Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Frogs and environment'

Biology
Ph.D.
Leopard frogs (Rana pipiens) rely on vision to recognize behaviorally meaningful aspects of their environment. The optic tectum has been shown to mediate the frog's ability to recognize and respond to moving prey and looming objects. Nonetheless, atectal frogs are still able to appropriately respond to non-moving aspects of their environment. There appears to be independent visual systems operating in the frog: one system for recognizing moving objects; and another system for recognizing stationary objects. Little is known about the neural mechanisms mediating the recognition of stationary objects in frogs. Our laboratory showed that a retino-recipient area in the anterior lateral thalamus--the NB/CG zone--is involved in processing visual information concerning stationary aspects of the environment. This thesis aims to characterize the frog's responses to a range of stationary stimuli, and to elucidate the thalamic visual system that mediates those responses. I tested leopard frogs' responses to different stationary stimuli and found they respond in stereotypical ways. I discovered that leopard frogs are attracted to dark, stationary, opaque objects; and tested the extent of this attraction under different conditions. I found that frogs' preference to move toward a dark area versus a light source depends on the intensity of the light source relative to the intensity of ambient light. Unilateral lesions applied to the NB/CG zone of the anterior lateral thalamus resulted in temporary deficits in frogs' responses to stationary stimuli presented in the contralateral visual field. Deficits were observed in response to: dark objects, entrances to dark areas, light sources, and gaps between stationary barriers. However, responses to moving prey and looming stimuli were unaffected. Interestingly, these deficits tended to recover after about 6 days in most cases. Recovery time ranged from 2 - 28 days. The NB/CG zone is anatomically and functionally connected to a structure in the posterior thalamus called the "PMDT." The PMDT has no other connections in the brain. Thus, I have discovered a "satellite" of the NB/CG zone. Preliminary evidence suggests that the PMDT is another component of the visual system mediating stationary object recognition in the frog.
Temple University--Theses

Many species are threatened by rapidly changing climate and amphibians may be particularly vulnerable. As ectotherms, all aspects of amphibian physiology and life history are directly or indirectly influenced by temperature and moisture. For amphibian conservation, a clear priority is to investigate impacts of climate change on key environmental parameters within breeding habitats, as well as the ecology of threatened species. This information is vital for assessing species vulnerability to climate change and informing conservation efforts. Wallum frogs are species that are restricted to naturally acidic, oligotrophic coastal wetlands of eastern Australia. There is a paucity of ecological data on wallum frogs and their breeding habitats however climate change predictions suggest they are likely to be exposed to changes in the timing and intensity of precipitation, and increases in temperature. Consequently, the aim of this study was to enhance our understanding of the bioclimatic conditions of threatened wallum frogs at a landscape scale. This information was then used to assess climate change vulnerability for these wallum associated frog species, particularly the threatened wallum sedge frog (Litoria olongburensis). This study determined environmental factors influencing reproductive behaviours of L. olongburensis, namely calling phenology and breeding effort. Also, the impacts of fire on wallum frog ecology and morphology were assessed, as their habitat is exposed to regular and intense fires, which are predicted to increase in frequency and/or severity in the future.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Griffith School of Environment
Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
Full Text

Biology
Ph.D.
The optic tectum of the leopard frog has long been known to process visual information about prey and looming threats, stimuli characterized by their movement in the visual field. However, atectal frogs can still respond to the stationary visual environment, which therefore constitutes a separate visual subsystem in the frog. The present work seeks to characterize the stationary visual environment module in the leopard frog, beginning with the hypothesis that this module is located in the anterior thalamus, among two retinorecipient neuropil regions known as neuropil of Bellonci (NB) and corpus geniculatum (CG). First, the puzzle of how a stationary frog can see the stationary environment, in the absence of the eye movements necessary for persistence of vision, is resolved, as we show that whole-head movements caused by the frog's respiratory cycles keep the retinal image in motion. Next, the stationary visual environment system is evaluated along behavioral, anatomic, and physiological lines, and connections to other brain areas are elucidated. When the anterior thalamic visual center is disconnected, frogs show behavioral impairments in visually navigating the stationary world. Under electrophysiological probing, neurons in the NB/CG region show response properties consistent with their proposed role in processing information about the stationary visual environment: they respond to light/dark and color information, as well as reverse-engineered "stationary" stimuli (reproducing the movement on the retina of the visual backdrop caused by the frog's breathing movements), and they do not habituate. We show that there is no visuotopic map in the anterior thalamus but rather a nasal-ward constriction in the receptive fields of progressively more caudal cell groups in the NB/CG region. Furthermore, each side of the anterior thalamic visual region receives information from only the contralateral half of the visual field, as defined by the visual midline, resulting from a pattern of partial crossing over of optic nerve fibers that is also seen in the mammalian thalamic visual system, a commonality with unknown evolutionary implications. We show that the anterior thalamic visual region shares reciprocal connections with the same area on the opposite side of the brain, as well as with the posterior thalamus on both sides; there is also an anterograde ipsilateral projection from the NB/CG toward the medulla and presumably pre-motor areas.
Temple University--Theses

The successful completion of this work is dedicated first to my grandparents for having always shown their unwavering love and encouragement in my journeys (most of which they kindly and politely only pretended to understand) and for having also served as life-long role models who upheld an unparalleled work ethic. To many whom I consider to be my chosen family, especially Ann Williams and Brittany Sears, who kept me laughing, but more importantly, kept my crazy train from derailing during these tumultuous years. To Wayne Price and Tom Jackman, who fostered the success of my career and are the epitome of patience and kindness. To DeAngelis, for the many hours of laughter, conversations, and adventuresome treks that further kindled my knowledge, love, and respect for Florida’s ecology. To family in Alabama who have either helped shape my brazen character or made this education possible. To Taego, the one to whom I am bound through so many of the stories that begin with, “Remember when…?” and who is often so kind and thoughtful though he still holds tightly to the stereotype of the selfish youngest sibling. Finally, to Fen for being my smiling, bright blue-eyed, spunky kid who has been on this journey with me from the get-go; for keeping me from getting too big for my britches; for your intrinsic fire that burns for equality, fairness, and friendship; and for inspiring me to be the best example of a mother that I can possibly be.

