding. This multiple consciousness is an edge for anyone in that space, which could be effectively made use of to establish new ground”. Naiza Khan’s works embrace loss or nostalgia and a sense of choice and autonomy within the context of unrestricted liminal geographical boundaries.Early work such as “Chastity Belt,” “Heavenly Ornaments”, “Dream”, and “The Skin She Wears” deal with the female body though Khan resists the “feminist artist” category, essentially because of limited Western associations and on account of her paradoxical, diasporic subjectivity: of “the self and the non-self, the doable and the undoable and the anxiety of possibility and choice” (Khan Webpage). Instead, Khan theorises “gender” as “personal sexuality”. The symbolic elements in her work such as corsets, skirts, and slips, though apparently Western, are purposely destabilised as she engages in re-constructing the cartography of the body in search of personal space. In “The Wardrobe”, Khan establishes a path for expressing women’s power that Western feminism barely acknowledges. Responding to the 2007 Islamabad Lal Masjid siege by militants, Khan reveals the power of the burqa to protect Muslim men by disguising their gender and sexuality; women escape the Orientalist gaze. For Khan, home is where her art is—beyond the global North and South dichotomy.In another example of de-centring Western feminist theory, the Indian-British sitar player Anoushka Shankar, who identifies as a radical pro-feminist, in her recent musical album “Land of Gold” produces what Chilla Bulbeck calls “braiding at the borderlands”. As a humanitarian response to the trauma of displacement and the plight of refugees, Shankar focusses on women giving birth during migration and the trauma of being unable to provide stability and security to their children. Grounded in maternal humility, Shankar’s album, composed by artists of diverse background as Akram Khan, singer Alev Lenz, and poet Pavana Reddy, attempts to dissolve boundaries in the midst of chaos—the dislocation, vulnerability and uncertainty experienced by migrants. The album is “a bit of this, and a bit of that” (borrowing Salman Rushdie’s definition of migration in Satanic Verses), both in terms of musical genre and cultural identities, which evokes emotion and subjective fluidity. An encouraging example of truly transnational feminist ethics, Shankar’s album reveals the chasm between global North and global South represented in the tension of a nascent friendship between a white, Western little girl and a migrant refugee child. Unlike mainstream feminism, where migration is often sympathetically feminised and exotified—or, to paraphrase bell hooks, difference is commodified (hooks 373) — Shankar’s album simultaneously exhibits regional, national, and transnational elements. The album inhabits multiple borderlands through musical genres, literature and politics, orality and text, and ethnographic and intercultural encounters. The message is: “the body is a continent / But may your heart always remain the sea" (Shankar). The human rights advocate and lawyer Randa Abdel-Fattah, in her autobiographical novel Does My Head Look Big in This?, depicts herself as “colourful adjectives” (such as “darkies”, “towel-heads”, or the “salami eaters”), painful identities imposed on her for being a Muslim woman of colour. These ultimately empower her to embrace her identity as a Palestinian-Egyptian-Australian Muslim writer (Abdel-Fattah 359). In the process, Abdel-Fattah reveals how mainstream feminism participates in her marginalisation: “You’re constantly made to feel as you’re commenting as a Muslim, and somehow your views are a little bit inferior or you’re somehow a little bit more brainwashed” (Abdel-Fattah, interviewed in 2015).With her parental roots in the global South (Egyptian mother and Palestinian father), Abdel-Fattah was born and brought up in the global North, Australia (although geographically located in global South, Australia is categorised as global North for being above the world average GDP per capita) where she embraced her faith and religious identity apparently because of Islamophobia:I refuse to be an apologist, to minimise this appalling state of affairs… While I'm sick to death, as a Muslim woman, of the hypocrisy and nonsensical fatwas, I confess that I'm also tired of white women who think the answer is flashing a bit of breast so that those "poor," "infantilised" Muslim women can be "rescued" by the "enlightened" West - as if freedom was the sole preserve of secular feminists. (Abdel-Fattah, "Ending Oppression")Abdel-Fattah’s residency in the global North while advocating for justice and equality for Muslim women in both the global North and South is a classic example of the mutual dependency between the feminists in global North and global South, and the need to recognise and resist neoliberal policies applied in by the North to the South. In her novel, sixteen-year-old Amal Mohamed chooses to become a “full-time” hijab wearer in an elite school in Melbourne just after the 9/11 tragedy, the Bali bombings which killed 88 Australians, and the threat