This thesis is an attempt to describe how different environmental factors influence life history traits in different populations, sexes and developmental stages in the moor frog, Rana arvalis. The studied populations are located along 1100 km latitudinal gradient, with pH varying between 4.0 and 8.5. I have used data from both natural populations and common garden experiments.

Reproducing moor frogs were larger and older at high latitudes, indicating a selective advantage of large size at high latitudes and/or earlier reproduction at low latitudes. When controlling for age I found that frogs were older and smaller at low pH, which may be a result of a reduced growth rate due to acid stress. The both sexes respond differently to different environments, with the lowest sexual dimorphism in body size found in the acid environments. This is possibly caused by a trade-off between growth and reproduction. Being large is considered to be advantageous, in females due to increased fecundity, and in males due to higher ability to compete for mates, while the cost of high growth is a reduced possibility to survive until the next mating season. Moor frog embryos originating from an acid population survived better under acid stress than embryos from a neutral population. Using quantitative genetic techniques I found strong maternal effects and small additive genetic variation for the traits in acid and non acid populations. The variation in acid stress tolerance owed largely to non-genetic effects. Females from acid localities lay larger eggs, which probably improves the performance of tadpoles under acid conditions. The trade-off between egg size and fecundity was stronger in acid populations indicating that females in acid populations reduced fecundity to increase offspring size. Finally, frogs from acidified environments were more asymmetric in skeletal traits further indicating the developmental stress created by acidification.

Includes bibliographical references
This thesis explores the relationship between the commercial insurance industry, global environmental change (GEC) and what Beck (1992; 1999) termed the 'risk society'. In recent decades, there have been growing concerns that many of the risks impacting contemporary society have undergone fundamental changes. Many of these risks are increasingly being linked to the unintended consequences of humankind's remarkable progress in science and technology, and have been described as debounded, given that they so often transcend both geographical and temporal boundaries (Beck 1992). Within the risk society, the commercial insurance industry - which relies on statistical (actuarial) analysis to help it assess and manage its risk exposure - has been described as demarcating the frontier barrier between bounded (i.e. insurable) and debounded (i.e. uninsurable) risk. However, this claim has been a highly contested one, leading to calls for more empirical data to help clarify how commercial insurance is actually responding under conditions of uncertainty. Of all the debounded risks, GEC has emerged as one of the risk society's most recognisable. Now understood to be a result of the anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gasses, particularly since the onset of the industrial revolution, its impacts have risen so sharply in recent decades that it has prompted claims that Earth has moved away from the era of the Holocene and into the Anthropocene (Crutzen 2002). Given that at least 40% of the cost of environmental catastrophes is now borne by commercial insurance, GEC provides an excellent opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of how the industry is responding to debounded risk at the risk society's frontier barrier. Early commentators suggested that the commercial insurance industry would be well motivated to respond proactively to GEC, by taking a more mitigative approach to managing its drivers at both the global and local levels. However, the industry, so far, has been described as more adaptive of its own business activities than mitigative. This raises questions about whether such claims are true across all three of the insurance industry's activities - as risk carriers, risk managers and as investors, why they have responded in such ways, and what implications this has for broadening our understanding of the complex relationship between commercial insurance, debounded risk and the risk society's frontier barrier. To consider these questions, a collective case study was undertaken with a variety of commercial insurance companies, re-insurers, asset managers, clients, brokers, industry associations and regulators across South Africa, Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and Belgium. The research identified how commercial insurers have indeed responded more by adaptation of their business activities than mitigation of the drivers of GEC. This is mainly through the use of defensive underwriting to help them manage their exposure. However, the research extends this analysis by highlighting some of the nuances of the industry's response. This includes its focus on centralisation, the influence of the existing paradigm framing its understanding of risk, and by highlighting the irony that the area of insurers' activities, initially believed to be most suited for responding to GEC (i.e. their investment portfolios), have, in practice, been the area recording the least response. In exploring why this is so, the study draws on understandings of the Anthropocene to argue that commercial insurers are finding their existing risk assessment tools progressively out-dated in a world where risk is no longer as predictable as it once was. This is further compounded by increasingly plural access to the risk society's science and technologies, which, in some instances, are undermining the role commercial insurance plays as society's primary financial risk manager. This raises questions around the role commercial insurance plays in demarcating the risk society's frontier barrier which, ultimately, has far broader implications for why so many of society's institutions are struggling to adapt to risk in the 21st Century.

Male stony creek frogs use soft calls to communicate despite living in noisy stream environments. The adaptive patterns of this strategy remains unclear, therefore, this study examined the phylogeography and evolution of calls in two species of stony creek frogs (Litoria wilcoxii and Litoria jungguy). Calls varied in relation to genetic groupings and environmental variables such as stream noise. Experimental trials also revealed a potential influence of female choice. This study has provided a better understanding of the advertisement calls in these species, and the factors which may have and likely continue to influence the evolution of their acoustic signals.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Indiana University, Dept. of Biology, 2006.
Title from PDF t.p. (viewed Nov. 18, 2008). Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 67-12, Section: B, page: 6837. Advisers: Greg E. Demas; Craig Nelson.

The Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis fungus has been implicated in the decline of many frog species as well as the extinction of some throughout the world. Apart from this, declines in some amphibian populations are also caused by variations in temperature. It has been proposed that the cause of the decline or apparent extinctions of at least 14 high elevation species of the Australian tropics were due to B. dendrobatidis. The main aim of this study was to determine the effect of seasonal variations on B. dendrobatidis infections and the influence these have on frog populations in the Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa. In one part of this study, frog populations from different altitudes in the Royal Natal National Park and Mont-aux Sources in the Drakensberg region were monitored; Hadromophryne natalensis from low altitude sites and Amietia vertebralis from high altitude sites. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis was detected in the field by using a 10x hand lens and in the laboratory with a compound microscope. No mortality has yet been observed in H. natalensis, but A. vertebralis is disease-susceptible and die-offs do occur. Most of the mortalities have therefore occurred at high altitudes where temperature levels vary from cold to moderate. This pattern of susceptibility with regard to altitudinal gradient is reflected in case studies from the Australian and American tropics. Although B. dendrobatidis is prevalent throughout the year at both high and low altitudes, prevalence levels peak in winter and spring. It is important for conservation strategies of montane amphibian communities to determine whether the observed mortalities constitute evidence of actual declines or whether these can be regarded as part of natural fluctuations in population size. Although no declines have been observed as yet, the chance exists that declines could occur because A, vertebralis is susceptible to the pathogen. Another part of this study was conducted with emphasis on the breeding behaviour of A. vertebralis which is a semi-aquatic, high-elevation frog endemic to the Drakensberg Mountains and the Lesotho highlands. This species breeds in slow-flowing streams and associated pools with sandy bottoms. Published data indicates that breeding occurs after the first spring rains in September and continues until March. The objective of this part of the study was to gain insight into the breeding biology of A. vertebralis by studying empirical data gained from its tadpoles. Tadpoles were collected on a bimonthly basis over a two-year period for staging and measurement. Casual observations on adults and egg clutches were also documented. Contrary to what has been documented, amplecting A. vertebralis pairs were observed as early as July; however, this could be an indication that they are opportunistic breeders. Tadpoles of different lengths and stages were collected throughout the year, supporting the notion that these frogs have an extended breeding season or that the breeding season is correctly described in the literature, but the development of the tadpoles takes place over an extended period of time. A preliminary study was conducted on the distribution of B. dendrobatidis along an altitudinal transect. Frogs were collected and DNA swabs were taken of each specimen and analysed with qPCR sequencing. Infection was found at every site across the transect except for one. Altitude did not play an influential role in infection levels of this pathogen. Rainfall had a negative correlation with prevalence at some stages when floods occurred, otherwise prevalence increased gradually according to rainfall. Temperature did influence prevalence infections, but a consistent pattern according to correlation with prevalence infections was not observed. In conclusion, chytrid has a widespread distribution across southern Africa and has no preference to infect only certain species. Most of the species that have been sampled were found to have been infected.
Thesis (M. Environmental Science)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Amphibians are suffering extinctions and range contractions globally. This is caused by numerous factors and most of them are related to human activities. The overall aim of this thesis was to make a significant contribution to the conservation of the endemic amphibian Leiopelma hochstetteri through research. This was achieved by focusing in two of the main conservation issues for this species, the need for standardised and robust monitoring techniques to detect trends and changes in populations, and the determination of the prevalence of chytridiomycosis, caused by the amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis). Two populations of the Auckland Region were selected for this study, one on the mainland (Waitakere Ranges) and the only known offshore island population of this species (Great Barrier Island). For both study sites different monitoring methods were used to obtain some population parameters. Site occupancy models of MacKenzie et al. (2002) gave reliable site-specific estimations of occupancy and detection probability using covariate information and presence-absence data collected from 50 sites in the Waitakere Ranges and four repeated visits during 2008. Elevation and distance searched were found to have an important effect on occupancy levels, while time taken to search the site was important variable determining detection probabilities. Also, parameters were estimated for three age classes separately. Statistical models were used to infer abundance from occupancy analysis, and results were compared with the distribution of relative abundances obtained from repeated transect counts and an established sight/re-sight criterion. In addition, the use of surrogate measures for relative abundance was explored. Detection probability and the distance to first frog found were found to have a significant correlation with relative abundance. These measures can be used to infer relative abundance in future site occupancy surveys. Two surveys and a pilot site occupancy survey were conducted on Great Barrier Island, and presence of frogs was confirmed atthe northern block, and in a small seepage in the central block. No new locations were found. Waitakere Ranges and Great Barrier Is. populations were tested for the presence of chytridiomycosis, and all frogs sampled tested negative (n = 124) which means that if present chytridiomycosis prevalence is lower than 5% with a 95% confidence interval. This and previous evidence suggests that L. hochstetteri may be resistant or immune to the disease. However, to confirm this additional studies are needed.

Triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC) are antimicrobials found in U.S. surface waters. This dissertation assessed the effects of TCS and TCC on early development and investigated their potential to bioaccumulate using Xenopus laevis as a model. The effects of TCS on metamorphosis were also investigated. For 0-week tadpoles, LC50 values for TCS and TCC were 0.87 mg/L and 4.22 mg/L, respectively, and both compounds caused a significant stunting of growth. For 4-week tadpoles, the LC50 values for TCS and TCC were 0.22 mg/L and 0.066 mg/L; and for 8-week tadpoles, the LC50 values were 0.46 mg/L and 0.13 mg/L. Both compounds accumulated in Xenopus. For TCS, wet weight bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) for 0-, 4- and 8-week old tadpoles were 23.6x, 1350x and 143x, respectively. Lipid weight BAFs were 83.5x, 19792x and 8548x. For TCC, wet weight BAFs for 0-, 4- and 8-week old tadpoles were 23.4x, 1156x and 1310x. Lipid weight BAFs were 101x, 8639x and 20942x. For the time-to-metamorphosis study, TCS showed an increase in weight and snout-vent length in all treatments. Exposed tadpoles metamorphosed approximately 10 days sooner than control tadpoles. For the hind limb study, although there was no difference in weight, snout-vent length, or hind limb length, the highest treatment was more developed compared to the control. There were no differences in tail resorption rates between the treatments and controls. At relevant concentrations, neither TCS nor TCC were lethal to Xenopus prior to metamorphosis. Exposure to relatively high doses of both compounds resulted in stunted growth, which would most likely not be evident at lower concentrations. TCS and TCC accumulated in Xenopus, indicating that the compound has the potential to bioaccumulate through trophic levels. Although TCS may increase the rate of metamorphosis in terms of developmental stage, it did not disrupt thyroid function and metamorphosis in regards to limb development and tail resorption.