by Algerian-born Abdel Nacer Benbrika, who planned to attack popular places in Sydney and Melbourne. In such turmoil, Amal’s decision to wear the hijab amounts to more than resistance to Islamophobia: it is a passionate search for the true meaning of Islam, an attempt to embrace her hybridity as an Australian Muslim girl and above all a step towards seeking spiritual self-fulfilment. As the novel depicts Amal’s challenging journey amidst discouraging and painful, humiliating experiences, the socially constructed “bloody confusing identity hyphens” collapse (5). What remains is the beautiful veil that stands for Amal’s multi-valence subjectivity. The different shades of her hijab reflect different moods and multiple “selves” which are variously tentative, rebellious, romantic, argumentative, spiritual, and ambitious: “I am experiencing a new identity, a new expression of who I am on the inside” (25).In Griffith Review, Randa-Abdel Fattah strongly criticises the book Nine Parts of Desire by Geraldine Brooks, a Wall-Street Journal reporter who travelled from global North to the South to cover Muslim women in the Middle East. Recognising the liberal feminist’s desire to explore the Orient, Randa-Abdel calls the book an example of feminist Orientalism because of the author’s inability to understand the nuanced diversity in the Muslim world, Muslim women’s purposeful downplay of agency, and, most importantly, Brooks’s inevitable veil fetishism in her trip to Gaza and lack of interest in human rights violations of Palestinian women or their lack of access to education and health services. Though Brooks travelled from Australia to the Middle East, she failed to develop partnerships with the women she met and distanced herself from them. This underscores the veracity of Amal’s observation in Abdel Fattah’s novel: “It’s mainly the migrants in my life who have inspired me to understand what it means to be an Aussie” (340). It also suggests that the transnational feminist ethic lies not in the global North and global South paradigm but in the fluidity of migration between and among cultures rather than geographical boundaries and military borders. All this argues that across the imperial cartography of discrimination and oppression, women’s solidarity is only possible through intercultural and syncretistic negotiation that respects the individual and the community.ReferencesAbdel-Fattah, Randa. Does My Head Look Big in This? Sydney: Pan MacMillan Australia, 2005.———. “Ending Oppression in the Middle East: A Muslim Feminist Call to Arms.” ABC Religion and Ethics, 29 April 2013. <http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2013/04/29/3747543.htm>.———. “On ‘Nine Parts Of Desire’, by Geraldine Brooks.” Griffith Review. <https://griffithreview.com/on-nine-parts-of-desire-by-geraldine-brooks/>.Agarwal, Bina. A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1994.Amissah, Edith Kohrs. Aspects of Feminism and Gender in the Novels of Three West African Women Writers. Nairobi: Africa Resource Center, 1999.Andolina, Robert, Nina Laurie, and Sarah A. Radcliffe. Indigenous Development in the Andes: Culture, Power, and Transnationalism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009.Anzaldúa, Gloria E. Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books, 1987.Bakare-Yusuf, Bibi. “Fabricating Identities: Survival and the Imagination in Jamaican Dancehall Culture.” Fashion Theory 10.3 (2006): 1–24.Basu, Amrita (ed.). Women's Movements in the Global Era: The Power of Local Feminisms. Philadelphia: Westview Press, 2010.Bulbeck, Chilla. Re-Orienting Western Feminisms: Women's Diversity in a Postcolonial World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.Connell, Raewyn. “Meeting at the Edge of Fear: Theory on a World Scale.” Feminist Theory 16.1 (2015): 49–66.———. “Rethinking Gender from the South.” Feminist Studies 40.3 (2014): 518-539.Daniel, Eniola. “I Work toward the Liberation of Women, But I’m Not Feminist, Says Buchi Emecheta.” The Guardian, 29 Jan. 2017. <https://guardian.ng/art/i-work-toward-the-liberation-of-women-but-im-not-feminist-says-buchi-emecheta/>.Devi, Mahasveta. "Draupadi." Trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Critical Inquiry 8.2 (1981): 381-402.Friedman, Susan Stanford. Planetary Modernisms: Provocations on Modernity across Time. New York: Columbia University Press, 2015.Grewal, Inderpal, and Caren Kaplan. Scattered Hegemonies: Postmodernity and Transnational Feminist. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994.Hale, Sondra. “Transnational Gender Studies and the Migrating Concept of Gender in the Middle East and North Africa.” Cultural Dynamics 21.2 (2009): 133-52.hooks, bell. “Eating the Other: Desire and Resistance.” Black Looks: Race and Representation. Boston: South End Press, 1992.Langton, Marcia. “‘Grandmother’s Law’, Company Business and Succession in Changing Aboriginal Land Tenure System.” Traditional Aboriginal Society: A Reader. Ed. W.H. Edward. 