In addition to their original purpose as recreational areas, urban parks provide important habitats for species living in urban settings. Reconciling recreational and environmental goals is problematic, especially for park planners. RIM Park, in Waterloo, Ontario, is an example of this attempted reconciliation, where planners and managers attempted to conserve herpetofauna in a provincially significant wetland. However, this area includes a paved nature trail used by hikers, in-line skaters and cyclists and is adjacent to a golf course (which lies within the boundaries of the park). Herpetofauna breeding ponds were constructed and a series of culverts and clearspans included in order to provide reptiles and amphibians with safe passage under the trails. My objective was to determine whether these measures have been effective, whether the park sustains a viable population of Northern Leopard Frogs, and what factors influence frog populations in the park. Two spring field seasons involving mark and recapture techniques were attempted to estimate population sizes of Northern Leopard Frogs at RIM Park, as well as control sites. In both seasons, a control site was a cedar swamp 14 km to the west of the park within an Environmentally Sensitive Policy Area in Waterloo city limits affected by housing development and shared trails. Also within Waterloo city limits, a storm water management pond 8 km to the west was added in field season two. In 2005 (field season 1), because there was a serious drought almost no Northern Leopard Frogs were captured at the two sites examined ? RIM Park and the cedar swamp. In 2006, the more "normal" weather conditions revealed that RIM Park had significantly fewer Northern Leopard Frogs than either of the control sites. Given the lack of data in year 1, I compared the 2006 results to seven years of monitoring reports on RIM Park from consultants. The 2006 data were consistent with previous reports of small Northern Leopard Frog populations at RIM Park. Mark and recapture sessions revealed relatively low numbers, with a catch average of 4. 33 (SD = 1. 15). Calculations revealed an estimated population of 23 (SE = 13. 42). The highest number of observed Northern Leopard Frogs ever recorded at the same location in consulting reports is 5. It is likely that the ponds at RIM Park do not support breeding in Northern Leopard Frogs as the only adults caught were late in the season, during the last week of May, and adults likely were transients from the nearby wetlands and uplands. It is possible, given the historical monitoring data, that the Northern Leopard Frogs were long absent from RIM Park because of intensive farming activities that had replaced the wetlands, and that construction of the golf course and trails further precluded colonization. The lack of adult frogs in the breeding ponds and the lack of dead or injured frogs on the trails or golf course support the hypothesis that the trails are not presently causing frog mortality. It is possible that the frogs are avoiding recolonizing the trail and golf course area. It is also likely that the breeding ponds need to be deepened and only then will it be apparent whether the frogs will colonize the ponds, lay eggs, and use the clearspans and culverts. Recommendations include a shift in priorities to put the emphasis on restoration, a discussion of restoration options (including a possible restoration plan), possible improvements in amphibian monitoring techniques (such as reducing the reliance on audio methods), and general suggestions for urban park planning and management.

Simple content analysis methods, such as the Bechdel test and measuring percentage of female talk time or characters, have seen a surge of attention from mainstream media and in social media the last couple of years. Underlying assumptions are generally shared with the gender role socialization model and consequently, an importance is stated, due to a high degree to which impressions from media shape in particular young children’s identification processes. For young girls, the Disney Princesses franchise (with Frozen included) stands out as the number one player commercially as well as in customer awareness. The vertical lineup of Disney princesses spans from the passive and domestic working Snow White in 1937 to independent and super-power wielding princess Elsa in 2013, which makes the line of films an optimal test subject in evaluating above-mentioned simple content analysis methods. As a control, a meta-study has been conducted on previous academic studies on the same range of films. The sampled research, within fields spanning from qualitative content analysis and semiotics to coded content analysis, all come to the same conclusions regarding the general changes over time in representations of female characters. The objective of this thesis is to answer whether or not there is a correlation between these changes and those indicated by the simple content analysis methods, i.e. whether or not the simple popular methods are in general coherence with the more intricate academic methods.

Betyg VG (skala IG-VG)

Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Translocations and reintroductions are an increasingly important tool in conservation. The focus is often on the breeding and reintroduction, and less consideration is given to the environment into which animals are released. Many such programs achieve less favourable outcomes, or fail completely, because the impacts of the environmental conditions in the reintroduction landscape are not adequately taken into account or mitigated. There is a need for studies in real-world scenarios to test the paradigm that environmental manipulation could improve fitness and survival in populations, and increase the probability of establishment of viable, self-sustaining populations. Reintroductions of amphibians impacted by chytridiomycosis into environments where the disease is present provide a scenario where this paradigm can be tested. This thesis explores that paradigm, investigating ways in which real-world environments might be able to manipulated to adversely impact the disease organism responsible for chytridiomycosis, while remaining favourable to the amphibian host. It begins by exploring the state of translocation programs around the world, before moving on to study the relationship between environment and disease/host relating specifically to amphibians and the chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Using a model species that is both susceptible to Bd and subjected to many conservation translocation programs, many of which have failed in the past, I explored whether it might be possible to increase translocation success of wild populations by manipulating certain environmental stressors. Along the way, I developed and optimised an assay for studying ecoimmunology for amphibians (necessary for the current studies), investigated the outcomes of translocating my study species in the presence of the disease without intervention by environmental manipulation, the role of ontogeny in the susceptibility to the disease, and looked at the effect of temperature and seasonality on wild populations. Finally, I directly tested the core paradigm of mitigating the impact of emerging disease by environmental manipulation, and demonstrated that it is feasible, leading to potentially significant conservation outcomes. I conclude that studies leading to the understanding of mechanisms of disease transmission and dynamics as they play out in realistic environmental scenarios is a conservation strategy worth pursuing, since such investigations may identify management strategies that increase resilience of susceptible species at the landscape level.