2nd ed. Melbourne: Macmillan, 2003.Lazreg, Marnia. “Feminism and Difference: The Perils of Writing as a Woman on Women in Algeria.” Feminist Studies 14.1 (Spring 1988): 81-107.Liew, Stephanie. “Subtle Racism Is More Problematic in Australia.” Interview. music.com.au 2015. <http://themusic.com.au/interviews/all/2015/03/06/randa-abdel-fattah/>.Lorde, Audre. “The Uses of Anger: Women Responding to Racism.” Keynoted presented at National Women’s Studies Association Conference, Storrs, Conn., 1981.Mernissi, Fatima. The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Women’s Rights in Islam. Trans. Mary Jo Lakeland. New York: Basic Books, 1991.Moghadam, Valentine. Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2003.Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. Feminism without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003.Moreton-Robinson, Aileen. Talkin' Up to the White Woman: Aboriginal Women and Feminism. St Lucia: Queensland University Press, 2000.Morgan, Robin (ed.). Sisterhood Is Global: The International Women's Movement Anthology. New York: The Feminist Press, 1984.Narayan, Uma. Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third World Feminism, 1997.

RESUMEN El esquema de este trabajo queda enmarcado por la primera frase del tí­tulo. La primera palabra, autonomí­a, recoge un recorrido histórico por buena parte de la tradición filosófica que culmina en la Ilustración del siglo XVIII. La primera persona, el yo, es el centro seguro de reflexión. El siguiente apartado (re-)versus se detiene muy rápidamente en los autores de la sospecha. Éstos ayudan a ver la realidad desde otros puntos de vista. Su misión es hacer ”desconfiar” o poner en duda los cauces sobre los que la filosofí­a ha transcurrido tradicionalmente. La palabra central en el último apartado es la heteronomí­a. El Nuevo Pensamiento, basado en las raí­ces judí­as, enfoca su filosofí­a en la importancia de la segunda persona, del tú. Es evidente que este espacio no pretende analizar exhaustivamente el pensamiento de cada autor. Este esfuerzo queda lejos del espacio de una revista. Lo que se busca es descubrir las principales lí­neas del pensamiento y relacionarlas con la finalidad de dinamizar la reflexión sobre los derechos humanos. No se trata solamente de leer un listado de derechos muertos en un papel, sino de recuperar el diálogo constante entre personas y culturas para acordar cuál es el mí­nimo común que nos permite vivir a todos juntos lo mejor posible. ABSTRACT The framework of this project is encapsulated by the first sentence of the title. The first word, autonomy, traces a historic path through the philosophical tradition culminating in the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century. The first person, the ”I”, is the secure center of reflection. The second word from the title, (re-)versus, directs focus upon the authors of doubt. They assist in viewing reality from a different perspective. Their mission is to provoke ”mistrust” or place in doubt the fundamental grounding upon which philosophy has generally been erected. The third word of the title is heteronomy. The New Thought, based on Jewish sources, focuses its philosophy on the importance of the second person, the ”you”. It is evident that this space precludes an exhaustive analysis of the thought of each author. That kind of work is beyond the scope of a journal. Rather, the purpose is to present the main lines of thought and relate them to each other in order to introduce dynamism into the thinking regarding human rights. Serious reflection is not only about reading a sterile list of rights from a piece of paper, but rather, is recouping a continuous dialogue between persons and cultures in order to reach a consensus as to what is the lowest common denominator which allows everyone to live together in the best possible way. * Licenciado en ciencias religiosas, licenciado en filosofí­a, maestrí­a en filosofí­a. Actualmente es el coordinador de las materias de humanidades de la Universidad La Salle Pachuca. jpanedas@lasallep.edu.mx PRESENTACIÓN La filosofí­a, en el transcurso de su historia, ha reflexionado sobre la realidad y sobre los temas más importantes que afectan al hombre. La manera de afrontarlos ha adquirido distintos enfoques y perspectivas. Cada uno de los pensadores ha dejado su toque personal en las ideas que ha generado. Lo que queda claro es que el movimiento no termina. Pasa el tiempo, vienen nuevas épocas y nunca falta alguien que siga ”re-flexionando” sobre las preguntas definitivas. Siguiendo los caminos ya trazados, el filósofo innova profundidades diferentes. Los derechos humanos, en este esfuerzo a través del tiempo, se constituyen como principios rectores de la reflexión. Son ideas culmen a las que la humanidad ha llegado después de muchas guerras, sangre y sacrificios. Hoy en dí­a nadie en Occidente se atreverí­a a poner en duda la validez de estos principios. Sin embargo, si miramos estos derechos bajo el microscopio de otros fundamentos, lejos de debilitarlos los convertirán en más comprensibles, más profundos y, sobre todo, más justos. Tradicionalmente hemos oí­do hablar sobre los derechos humanos y su relación con el principio de autonomí­a. En este trabajo, además de apuntar las debilidades de este enfoque, aplicaremos las luces de la heteronomí­a para la mejor observación de las entretelas de los derechos humanos. I. Autonomí­a Desde los primeros albores de la filosofí­a griega, Parménides de Elea y Heráclito de Éfeso, plantearon las lí­neas generales que la filosofí­a continuarí­a durante muchos siglos (Xirau 1995:31). Parménides se constituyó en el fundador de las primeras bases ontológicas y metafí­sicas. Heráclito ofreció la contraparte: el movimiento, lo perecedero, lo inmediato. Ambos presentan las dos caras de una misma moneda. El uno necesita del otro: el movimiento y lo que permanece más allá del cambio (Marí­as 1993:28). Ambos alcanzan una fórmula que pretende expresar de manera universal lo que es la realidad. Sócrates, Platón y Aristóteles, cada quien desde su enfoque, aportaron a la cultura occidental un bagaje profundí­simo de conceptos y reflexión, un suelo sumamente feraz del cual se enriquecerán todos los pensadores posteriores. Sócrates, la eterna pregunta y el ejemplo de coherencia moral, afianza el método dialéctico. Platón, idealista por excelencia, cree resolver el problema del movimiento con la firmeza del mundo de las ideas. Aristóteles, vuelto a la realidad, elabora la respuesta más acabada a la combinación de ser y no ser o dejar de ser, de unidad y de diversidad, sin evadirse a ningún lado sino a la esencia de las cosas en cuanto entes que son. Con la cumbre del Estagirita, por fin, el pensamiento griego puede decir que alcanzó la verdad (aletheia): el ser de lo que existe. El siguiente gran cuerpo de pensamiento que descansa en los alcances griegos fue el que se desarrolló en el seno del cristianismo. Esta lí­nea monolí­tica de reflexión se prolongó desde el siglo IV hasta prácticamente el siglo XV. La época medieval será la encargada de mantener el conocimiento que habí­a acumulado en buena medida hasta entonces occidente. Las escuelas parroquiales y monásticas, los scriptoriums y bibliotecas conventuales, el nacimiento de las universidades y el comienzo de la divulgación de la cultura son, entre otros, algunos de los méritos de este tiempo. Dos conceptos son especialmente relevantes para nuestro propósito: persona y conciencia. La noción de persona como actualmente la conocemos aparece en el contexto cristiano empujado por la necesidad de aclaración teológica respecto a la manera de hablar de Dios (RATZINGER 2005: 26.27.153). La relación que el hombre establece con un Dios personal le hace partí­cipe de su dignidad. El ser hijo de Dios confiere al ser humano una calidad moral nueva, nunca antes sospechada: libertad, igualdad y dignidad son algunas de sus principales caracterí­sticas. La conciencia, siguiendo algo de lo ya apuntado por Sócrates, amplí­a la condición humana hacia la propia interioridad. El hombre, además de ser uno más entre los entes existentes, pasa a ser alguien particular porque puede relacionarse consigo mismo, puede darse cuenta de cómo y qué conoce, es capaz de relacionarse principalmente desde su conciencia con el Ser Supremo: ”Superior summo meo et interior intimo meo” (SAN AGUSTíN, Confesiones 3,6,11) Muchas de las derivaciones de estos puntos se podrán intuir bajo las revolucionarias ideas que aparecerán en la moderna Europa contemporánea. Con el declive del pensamiento medieval centrado en Dios, surge la modernidad mucho más centrada en el hombre, en su materialidad y en las ciencias naturales. Nicolás Copérnico, Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon son algunos de los protagonistas más sobresalientes de este cambio cultural. Este caldo fecundo de cultivo será aprovechado por René Descartes. El giro racionalista ensimisma al hombre, se preocupa por el modo de llegar al conocimiento y por el análisis del pensamiento. Lo más seguro resulta ser la certeza del propio acto de pensar. Lo material, lo exterior, lo fí­sico resultan ser cuando menos dubitables. Se abre una veta que, pasando por el debate con los empiristas, culminará en Kant y Hegel. Junto con la reflexión teórica los acontecimientos sociales han ido evolucionando a la par. El viejo sistema feudal cae, comienza la aparición crecientemente importante de la burguesí­a, la economí­a se presenta como un nuevo poder, las guerras de religión que han diezmado Europa concluyen. Se alcanza la claridad de que la religión debe pasar al ámbito privado y que el derecho civil es la norma común que tiene que regir las sociedades. Estos dos tipos de libertades, interior y pública, pasan a ser parte de los derechos polí­ticos que pertenecen a los ciudadanos del estado democrático liberal europeo. El fundamento último de esta madurez en el pensamiento es la claridad de la personalidad individual como origen, fin y limitación de la actividad estatal. La universalidad del principio de libertad individual es recogido por el derecho como algo inviolable aplicado a todos los niveles. Interioridad y exterioridad, ámbito privado y público (Kant 1968: 36-37)1, religión y estado, conciencia y ley, revelación y razón son dimensiones que se combinan equilibradamente en la noción de tolerancia. En segundo lugar, el cuidado de las almas no pude pertenecer al magistrado