The global increase in emerging infectious diseases poses a substantial threat to wildlife, especially for small, fragmented and populations exposed to novel pathogens. The emergence of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is one of the clearest cases of this to date. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis colonises keratinised cells of the amphibian epidermis and causes the disease chytridiomycosis when pathogen populations on hosts reach a threshold density. Host mortality usually occurs shortly after clinical disease symptoms become evident. Chytridiomycosis is fatal to a wide range of amphibian species, while other, less vulnerable species can serve as asymptomatic carriers. This has allowed chytridiomycosis to cause widespread local and global declines as well as extinctions in a wide range of amphibians. Many of the affected species occur in relatively pristine, protected areas; declines of these species have been termed “enigmatic” declines. Previous research has demonstrated that the physical environment plays a major role in determining whether infected hosts recover, coexist with sublethal infections or develop chytridiomycosis and die. The optimal environment for B. dendrobatidis is cool and moist, as is typical of tropical high elevation rainforests, where amphibian diversity is usually high. In tropical Central America and Australia, lowland populations of species that are widely distributed along elevational gradients often persist, while upland populations decline or suffer local extinction. It appears that the warmer, sometimes drier or more seasonal environments of lowlands are less favourable for the pathogen, permitting otherwise susceptible species to coexist with B. dendrobatidis. These areas are therefore climatic refuges from disease-driven amphibian declines and extinctions. The aim of this thesis was to gain an increased understanding of the operation of climatic refuges. I addressed this aim using three objectives: a) to determine how the climate within refuges affects the biology of B. dendrobatidis, b) to compare the epidemiology of the interaction between B. dendrobatidis and its amphibian hosts between refugial and non-refugial sites, and c) to elucidate the underlying mechanisms that enable amphibians in climatic refuges to coexist with this potentially lethal pathogen. To attain the first objective, I used species distribution models for B. dendrobatidis to predict areas that are unsuitable for the pathogen and should therefore have low probabilities of suffering from disease-driven amphibian declines. I initially examined data from Costa Rica, collected during my Masters’ research. In Costa Rica, areas of low probability of pathogen occurrence are mostly dry forests, which coincidentally support a large population of Craugastor ranoides, a critically endangered species that has disappeared from most of its range (in rainforest) in conjunction with outbreaks of chytridiomycosis. As predicted data on prevalence between dry and wet areas suggest, B. dendrobatidis is much more common in wet areas. This supports the proposed hypothesis that areas with environments that are hostile to B. dendrobatidis can serve as refuges for frogs that have broader environmental niches. I collected preliminary survey data that indicated that dense populations of the frog Litoria nannotis, which had declined across its distribution range above 400 m elevation in rainforest of the Australian Wet Tropics, occurred in dry forest areas adjacent to the western boundary of the rainforest. Species distribution models for B. dendrobatidis constructed using data on its known Australian distribution, predicted that these areas were not suitable for the pathogen. However, surveys of the prevalence of B. dendrobatidis in frogs in these dry forest areas, which were the first to be conducted showed that B. dendrobatidis is present at very high prevalences, higher than in adjacent wet forest areas. This contrasts strongly with low elevation refuges in the Australian Wet Tropics and with the dry-forest refuges in Costa Rica, where prevalences are lower than at high elevation sites. These results suggest that the mechanisms by which high elevation dry forests adjacent to the Australian Wet Tropics serve as climatic refuges differ from those in other areas. Rather than excluding B. dendrobatidis or limiting its prevalence, the high-elevation dry forests promote coexistence between frogs and the pathogen. To better understand how the host-pathogen interaction differs between areas where frogs were extirpated and now occur in low abundance (wet sites) and adjacent refugial areas where dense frog populations persist (dry sites), I carried out a comparative epidemiological study. Despite the wet and dry study sites being less than 1 km apart, the pathogen-susceptible L. nannotis were up to five times more abundant in the dry site than in the wet site. The intensities of infections in animals positive for B. dendrobatidis did not differ significantly between the sites, however chytridiomycosis-induced mortality was only detected in wet environments. Surveys carried out over a 15-month period showed that prevalence at the dry forest site remained consistently high, significantly higher than at the wet forest site. Also, dry forest frog populations remained much denser than wet forest populations. Given the very high prevalences of B. dendrobatidis infection occurring at the dry forest site, this strongly indicates that infected frogs at this location can tolerate infections for extended periods. The suggestion that the environment at the dry forest site leads to increased tolerance is supported by my discovery of a population of Litoria lorica a short distance downstream. This species was considered a rainforest endemic; it disappeared from all known localities in the early 1990s, had not been seen in 18 years, and was generally thought to be extinct. This newly-discovered population is dense and tolerates high prevalences of B. dendrobatidis infection, similar to those of dry forest L. nannotis. This discovery also demonstrates that it is essential to look for poorly-known species outside the “limits” of their distributions; in this case, it is clear that L. lorica is not, as had been thought a rainforest endemic, but is endemic to high elevation torrents and waterfalls, rather than the surrounding terrestrial habitat. To further understand the mechanisms leading to the differences in epidemiological patterns between wet and dry habitats, I examined frog behaviour such as microhabitat use. In contrast to the wet forest, where L. nannotis use moist rock crevices as diurnal retreat sites, most tracked L. nannotis in the dry forest spent the day submerged under the water, in fast flowing sections of the stream. This could reduce rates of re-infection rates of individuals by flushing zoospores away from the frog as they are released, and thus reduce the rate of growth of pathogen populations on the hosts. The open canopy at dry forest sites leads to substantial heating of the large boulders that form the substrate usually occupied by frogs during nocturnal activity. When dry forest frogs emerge from their diurnal aquatic retreat sites at dusk, the rocks that they perch on, having been heated in the sun, are dry and substantially warmer than the air temperature. This has the potential to control pathogen loads on their ventral surfaces, the body region most susceptible to infection. The nocturnal perches of wet forest frogs receive little direct sunlight, and are typically moist and cool when frogs emerge, which are conditions conducive to the build up of pathogen populations on the ventral surface. At present, captive breeding is presumed to be the only viable conservation strategy to prevent chytridiomycosis from causing the extinction of many susceptible amphibian species. Climatic refuges that exclude the pathogen or enhance the ability of frogs to coexist with it, may allow natural amphibian populations to persist and eventually to evolve increased resistance and potentially recolonise non-refugial areas from which they have been extirpated. Any threat, such as chytridiomycosis, which is most severe in the core habitat of many species, can make populations living on the margins of species geographic or ecological ranges, vital to species’ persistence.

Tori Llewelyn investigated delivery of chemicals through the skin of frogs, with the rate and extent of absorption found to differ depending on the frog's habitat. Tori developed the first model of absorption that will both inform the design of treatments for disease in frogs, and also advise risk-management in frog habitats.