civil, porque su poder consiste solamente en una fuerza exterior, en tanto que la religión verdadera y salvadora consiste en la persuasión interna de la mente, sin la cual nada puede ser aceptable a Dios (Locke 1994: 10). Queda clara y fijada para siempre la separación de los poderes eclesiales y estatales. Aunque la moralidad de las costumbres incumbe a ambas instituciones (Locke 1994: 49.52). …estimo necesario, sobre todas las cosas, distinguir exactamente entre las cuestiones del gobierno civil y las de la religión, fijando, de este modo, las justas fronteras que existen entre uno y otro (Locke 1994: 8.66). La autonomí­a será el concepto moral más básico de todos los que se barajan a finales del siglo XVIII: Die Autonomie des Willens ist das alleinige Prinzip aller moralischen Gesetze und der ihnen gemí¤ben Pflichten (Kant 2001: 32)2. La potestad del ser humano para poder decidir responsablemente sobre su vida implica una confianza absoluta en la razón del hombre, en su libertad y voluntad. El individuo es la medida de todas las cosas, en su conciencia reside una intención innata a la buena voluntad; como todos somos iguales todos buscamos el bien común (universalidad axiológica). Compartimos la certeza de que podemos conocer la realidad tal y como es (universalidad gnoseológica). El conocimiento abre la puerta a la seguridad tecnológica y económica (universalidad del tipo de progreso burgués). Una nueva sociedad fundada en el respeto está por imponerse. El andamiaje legal asegura la justicia y el orden social (universalidad legal). No es de extrañar que se hable de la dignidad inherente a la persona y de los derechos que les son debidos por sus semejantes y por la sociedad (universalidad de los derechos individuales y civiles). La verdad a la que se aspiraba desde los antiguos griegos se estableció de manera definitiva. La verdad es una y se presenta como el resultado de las más sesudas reflexiones de la humanidad. Eso son los derechos humanos3. Las revoluciones inglesas y de las colonias americanas, el pensamiento ilustrado y los principios ciudadanos franceses serán algunas de las realizaciones históricas de los derechos individuales (Camps 2001: 192)4. Este rapidí­simo recorrido por algunos de los principales hitos de la historia de la filosofí­a nos ha llevado hasta la cúspide de la Ilustración, el modelo valoral y vital de nuestra modernidad. Al final no todo fue oro reluciente. La sombras demandan revisión. A esto justamente, a revisar y a sospechar, se dedican los autores que vamos a ver a continuación. II. Versus5 o el ”pensamiento de la sospecha” En los mismos tiempos, siglo XVIII, existí­a una corriente de pensamiento paralela que poní­a en duda la necesidad del respeto por el otro6, la potencia de la razón y proponí­a la pasión incontrolada junto con la oscuridad más profunda del ser humano. El Marqués de Sade y Baudelaire pueden ser, desde la literatura, dos buenas expresiones de esta postura7. Todos ellos desean apartarse de la ilusión de progreso y de las convenciones seguras de su época8. Desconfí­an de los fundamentos que a los demás sostienen y de las creencias generales, aunque implique soledad e incomprensión9. A pesar de todas las buenas intenciones no podemos olvidar que algunas de las consecuencias inmediatas de nobles ideales ilustrados fueron la época del terror francesa, las desigualdades de la primera industrialización, el recorte al derecho de representación y del sufragio universal, las guerras napoleónicas y de secesión, el hambre popular… y muchos otros males que llegan claramente hasta nuestros dí­as. Empero será en el siglo XIX cuando se dé un giro en la filosofí­a para intentar ver la realidad de otro modo, destronando al individuo del centro de la misma. Los tres pensadores principales son Marx, Freud y Nietzsche (Camps 2001: 191-198)10. Esta trí­ada en general, se ocupa de desenmascarar, de poner al descubierto los platonismos o idealismos falsos en los que ha vivido la historia de la filosofí­a. Para ellos pensar es interpretar, en esto consistirí­a la sospecha. La metáfora se convierte en la figura central (Vattimo-P. A. Rovatti 2000: 1-3). No es cierto todo lo que parece, las apariencias pueden dar seguridad pero no descubren qué son las cosas. El descubrimiento del subconsciente, la importancia que las relaciones sociales tienen para la persona y la necesidad de recuperar las auténticas fuerzas o voluntades del hombre cuestionan y destruyen la seguridad del cogito cartesiano y de la conciencia autónoma. La inmersión en las profundidades del inconsciente y su relación con la vida real socava la confianza en la conciencia y siembra la duda en la definición de identidad. La necesidad de adquirir nuevos ámbitos sociales por parte de la burguesí­a, la insaciable avidez del dinero y el potencial de ocultamiento de estas pasiones desvelan (aletheia) las auténticas motivaciones capitales. Por último, Nietzsche rechaza la historia de la filosofí­a desde Sócrates (Nietzsche 1997: 129.225), promueve el nihilismo activo y ensalza la auténtica pasión humana, la voluntad de poder. Nada más contrario a la declaración de derechos humanos. En realidad el poder es el único derecho del hombre. Ninguno de los tres se resigna a reducir la realidad a un solo enfoque. La vida es polivalente, no se puede esconder su complejidad en vanas ilusiones. La caracterí­stica principal de lo existente es su dinamismo. Todo se relaciona con todo, no hay origen, ni centro, ni meta, solamente la capacidad inacabable de volverse a relacionar ”ad infinitum”. Estos sistemas de pensamiento tienen en el siglo XX no pocos seguidores de un cariz u otro. Serí­a vano intentar aquí­ ser exhaustivo. Podrí­a mencionarse a Lacan, Zizek, Baudrillard, Guattari, Deleuze, Foucault, Althusser, Chomsky, Luhmann, Ciorán… y un largo etcétera. Un denominador común de todos ellos es el cuestionamiento a la realidad y el no sometimiento a una única mirada de lo existente. Esta manera de ver las cosas se confirmará con las exageraciones del progreso y de la técnica. Los genocidios de principio, medio y fin de siglo XX; las desiguales condiciones de vida evidentemente injustas; la mortandad a causa del hambre en buena parte del mundo; las arbitrariedades militares de las potencias económicas… son reforzadores de un pensamiento escéptico y pesimista. Todo, pues, queda abierto a la interpretación y no a la sumisión del pensamiento único. Se debilitan las certezas anteriores. La conciencia se descubre determinada por lo escondido del inconsciente. La verdad (aletheia) no se queda estática en la realidad para poderse conocer. Dios, el sujeto y su segura autonomí­a mueren por innecesarios. El filósofo se obliga a permanecer en medio de la nada y de la incertidumbre como estado de vida. Si estas bases se mueven o desaparecen los resultados de la Ilustración se quedan sin piso. Los derechos del hombre están en el aire porque resulta que no hay hombre. Sin embargo, no carecen de peligros estos posicionamientos ”sospechosos”. Dos son los principales: nihilismo y dogmatismo (Foucault 1967: 182-192)11. Toda hermenéutica, incluida la de la sospecha, corre el peligro de agostarse en su propio dinamismo interpretativo o de permanecer en el terreno de la locura. El planteamiento de la sospecha quita una máscara, pero propone otra. Se debilita la noción ”dura” de verdad a través del esfuerzo interpretador. Lo que distinguirí­a a la hermenéutica de la sospecha de cualquier otra, es la constante contraposición de términos, las inacabables aporí­as aparentes desde las que se avanza en este proceso. El dogmatismo puede llegar de nuevo como muestra del cansancio ante el proceso inacabable de interpretación. Se pueden desenmascarar numerosas falsedades, pero llega un momento en el que concluye esa cadena asentándose en cualquier otra máscara o abandonándose a una idea preconcebida que condicione la significación de todo lo demás. Siempre es mejor tener algún sentido, que carecer de él. Tiene que haber algo más que confiera certeza a la vida. Derrida se suma a esta corriente hermenéutica, pero no permanece en ella, no es un hermeneuta más12. Lo que Derrida comparte con todos estos autores es, principalmente, la importancia del lenguaje, de la polémica (Peñalver 1996: 1)13 y de la sospecha. La deconstrucción recoge la estafeta de la sospecha, pero no se contenta con permanecer en ella (Derrida 1989: 47-89)14. Su esfuerzo constante consiste en no establecerse en ninguno de los extremos: ni una sola verdad, ni absoluta incertidumbre respecto a la realidad. Rechaza un ámbito de conocimiento universal, que además queda identificado como orden de saber eminentemente masculino15. Derrida quiere recuperar la profundidad inconsciente que tiene el propio lenguaje filosófico teniendo en cuenta la diversidad del lenguaje metafórico (Derrida 1989: 153). El sentido propio, fundamentado en el principio de identidad parmenideo, ha esclavizado a la filosofí­a a una reducción de la presencia. En este defecto cayeron los autores más arriba estudiados. Ésta es la labor ardua del pensamiento de Derrida, luchar contra el logocentrismo-fonocentrismo-falo(logo)centrismo e investigar la riqueza de la escritura originaria (Derrida 1989: 403), es la función de la Gramatologí­a (cf., Derrida 2000: 9-10). Pero tampoco anida su reflexión en el mero dinamismo. Queda abierto a lo diferente, al otro (Derrida 1998: 7). Es una brecha que aprovecha lo que está presente ya en el reino de la autonomí­a y que abre la puerta a otra manera de pensar. Para esto sirve el pensamiento, para afrontar lo que no es identificable en totalidad y permanece en un ámbito infinito de respeto a la otredad. La tarea del pensamiento en esta situación es la de pensar aquello que permanece oculto en la ‘cotidiana presentación’ de eso que siempre sucede; es decir, para Marx, la concreción dialéctica de los nexos que la ideologí­a esconde; para Heidegger, la verdad como aletheia, como abertura de un horizonte (o de un paradigma) que hace posible cualquier verdad entendida como conformidad a las cosas, verificación o falsificación de proposiciones” (Vattimo 2006: 81) El otro puede ser este horizonte. Es indescifrable, es imprevisible, se ubica más allá de la polí­tica en sentido estrecho. Es el horizonte de la heteronomí­a. III. Heteronomí­a