Atrazine is one of the most widely applied herbicides and is commonly detected in surface and groundwater samples around Australia. Reproductive and developmental abnormalities in amphibians have reportedly been linked to atrazine exposure. However, the use of Australian native frogs in understanding these effects is limited. This study investigated the effects of atrazine alone and also in combination with a common secondary stressor, elevated salinity, to an Australian non-native anuran species, the cane toad, Rhinella marina and a native species, the striped marsh frog, Limnodynastes peronii, at both acute and chronic level. This study also explored the longer-term effects of atrazine to the cane toad to determine the impacts on its development and reproduction. Variations in larval sensitivities to acute concentrations of atrazine were first determined at different larval developmental stages in both R. marina and L. peronii. The static acute test design involved six nominal concentrations of atrazine, including control, solvent control, 3, 6, 12, and 24 mg/L. Gosner stages (GS) 22–23 as hatchlings, GS 25–26, 28–29, 32–33 as pre-metamorphic, GS 36–37 as prometamorphic and GS 40–41 as metamorphic climax stages of cane toads and the first four sets of Gosner stages (GS 22–33) of striped marsh frogs were exposed to atrazine treatments for 96 hours. Results showed that late larval stages were more sensitive than early stages and significant differences (P ˂ 0.05) occurred in sensitivities across different pre-metamorphic larval stages in both test species. The striped marsh frog showed greater sensitivity to atrazine than the introduced cane toad. In both experimental species, GS 28–29 showed the best response regarding the iv concentration-dependent increase in sensitivities to atrazine compared to other larval stages. To determine the chronic effects of atrazine, GS 28–29 of both test species were exposed to five nominal concentrations of atrazine, including control, solvent control, 0.1, 1.0 and 10 µg/L for 21 days. Results revealed no significant effects from atrazine exposure to survivorship, snout vent length, body weight and development among treatments in both species. Only a small percentage of exposed animals exhibited kinky tail and gonadal anomalies in L. peronii and a low percentage of atrazineexposed cane toads showed both limb and tail anomalies. Interestingly, both species had a female biased sex ratio in all treatments. No significant effect of atrazine on gross and histological morphology of thyroid glands in R. marina was noted; however, no thyroid analysis was performed on L. peronii. In order to evaluate the longer-term effects of atrazine on cane toad reproduction, GS 29–31 of R. marina was exposed to four concentrations of atrazine, including solvent control, 0.1, 4 and 11 µg/L until completion of metamorphosis. The metamorphs obtained from atrazine exposure were reared until their sexual maturity without further atrazine exposure. A number of attempts at breeding, including natural breeding, injecting with Luteinizing Hormone Releasing Hormone (LHRH) and lucrin (synthetic LHRH) were performed; however, no offspring were obtained. Morphological abnormalities, survival, fecundity, erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities, and gonadal and liver histology were analysed to evaluate the potential effects of atrazine on subsequent generations and also to examine the possible reason for the unsuccessful breeding. Results indicated that a concentration of 0.1 µg/L caused significant mortality, and 4 µg/L produced the highest incidence of limb abnormalities and also v decreased the hepato-somatic index during post-exposure period. No significant erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities or liver malformations were detected; however, gonadal histology showed a relatively high percentage of animals containing gonadal anomalies in all atrazine-treated males, except at 0.1 µg/L. To explore the combined effects of atrazine and a common secondary stressor, both R. marina and L. peronii were exposed to mixtures of atrazine and increased salinity. At acute exposure, GS 25–26 of both test species were exposed to salinity alone (0 to 8% sea water) and also in combination with atrazine (0 to 24 mg/L) for 96 hours. Results revealed no acute effects of elevated salinity on either test species; however, cane toad tadpoles demonstrated greater sensitivity to the mixture of atrazine and salinity than atrazine alone, while L. peronii indicated no differences in sensitivity. For chronic exposure, GS 28–29 of both R. marina and L. peronii were firstly exposed to a range of salinity (0 to 8% sea water) alone for 21 days. Results showed that 2% to 8% sea water caused significant effects on growth and development in L. peronii, but not in R. marina. Secondly, five treatments including control, solvent control, 0.1, 1 and 10 µg/L of atrazine each mixed with 8% sea water were used to expose the GS 28–29 for 21 days. Significant effects were obtained on the growth and duration of metamorphosis in L. peronii from mixture treatments, but not in R. marina. Overall, it can be concluded that inter- and intra-species variations in sensitivities to atrazine may occur in anurans residing in Australia and native species may exhibit greater sensitivity to atrazine than the introduced cane toad. Interestingly, although low concentrations of atrazine may not cause any noteworthy adverse effects on the developing R. marina and L. peronii during the larval exposure period; however, the longer-term study with R. marina showed that deleterious impacts may occur during vi the post-exposure period, which may cause adverse effects on the fitness and reproduction of R. marina. This may ultimately affect the population of this species. Longer-term testing with native species is required to determine the potential effects of atrazine on these populations. From the mixture of atrazine and salinity studies, it can be suggested that elevated salinity may pose serious hazards to Australian native anurans. The similar responses obtained from chronic exposure to atrazine in both R. marina and L. peronii may raise the possibility of the cane toad as an indicator for native anurans; nevertheless, further studies are required to establish this.

碩士
國立暨南國際大學
兩岸高階主管經營管理境外碩士在職學位學程
106
This study is based on the Osteralder, et.al., (2010) business model as a research framework, with the case of the Frog grandma’s home. Through the collection of secondary data as a research basis, empirical corporate social responsibility practices. In the beginning, the Frog grandma’s home create an ecological homestay with an attitude of respecting environmental life. The lighting design of the rooms and corridors is attached to nature, and the visitors come to experience the beauty of nature. In addition, natural animals are willing to live here because they feel the friendly environment here. Natural environment and ecological explanation become the key resources of practical value proposition The number and movements in the ecological environment are recorded through inputs from key partner-specific species centers, tourism guides associations and other official resources through the coverage of newspaper media, scholars and cross-strait exchanges and mutual visits, the concept of ecological environment can be spread to other regions. The case uses the operation of the homestay to create an environment for experiencing and learning about environmental protection, achieving the ideal of combining economic and social values and sharing the functions and purposes of the main chapter ecology, life and life.

Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Many amphibian species have evolved to exploit temporary aquatic systems, such as ephemeral pools, for the purposes of reproduction. These systems may be selected as they offer a refuge from the competition and predation pressures faced in more permanent systems. However, given that they hold onto water intermittently, these are akin to vanishing islands that are only available for egg deposition on some occasions. As such, though there use may offer some benefits during the aquatic stage of the amphibian life cycle, it may also carry an increased risk of complete reproductive failure as hydroperiods vary unpredictably and may be too short for tadpoles to complete development before desiccation occurs. Understanding the life history and ecological trade-offs involved in exploiting these ephemeral habitats offer an opportunity to test and understand many aspects of life history evolution. Two key threats to survival in the tadpole phase can be identified: (1) Ephemerality of aquatic breeding habitats. Ephemerality exposes spawn and tadpoles to variable aquatic conditions, food resources and hydroperiod. The greatest risk for offspring in temporary aquatic breeding habitats is the risk of mortality from desiccation if hydroperiods are below a critical threshold for them to reach metamorphosis. This risk is highest under circumstances where rainfall is variable, unpredictable and intermittent, as adults are more likely to mistime spawning trying to match optimal rainfall period or make non-viable breeding site choices (where hydroperiods are too short). (2) Cannibalism. Short hydroperiods in aquatic systems often lead to food resource limitations. Under such conditions, selection for cannibalism may be a strong mechanism to increase nutritional availability when large conspecific spawning events occur. Such variability in both hydroperiods and the presence of conspecifics are strong selection pressures that have driven the evolution of a diverse array of strategies, both in the reproducing adults and their offspring, to improve the chances of reproductive success. This thesis explores these strategies and their adaptive function in temporary aquatic systems, by exploring the reproductive biology of the sandpaper frog, Lechriodus fletcheri. This species almost exclusively reproduces in small, highly ephemeral pools on the forest floor that dry within a matter of days or weeks after rainfall has ceased, making it an ideal model for exploring adaptation in the face of variability. The thesis begins by examining the effects of variable hydroperiod on offspring survival, before moving on to possible adaptations that have evolved in this species to improve the odds of reproductive success, including bet-hedging through iteroparity, multi-clutching and adaptive oviposition site selection in response to conspecific presence. We describe cannibalism of unhatched L. fletcheri embryos by previously hatched conspecific tadpoles. This leads to an analysis of the possible effect cannibalism has had on oviposition site selection in relation to the presence of conspecifics at various life history stages, which likely involves a complex game were individuals try and take advantage of their fellow conspecifics as food while simultaneously avoiding becoming food to these conspecifics themselves. Finally, we test whether facial skin features of L. fletcheri adults can be used to identify individuals in the field, as a substitute for more expensive and labour intensive marking techniques in capture-mark-recapture studies undertaken to investigate the ecology of L. fletcheri. For many amphibian species, the ways in which individuals deal with the effects of environmental variability in terms of their reproductive regimes has not been investigated in detail. We conclude that studies that shed a light on the adaptive mechanisms of reproductive strategies that evolve in direct response to environmental variability are critical, not only from a natural history perspective, but to assess the possible vulnerability of species that exploit these systems to possible changes in patterns of environmental variability as a result of climate change.

The primary goal of this thesis was to identify new biomarkers of exposure for developing neural tissues in aquatic species. It was found that the cytokine, interleukin-1$\beta$ (IL-1$\beta$) and its type 1 receptor are expressed in the very earliest functional neural circuits that regulate early locomotor behavior in the frog embryo. Even though IL-1$\beta$ is cleaved by ICE (interleukin-I$\beta$ converting enzyme), an enzyme that initiates apoptosis, IL-1$\beta$ expression is not associated with the expression of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (parp), a marker of apoptosis, indicating that IL-1$\beta$ expression is not a marker of programmed cell death in the developing frog embryo. Thus, IL-1$\beta$, like other neurotrophins, may play a role in regulating cell growth or survival, or in regulating synapse formation and/or validation. Exposure of developing tadpoles to methylmercury chloride, a potent aquatic environmental contaminant, dramatically reduced IL-1$\beta$ levels within specific neural cell types. Thus, IL-1$\beta$ serves as a potential molecular biomarker of methylmercury exposure in the developing nervous system
acase@tulane.edu

Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
The Earth is experiencing a period of mass extinction due to human development and expansion (Wake & Vredenburg 2008). It has been estimated that 866 animal, plant, fungi and protist species have become extinct in recent history, and 25,821 species were declared either Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable in 2017 (IUCN 2017). Causal agents of population declines and biodiversity loss include climate change, land clearing, habitat modification and the introduction of exotic competitor or predator species (Vitousek et al. 1997) and disease (Skerratt et al. 2007) which affect species from global to local scales. The magnitude of species loss and threat of further extinctions has caused worldwide attention, instigating efforts to identify and conserve species at risk (Redford & Richter 1999). Species management programs typically aim to identify causal agents of decline, assess species requirements for survival and reproduction and understand population proce sses so that informed decisions can be made to reverse population declines. An important step in this process is gaining an understanding of the factors which affect species distribution (Guisan et al. 2013; Noss et al. 1997). Conservation programs often aim to understand an animal’s distribution by identifying what constitutes habitat. Factors commonly examined include abiotic and biotic attributes of the landscape including available shelter and food, as well as an animal’s interaction with heterospecifics (Campomizzi et al. 2008). In the instance that these factors or interactions correlate with species presence or abundance either positively or negatively, it is assumed that these factors are actively selected for or avoided (Batt 1992). However, additional behavioural factors can affect distribution, such as attraction to (Ahlering et al. 2010) or avoidance of conspecifics (same species) (Keren-Rotem et al. 2006; Stamps 1983), causing strong aggregations or segregation of animal distribution over a landscape, respectively. Despite the influence of these factors on distribution, conspecific attraction and avoidance are not commonly considered by conservation programs when attempting to understand, predict and alter species distributions (Campomizzi et al. 2008). As animals experiencing conspecific attraction or avoidance may deviate from the correlation model assumed by habitat selection, research programs aimed at assisting endangered species cannot afford to ignore conspecific interactions (Manly et al. 2009). A last resort for conservation initiatives is breeding animals in captivity, creating or restoring habitat and translocating animals back into populations that are experiencing population decline or have become locally extinct. Current research in conservation biology has focused on identifying and assessing animal behaviour which can limit the success of conservation initiatives such as; multi-spatial-level habitat selection (McGarigal et al. 2016), conspecific attraction (Campomizzi et al. 2008) and mate selection within captive breeding (Chargé et al. 2014a; Chargé et al. 2014b). As these factors influence species distribution and survival, they therefore affect the success of habitat construction programmes and the persistence of naturally occurring or translocated populations. Amphibians are a globally threatened taxon with 33 extinct species and 2,100 species declared either critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable (IUCN 2017). Factors causing amphibian decline include the human facilitated spread of chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) (Skerratt et al. 2007), global climate change, introduced species as well as habitat loss and modification (Brown et al. 2012; Stuart et al. 2004). Considerable research has been undertaken on causal agents of decline, along with understanding population processes and habitat requirements that affect the persistence of populations (Wake & Vredenburg 2008). Despite the fact that many amphibian species show signs of conspecific attraction and/or avoidance, the influence of conspecific interactions on spatial distribution and subsequent declines of amphibians is under-investigated. This current research project explores the potential for particular behaviours which may influence species distribution and the success of habitat creation and translocation programmes for the green and golden bell frog (Litoria aurea). For the first research paper, I assessed conspecific call attraction in L. aurea. Over a landscape, animal distributions can be skewed as a result of conspecific attraction and aggregation. This can hinder habitat restoration and creation programmes as species may fail to colonise available habitat, despite its suitability. It has been noted from past research that L. aurea uses particular habitat and has distributional traits which suggest the presence of conspecific attraction, and using speakers playing calls can successfully attracted L. aurea at short distances, forming new aggregations (James et al. 2015: Attachment 1). In the first research chapter, I aimed to use speaker systems playing calls to manipulate the landscape distribution of L. aurea. I placed a stand with a speaker playing call broadcast in a treatment waterbody (T), a stand with no calls broadcasted as a manipulative control (MC) and no stand or speakers as a control (C). This design was replicated in five areas on Kooragang Island, Australia, and waterbodies were surveyed to measure changes in abundance and calling over two and a half breeding seasons. We found that speaker introduction did not increase abundance or calling at T relative to MC and C. We did, however, find that the length of time males called was longer at T, compared to MC and C. As the length of calling time may be extended using conspecific call broadcast , provision of conspecific stimulation at translocation sites may improve breeding activity and retention of the population post-release by reducing dispersal. For the second research chapter, I assessed habitat selection of L. aurea. The site selection of breeding individuals is a crucial component of a species habitat selection and can help to direct conservation programmes. However, very little is known about the microhabitat selection of calling male L. aurea. This study aimed to distinguish if male aggregations are associated with specific habitat features within a waterbody and describe their use of available habitat structures. Within waterbodies we compared calling locations relative to non-calling locations for water variables (temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen), microclimate (temperature, humidity, average and maximum wind speed) and habitat (percentage coverage of water, ground, emergent vegetation and floating vegetation). Overall, males were associated with lower salinity and higher dissolved oxygen, higher percentage coverage of emergent vegetation and bare ground, and low percentage coverage of open water. Males were most commonly found in the water floating between or beside emergent vegetation or perched on emergent vegetation above water level. This suggests that males may select habitat to protect themselves from predators, or for breeding; providing appropriate vegetation, dissolved oxygen and salinity for embryo and tadpole development. This provides supportive information for previous studies on habitat selection, indicating what habitat is preferred by breeding males to improve monitoring, habitat creation and rehabilitation. For the third research chapter, I assess a habitat construction programme. Habitat creation programmes are often used to compensate for the loss of habitat for endangered species, with varying results. I describe an early stage wetland construction programme implemented for L. aurea on Ash Island, NSW Australia. Seven ephemeral (flooding) and two permanent waterbodies were constructed near an existing population. The wetland was designed to increase landscape aquatic habitat, based on adaptive management learnings from past research. In this study, I assess the initial use of this habitat by L. aurea, and initial findings on the design suitability. Surveys in constructed wetlands and in the broader Kooragang area showed that L. aurea rapidly colonised and called at constructed ephemeral wetlands but not permanent wetlands. The chorus size in constructed wetlands was large in comparison to other populations in coastal NSW, and a range of other frog species also bred onsite. Female L. aurea used a nearby remnant wetland (adjacent to the constructed wetlands), and used different habitat to males. Similar habitat use variation between sexes was reflected in the broader population. Most male and female L. aurea captured on Ash Island were under 12 months of age, and body condition in the constructed wetlands was higher than in the broader population. Waterbody design successfully protected waterbodies from overland flooding, and ephemeral waterbodies dried, which suggests the drying regime may protect the constructed habitat long-term from infestation of predatory fish. Elevated salinity from ground water in permanent waterbodies (intended to ameliorate chytrid disease in the landscape) was higher than anticipated and requires further monitoring. It is hoped that this programme may help guide other conservation projects creating habitat for amphibians under threat. For the fourth research paper, I assess sexual selection in L. aurea. As a conservation strategy for L. aurea, captive breeding programmes supplement at-risk populations and translocate individuals to their former ranges. However, breeding programmes are undertaken with very little information on sexual selection and its exclusion can reduce the fitness of released animals. The aim of the fourth study was to assess whether forms of sexual selection occur for L. aurea to inform captive breeding programmes. In the wild I studied mate selection. Firstly, we aimed to assess if the size and body condition of amplexing individuals (grasping to breed), differed from other individuals in the population as an indication of female sexual selection or male-male competition. Secondly, we investigated if male and female amplexing pairs were size correlated as an indicator of size assortative mating, and thirdly we made observations on behavioural interactions in the breeding waterbody to complement the analysis. In Whangarei, New Zealand, we captured L. aurea over 4 survey nights, undertaking capture-mark-recapture and measuring morphometrics of snout vent length (SVL), right tibia length (RTL) and weight, calculated body condition. We compared the SVL, RTL and weight of breeding individuals to non-breeding individuals and found that amplexing males were larger with better body condition, however, female size did not differ. Male-female pairs were not size assortative and aggressive interactions were recorded between males. Larger male size may be an indicator of either female selectivity or larger-male mating advantage through aggressive interactions. As removal of sexual selection in captive breeding programmes can reduce fitness and place conservation initiatives at risk, I recommend incorporating sexual selection by placing multiple males of varying sizes in breeding tanks with females to facilitate female selectivity or larger-male mating advantage. Based on the results of the current studies, I have identified possible constraints on the use of conspecific attraction for this species, and also recognised its potential use in translocations programmes to improve project outcomes. As a result of microhabitat assessment, habitat creation and management programmes can use specific parameters to design, maintain and monitor habitat for calling males. Assessment of a habitat construction project designed from previous research recommendations shows initial project success and provides information to refine future habitat construction programmes. Finally, assessment of sexual selection in L. aurea provides vital information to conservation programmes breeding animals for translocation to work toward improving the fitness of released individuals. Overall, the current study provides key aspects of L. aurea’s biology and ecology that have not been clearly addressed in the literature and aims to improve conservation efforts. In light of recent extinctions and increasing pressures on wildlife, continued research on key threatening processes and behavioural ecology is crucial to help guide conservation.