Paralelo a todo este largo proceso histórico permanece otro enfoque original y distinto que hunde sus raí­ces en el judaí­smo de muchos siglos atrás. En el transcurso del mismo siglo XIX y principios del XX reaparece un punto de vista distinto a los criterios que habí­an modelado los principales conceptos del pensamiento hasta ese momento. La autonomí­a, el esfuerzo por alcanzar la universalidad y los derechos individuales pueden tener sus peligros. El desenmascaramiento de esas limitaciones y la propuesta de otra perspectiva diferente serán el resultado del pensamiento nuevo propuesto por Hermann Cohen, en primer lugar. III.1. Contexto de un Nuevo Pensamiento El pensamiento Ilustrado del dieciocho, dominador de los pensamientos distintos que hasta él se habí­an producido, unifica en un cuerpo teórico monolí­tico toda esa diversidad. El concepto, manera de conocer del logos, desecha los casos particulares para permanecer en la totalidad universal y en la separación de la cosa respecto a la persona16. Las nociones de progreso, de sujeto trascendental, de ética universal, de bienestar son derivaciones del empeño universalizador burgués (de la Garza 2002: 6-18). La intención del Nuevo Pensamiento es conquistar desde lo original judí­o una ”universalidad universal” (Mate 1997: 15). Por otro lado, aparentemente contradictorio, la Ilustración es un fenómeno particular. Se da en un espacio geográficamente determinado, con una religión establecida como raí­z oculta y un estado social desarrollado. El Weltgeist o Weltanschauung son absolutamente particulares. La universalidad occidental no pasa de ser una universalidad parcial (Metz 2002: 158)17. La organización estatal germana es la más perfecta, los derechos humanos del individuo son históricos y la religión cristiana es la superación y cumplimiento de las promesas del Antiguo Testamento. Todo ello da origen a la ”sociedad perfecta” de la historia. Y por ese mismo motivo puede justificarse la imposición de este modelo a cualquier otro tipo de cultura. La realidad, se piensa, es que se les hace un favor al plenificarlos sin que tengan que realizar el esfuerzo ni pagar los costos (guerras, sangre, pensamiento, trabajo…) que Occidente ha tenido que sufrir para lograr este status. Así­, no solamente, se hace a un lado la pluralidad, sino que, incluso, se puede justificar la intervención violenta para reducir toda diferencia a la universalidad parcial occidental. E. Levinas hace una doble distinción entre el ”amor a la sabidurí­a” y la ”sabidurí­a del amor” (Levinas 2000: 22-29). Aquélla se fundamenta en el principio de identidad, siguiendo la lí­nea parmení­dea. Da origen a la ontologí­a fundamentada en la interioridad y la conciencia. La última consecuencia es la hermenéutica de dominio18, en donde una cultura siente la fuerza suficiente como para justificar su imposición a todas las demás por ser éstas incivilizadas. La metáfora representativa de esta lí­nea es la de Ulises volviendo a ítaca, volviendo a sus raí­ces, a su identidad estática. Ésta, la sabidurí­a del amor, parte de la preeminencia del principio de negación, origen de la dialéctica. La consecuencia inmediata de este principio es la heteronomí­a (Sucasas 2002: 130-136), opuesta a la autonomí­a tan propia de la filosofí­a clásica en su afán de encontrar la verdad definitiva. Las expresiones de esta divergencia son la exterioridad, la categorí­a de huésped19 y el otro. Todas ellas se tipifican en la figura de Abraham. El patriarca del pueblo de Israel es el eternamente viante y extranjero. Es, por tanto, el prototipo de quien necesita ayuda, de quien se mantiene en permanente éxodo20, de quien provoca una respuesta ante la menesterosidad, de quien hace al yo más humano desde el cuidado ético del tú vocante. El movimiento desinteresado, el cambio sin retorno propio de Heráclito es el promotor de la dialéctica. La última consecuencia de este pensamiento es la hermenéutica de alteridad promotora de la pluralidad social21. La posición levinasiana, también la del Nuevo Pensamiento judí­o, es más cercana a la importancia del amor como contenido y búsqueda de la sabidurí­a. Su empeño consiste en conservar la permanente relación dinámica entre las personas, entre el tú y el yo. La formación de cada uno de ellos depende del otro, propiamente se trata de una con-formación. Nunca se concluye la constitución de ninguno de los dos polos necesarios, o siempre se necesitan para establecer el enriquecimiento mutuo inacabado. III.2. Aletheia o conocimiento con el otro. El primero de los fundamentos de este nuevo intento de pensamiento se expresa mediante la fábula de los tres anillos (Mate 1998: 116 n. 3). Este cuento, como cualquier otro, tiene su o sus moralejas o interpretaciones. La primera, serí­a un consejo que se darí­a a los tres hermanos que peleaban por poseer el anillo original: todos los hombres somos iguales. Antes de cualquier distinción o posesión somos todos hombres y, por tanto, con igual dignidad y derechos. En el principio del reconocimiento de la humanidad del otro se fundamentan más solidamente los derechos humanos. La segunda aplicación recalcarí­a la verdad fundamental: la verdad no es propiedad de nadie. La caracterí­stica de la verdad es justamente que es dinámica y, por tanto, que no pertenece a nadie. El cumplimiento de este fundamento implica que no existe un fundamento absoluto de la verdad. No faltan en esta lí­nea diversos apoyos y coincidencias con otros autores que defienden la búsqueda en común de parte de la verdad: La verdad no es tuya ni mí­a, sino de todos22. ¿Tu verdad? No, la Verdad, y ven conmigo a buscarla. La tuya, guárdatela (Cano 1984: 239). El Nuevo Pensamiento se decide más bien por esta segunda opción. La primera de ellas corre el grave peligro de hacer desaparecer toda distinción y diferencia. La realidad es que no todos somos iguales, sí­ podemos llegar a serlo, pero la verdad es que todaví­a no lo somos23. El discurso de los derechos humanos tiene que soportar la contrastación permanente con la realidad de su no cumplimiento en el mundo. Su fracaso es real. La tarea que nos propone esta narración es justamente la de luchar por llegar a ser hombres. Este trabajo se tiene que vivir en un tiempo que está unido í­ntimamente con la realidad del sufrimiento. A este tiempo, Rosenzweig lo denomina como ”mientras tanto” (Mate 1998: 130). Es otra manera de hablar del dolor real de la historia. Lo que está en juego en este enfoque es la necesidad de tomarse en serio la inhumanidad del individuo, sin enmascararlo con discursos trascendentales24. La responsabilidad ante las carencias de cualquier persona, especialmente de las ví­ctimas, es un principio de acción que da origen a la ética y a la idea de tolerancia. III.3. Regla de oro El segundo gran fundamento del Nuevo Pensamiento es la importancia que para la teologí­a judí­a tiene la figura del prójimo. El ”mientras tanto” nos ubica en el momento actual en el que hay que cuidar al que tenemos cerca de nosotros y de toda persona que está sufriendo25. El concepto de hospitalidad implica apertura total e incondicional a la alteridad, en todo su sentido. Implica recibir, en concreto, al foráneo en mi propia casa. Dos pasos fundamentales para esta práctica: acogida y rehén. El primer momento es previo a la propia identidad, a mi estar en casa. La irrupción del otro como antecedente de mi propia ipseidad es la expresión apropiada de mi relacionalidad. El segundo momento, expresa el sentimiento de estar invitado por el otro al recibirlo en mi casa. En mi casa resulto ser el invitado del otro. Esta situación de rehén define mi propia responsabilidad (Derrida 2001: 51). La expresión del ”¡heme aquí­!” se impone como impostergable y como obligatoria26. Esta realidad la habí­a subrayado desde muy antiguo el ”mandamiento del amor”. Jesús de Nazaret asume y ensalza hasta el lí­mite el compromiso amoroso por el otro, por los otros. La regla de oro tiene, en la historia de la Sagrada Escritura, varios enunciados (Conill 2006: 224). Empero, todos ellos, hablan de la primordialidad del prójimo. Seguir los pasos ejemplares del Galileo en la manera de estar con los demás no es una misión fácil. La compasión sin avergonzar al otro es una labor ardua y que no tiene fin. La religión y la moralidad colindan, sin ser barrera insalvable, en este concepto, el de ”compasión”. Pero pensada como concepto heurí­stico para descubrir al ser humano, la compasión se ve libre de toda sospecha y de toda apariencia de pasividad ambigua, y se vuelve un factor ético que puede ser conocido, aun cuando sólo lo sea como motor de la voluntad pura (Cohen 2004: 109). Se plantea la problemática del afecto y del sentimiento (Mate 1997: 224-231). Es inevitable volver la mirada al pensamiento cristiano y su raí­z judí­a que pone a la base de la ética el mandato de amar. Cede la razón al sentimiento de amor por el otro. La pobreza es el sufrimiento universal del género humano. La compasión tiene que salir al encuentro del sufrimiento si es que el ser humano debe por fin nacer también como un yo. Frente al hecho social del sufrimiento humano debe inflamarse el sentimiento humano original de la compasión (Mate 1997: 110). Éste es el motor que nos empuja a la acción frente al sufrimiento ajeno. La ética acepta el afecto como motor de la voluntad pura27. Y de entre los sentimientos y afectos, el más fuerte es el de compasión. La compasión no se debe entender como el reflejo pasivo del yo, en el que el ser humano es un congénere, sino como el planteamiento de un nuevo problema sobre el ser humano. La hospitalidad desemboca en la apuesta de acción responsable que respetando la diferencia, se hace solidaria con el quejido y grito de quien necesita ayuda. Desde este punto de vista el asesino necesita enfrentar a la ví­ctima y responder al cuestionamiento directo de por qué generar ese horror. Es la única manera de que la ví­ctima o futuras ví­ctimas puedan descansar en paz, sabiendo que el asesino ha dejado de serlo. Esta clase de comportamiento no puede esperar a la respuesta lenta y mezquina de la polí­tica, de las leyes o de la policí­a. En esto consiste la auténtica justicia. Se impone, a estas alturas de nuestro escrito, una redefinición de la conciencia, tan utilizada en la tradición occidental: