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Journal articles on the topic 'Functionally gradient materials'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 26 July 2024

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1

Rabin, B. H., and I. Shiota. "Functionally Gradient Materials." MRS Bulletin 20, no. 1 (January 1995): 14–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400048855.

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This issue of the MRS Bulletin provides an up-to-date look at ongoing research activities within the field of functionally gradient materials (FGM). The term FGM, now widely used by the materials community, originated in Japan in the late 1980s as a description for a class of engineering materials exhibiting spatially inhomogeneous microstructures and properties. Of course, gradient materials are not something new. It must be recognized that humans have extensively utilized materials containing microstructural gradients (either those found in nature or those created through processing) since the earliest days of craftsmanship and engineering construction. Indeed, there are examples of graded materials developed long ago, such as case-hardened steel, which are still in common use today. Contemporary examples of these materials serve in technologically significant applications, as, for example, in thermal-barrier coatings for gas turbines. Nevertheless, what is new and exciting about FGMs is the realization that gradients can be designed at the microstructural level to tailor a material for the specific functional and performance requirements of an intended application. In addition, recent advances in processing are opening the possibility for the extension of the gradient materials concept to new materials systems and engineering problems.The recent resurgence of interest in gradient materials has been driven by the need for improved materials, capable of meeting the demanding performance requirements established by emerging technologies such as the aerospace plane, ceramic engines, and nuclear fusion.

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2

Zhang, Min, Hong Jun Huang, Hong Jing Wang, and Zhi Guang Li. "Development of Functionally Gradient Materials." Materials Science Forum 423-425 (May 2003): 599–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.423-425.599.

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3

Shaw, Christopher P., Roger W. Whatmore, and Jeffrey R. Alcock. "Porous, Functionally Gradient Pyroelectric Materials." Journal of the American Ceramic Society 90, no. 1 (January 2007): 137–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-2916.2006.01373.x.

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4

HIRAI, Toshio, and Makoto SASAKI. "Vapor - Deposited Functionally Gradient Materials." JSME international journal. Ser. 1, Solid mechanics, strength of materials 34, no. 2 (1991): 123–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmea1988.34.2_123.

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5

SAITO, Tohru, Saburou KITAGUCHI, Nobuyuki SHIMODA, Masamichi KOGA, and Hiroshi TAKIGAWA. "Functionally gradient materials. Application of thermal spraying with functional materials." Journal of the Surface Finishing Society of Japan 41, no. 10 (1990): 992–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.4139/sfj.41.992.

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6

NIINO, Masayuki, and Yoshitsugu ISHIBASHI. "The perspective of functionally gradient materials." Journal of the Japan Society for Composite Materials 16, no. 1 (1990): 14–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.6089/jscm.16.14.

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7

Watanabe, R. "Powder Processing of Functionally Gradient Materials." MRS Bulletin 20, no. 1 (January 1995): 32–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400048892.

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Powder metallurgical (P/M) processing of FGMs provides a wide range of compositional and microstructural control, along with shape-forming capability. Oxide/metal systems are desirable because this materials combination can be used to easily tailor materials properties. However, there are many problems to be investigated which pertain to each of the processing steps; process innovations will often be required to realize the versatility of this route. In this article, I briefly review the present status of the powder-processing method.Powder metallurgical fabrication of FGMs involves the following sequential steps with a selected material combination of metals and ceramics: determination of the optimum composition profile for an effective thermal-stress reduction; stepwise or continuous stacking of powder premixes according to the predesigned composition profile; compaction of the stacked powder heap and sintering with or without pressurizing. Besides the conventional powder metallurgical routes, a spray deposition method, using mixed powder suspensions and a slurry stacking method, have been developed to form continuously graded stacking. A powder spray stacking apparatus has been devised, which is fully automatic with computer control. Deposited compacts were cold isostatically pressed (CIP) and consolidated by hot isostatic pressing. Their microstructures show that this process provides fine compositional control with desired profiles.Differential temperature sintering by laser-beam heating has been studied to add versatility to the P/M process. The surface of the green compacts is scanned with a laser beam using a predesigned scanning pattern to ensure homogeneous heating over the entire surface.

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8

Kanayama, Satoshi, and Toshikazu Umemura. "Surface Functionally Gradient Materials of Polycarbonate." Seikei-Kakou 7, no. 4 (1995): 216–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.4325/seikeikakou.7.216.

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9

Niedzialek, Scott E., Gregory C. Stangle, and Yoshinari Kaieda. "Combustion-synthesized functionally gradient refractory materials." Journal of Materials Research 8, no. 8 (August 1993): 2026–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.1993.2026.

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Functionally Gradient Materials (FGM's) are soon to be used in a variety of important commercial applications; joining and thermal barrier coatings are two of the most widely studied. FGM's of the TiC/NiAl and the TiC/Ni3Al systems were fabricated using a one-step, self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) and densification method. It was observed that ignition of the starting mixture for these two systems was affected by the initial sample temperature and the external pressure that was applied to the sample during the ignition stage. Quality of the final product (e.g., porosity, grain size, cracking and microcracking, etc.) depends on a number of factors during this one-step operation. Reaction temperature control is important and is necessary to minimize residual porosity of the final product. Particle size of reactant powders, as well as applied pressure, also has an effect on the resulting microstructure. If careful reaction temperature control is achieved, along with optimum reactant powder size and applied pressure, an FGM of minimal porosity is obtained without residual macrocracks. Further, this method can easily be used to fabricate an FGM with a highly precise composition and material properties gradient. Finally, this process results in FGM's of similar quality when compared to those prepared by existing fabrication methods at only a fraction of the cost. Most importantly, it is expected that this process can be scaled up with relative ease.

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10

NODA, Naotake. "Thermal Stresses in Functionally Gradient Materials." International Journal of the Society of Materials Engineering for Resources 3, no. 1 (1995): 95–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.5188/ijsmer.3.95.

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11

Hauke, Tilo, Azamat Kouvatov, Ralf Steinhausen, Wolfgang Seifert, Horst Beige, Hans Theo, Langhammer, and Hans-Peter Abicht. "Bending behavior of Functionally Gradient Materials." Ferroelectrics 238, no. 1 (February 2000): 195–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00150190008008784.

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12

Tada, Yasuo. "Recent Progress of Functionally Gradient Materials." Journal of the Society of Mechanical Engineers 96, no. 893 (1993): 339–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmemag.96.893_339.

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13

Koizumi, Mitsue, Takashi Kawai, Yukinori Kude, Ryuzo Watanabe, Nobuyuki Shimada, Nobuhiro Sata, Yoshinari Miyamoto, and Koji Atarashiya. "Recent Developments in Functionally Gradient Materials." Materials and Processing Report 7, no. 3-4 (February 1992): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08871949.1992.11752489.

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14

Zhang, WX, and LM Yang. "Symplectic Solutions for Functionally Gradient Materials." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 525 (July 7, 2020): 012166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/525/1/012166.

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15

Li, Qiang, and Ming Qing Wu. "Based on the Gradient Source Representation of Functionally Gradient Materials." Applied Mechanics and Materials 496-500 (January 2014): 80–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.496-500.80.

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In the process of functionally gradient material entity modeling, in order to meet the design requirements, one needs to constantly change coefficient of material composition equation. In order to facilitate visual design of functionally graded material entities within the distribution, the method based on gradient material source be adopted to directly change the coefficient of material composition functions, and according to the coefficient of material composition equation function image to choose material composition functions. Homogenous approaching gradient is used, the feasibility of change of gradient direction transformatio is proved.

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16

Jin, Qi, Xue Ping Ren, Hong Liang Hou, Yan Ling Zhang, and Hai Tao Qu. "In Situ Synthesis and Structural Design of Ti/TiC Functionally Graded Materials." Materials Science Forum 913 (February 2018): 515–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.913.515.

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In this paper, the metal/ceramic functionally graded composites are prepared. The thermal stress of TiC/Ti functionally graded composites are simulated by Abaqus finite element analysis software to study the influence of the number of layers, the gradient layer thickness and the gradient of distribution index.The optimal structural parameters of the TiC/Ti functional gradient composites are obtained as the number of layers of 6 and the gradient distribution index 0.8. According to the optimized structural parameters, Ti and C powders are mixed by high-energy ball milling, then the TiC/Ti functional gradient composites are prepared by spark plasma sintering. The gradient distribution of composition and microstructure in TiC/Ti functionally graded composites are achieved, which can solve the problem of mismatch for the physical properties between the metal and the ceramic in the composite material.

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17

Sun, Leihong. "Current Research and Development Trend of Functionally Gradient Materials." Advances in Material Science 3, no. 1 (2019): 10–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.26789/ams.2019.01.003.

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The paper summarizes the research status of international functionally gradient materials (FGM), introduces the optimization design principles, preparation processes and characteristics evaluation of functionally gradient materials, and focuses on the basic principles and process methods of the preparation process of functionally gradient materials, such as powder metallurgy. , Vapor deposition method, self-propagating high temperature synthesis method, thermal spray method, electrodeposition method, laser cladding method, etc., and look forward to the development prospects and directions of functionally gradient materials.

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18

SASAKI, Makoto, and Toshio HIRAI. "Fabrication and Properties of Functionally Gradient Materials." Journal of the Ceramic Society of Japan 99, no. 1154 (1991): 1002–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2109/jcersj.99.1002.

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19

Niino, Masayuki, and Shuhei Maeda. "Recent development status of functionally gradient materials." ISIJ International 30, no. 9 (1990): 699–703. http://dx.doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.30.699.

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20

ITOH, Yoshiyasu, and Hideo KASHIWAYA. "Residual Stress Characteristics of Functionally Gradient Materials." Journal of the Ceramic Society of Japan 100, no. 1160 (1992): 476–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2109/jcersj.100.476.

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21

Itoh, Yoshiyasu, Masashi Takahashi, and Hideo Kashiwaya. "Residual stress characteristics of functionally gradient materials." Journal of the Japan Society of Powder and Powder Metallurgy 37, no. 7 (1990): 942–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2497/jjspm.37.942.

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22

Li, Weikai, and Baohong Han. "Research and Application of Functionally Gradient Materials." IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 394 (August 7, 2018): 022065. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/394/2/022065.

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23

Zhu, Xinhua, Jianmin Zhu, Shunhua Zhou, Qi Li, Zhiguo Liu, Naiben Ming, Zhongyan Meng, Helen Lai-Wah Chan, and Chung-Loong Choy. "Actuators, piezoelectric ceramics and functionally gradient materials." Ferroelectrics 263, no. 1 (January 2001): 67–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00150190108225180.

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24

Stellbrink, K. K. U., G. Hausser, and R. Steegmuller. "One-Component Composites as Functionally Gradient Materials." Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials 12, no. 3 (May 1999): 188–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/089270579901200303.

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25

Xu Qianjun, Yu Shouwen, and Kang Yilan. "Residual stress analysis of functionally gradient materials." Mechanics Research Communications 26, no. 1 (January 1999): 55–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0093-6413(98)00099-8.

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26

Ganesh, VK, S. Ramakrishna, and HJ Leck. "Fiber Reinforced Composite Based Functionally Gradient Materials." Advanced Composites Letters 7, no. 4 (July 1998): 096369359800700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/096369359800700403.

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A method of fabricating fiber-reinforced composite based functionally gradient material is described in this paper. The material has continuously varying mechanical properties along the length. The continuous variation of the mechanical properties is achieved by continuously varying the fiber orientation using the braiding process. The test results indicate an elastic modulus increase by about 42% from the largest braid angle to the smallest braid angle for the material system and the orientation angle considered in the present study.

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27

Ishiguro, T., A. Makino, N. Araki, and N. Noda. "Transient temperature response in functionally gradient materials." International Journal of Thermophysics 14, no. 1 (January 1993): 101–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00522665.

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28

Kumakawa, Akinaga, Masaki Sasaki, Shuhei Maeda, and Naohito Adachi. "Evaluation on thermomechanical properties of functionally gradient materials with high temperature gradients." Journal of the Japan Society of Powder and Powder Metallurgy 37, no. 2 (1990): 313–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2497/jjspm.37.313.

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29

Kannan, Kasi Rajesh, Ramalingam Vaira Vignesh, Kota Pavan Kalyan, and Myilsamy Govindaraju. "Development and tribological characterization of fly ash reinforced iron based functionally gradient friction materials." Engineering review 41, no. 3 (2021): 20–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.30765/er.1501.

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The tribological and thermal properties enable iron based sintered materials with hard phase ceramic reinforcements as promising friction material for heavy-duty wind turbines. In wind turbines, the braking system consists of aerodynamic and mechanical braking systems. During application of mechanical brakes, the friction materials are pressed against the rotating low-speed shaft. The desired braking efficiency is achieved by utilizing a number of friction materials, which in turn are joined in a steel backing plate. Though this arrangement increases the braking efficiency, the hard phase ceramic reinforcement particles reduces the bonding strength between the friction material and steel backing plate. The joint failure leads to catastrophic failure of wind turbine. Therefore, the need of the hour is to develop friction materials with functional gradients that have high wear resistance (contact area) and high bond strength (interface). In this study, an attempt is made to fabricate and characterize a friction material with gradient profile of composition along the cross section to provide functional gradient property. The functional gradient friction material is synthesized by gradient deposition of Fe, Cu, Cg, SiC and fly ash powders which is then compacted and sintered. The prepared functional gradient friction material was characterized in terms of microstructure and microhardness. The tribological performance (wear rate and coefficient of friction) of the developed functionally gradient friction material was investigated at various loads using pin-on disc apparatus. The results show that as the load increases, the wear rate decreases and at the same time the COF tends to increase at higher loads. The predominant wear mechanism was deduced from the morphology of the worn surface.

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30

Mirzaali, Nava, Gunashekar, Nouri-Goushki, Doubrovski, and Zadpoor. "Fracture Behavior of Bio-Inspired Functionally Graded Soft–Hard Composites Made by Multi-Material 3D Printing: The Case of Colinear Cracks." Materials 12, no. 17 (August 26, 2019): 2735. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12172735.

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The functional gradient is a concept often occurring in nature. This concept can be implemented in the design and fabrication of advanced materials with specific functionalities and properties. Functionally graded materials (FGMs) can effectively eliminate the interface problems in extremely hard–soft connections, and, thus, have numerous and diverse applications in high-tech industries, such as those in biomedical and aerospace fields. Here, using voxel-based multi-material additive manufacturing (AM, = 3D printing) techniques, which works on the basis of material jetting, we studied the fracture behavior of functionally graded soft–hard composites with a pre-existing crack colinear with the gradient direction. We designed, additively manufactured, and mechanically tested the two main types of functionally graded composites, namely, composites with step-wise and continuous gradients. In addition, we changed the length of the transition zone between the hard and soft materials such that it covered 5%, 25%, 50%, or 100% of the width (W) of the specimens. The results showed that except for the fracture strain, the fracture properties of the graded specimens decreased as the length of the transition zone increased. Additionally, it was found that specimens with abrupt hard–soft transitions have significantly better fracture properties than those with continuous gradients. Among the composites with gradients, those with step-wise gradients showed a slightly better fracture resistance compared to those with continuous gradients. In contrast, FGMs with continuous gradients showed higher values of elastic stiffness and fracture energy, which makes each gradient function suitable for different loading scenarios. Moreover, regardless of the gradient function used in the design of the specimens, decreasing the length of the transition zone from 100%W to 5%W increased the fracture resistance of FGMs. We discuss the important underlying fracture mechanisms using data collected from digital image correlation (DIC), digital image microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which were used to analyze the fracture surface.

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31

Watanabe, Ryuzo, and Akira Kawasaki. "Development of Functionally Gradient Materials via Powder Metallurgy." Journal of the Japan Society of Powder and Powder Metallurgy 39, no. 4 (1992): 279–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.2497/jjspm.39.279.

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32

Atarashiya, Koji. "Functionally Gradient Materials of the System AlN-Metals." Journal of the Japan Society of Powder and Powder Metallurgy 41, no. 6 (1994): 639–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2497/jjspm.41.639.

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33

NIINO, Masayuki, and Akinaga KUMAKAWA. "Development Status and Perspectives of Functionally Gradient Materials." Netsu Bussei 6, no. 3 (1992): 193–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.2963/jjtp.6.193.

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34

Glushkov, E. V., N. V. Glushkova, S. I. Fomenko, and C. Zhang. "Surface waves in materials with functionally gradient coatings." Acoustical Physics 58, no. 3 (May 2012): 339–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1063771012010095.

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35

Huang, Jinhua, George M. Fadel, Vincent Y. Blouin, and Mica Grujicic. "Bi-objective optimization design of functionally gradient materials." Materials & Design 23, no. 7 (October 2002): 657–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0261-3069(02)00048-1.

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36

Ruys, A. J., J. A. Kerdic, and C. C. Sorrell. "Thixotropic casting of ceramic-metal functionally gradient materials." Journal of Materials Science 31, no. 16 (August 1996): 4347–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00356459.

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37

Narayan, Roger J., Linn W. Hobbs, Chunming Jin, and Afsaneh Rabiei. "The use of functionally gradient materials in medicine." JOM 58, no. 7 (July 2006): 52–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11837-006-0142-5.

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38

Chekanov, Yuri A., and John A. Pojman. "Preparation of functionally gradient materials via frontal polymerization." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 78, no. 13 (2000): 2398–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-4628(20001220)78:13<2398::aid-app170>3.0.co;2-k.

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39

Sotov, Anton, Artem Kantyukov, Anatoliy Popovich, and Vadim Sufiiarov. "A Review on Additive Manufacturing of Functional Gradient Piezoceramic." Micromachines 13, no. 7 (July 17, 2022): 1129. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi13071129.

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Functionally graded piezoceramics are a new generation of engineering materials whose final properties are determined by a chemical composition gradient (volume distribution), material microstructure, or design characteristics. This review analyzes possible ways to create a functionally graded piezoceramic material (gradient chemical composition, gradient porosity—controlled and disordered porosity) by additive manufacturing methods, to control such materials’ functional characteristics. An analysis of the creation of gradient piezoceramics using binder jetting technology is presented in more detail. The review shows that today, the creation of functional gradient piezoceramics by additive manufacturing is a poorly-studied but promising research area, due to the rapid development of the additive manufacturing market and their unique features in shaping parts.

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40

Koizumi, M., and M. Niino. "Overview of FGM Research in Japan." MRS Bulletin 20, no. 1 (January 1995): 19–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400048867.

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Space planes require high-performance heat-resistant materials which can withstand ultrahigh temperatures and extremely large temperature gradients. To meet these needs, functionally gradient materials (FGMs) were proposed about 10 years ago in Japan.Figure 1 shows a conceptual diagram of functionally gradient materials, taking into account the relaxation of thermal stress. For the surface that contacts high-temperature gases at thousands of degrees, ceramics are used to provide adequate heat resistance. For the surface that provides cooling, metallic materials are used to furnish the necessary thermal conductivity and mechanical strength. In addition, the composition of these materials is formulated to provide optimum distribution of composition, structure, and porosity to effectively relax thermal stress.Since fiscal 1987, an R&D project entitled “Research on Fundamental Techniques to Develop Functionally Gradient Materials for Relaxation of Thermal Stress,” which aimed to develop ultra heat-resistant materials, had been carried out with special coordination funds from the Science and Technology Agency. The five-year project had two phases; Phase I was carried out from 1987 to 1989, and Phase II from 1990 to 1991.

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41

Lee, Kwang Ho. "Characteristics of a crack propagating along the gradient in functionally gradient materials." International Journal of Solids and Structures 41, no. 11-12 (June 2004): 2879–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2004.01.004.

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42

Kuo, D. H., R. K. Shiue, W. Y. Tseng, C. H. Shih, T. Y. Yeh, and M. H. Wei. "Functionally Gradient 3YSZ-IN713LC Composites." Advanced Materials Research 47-50 (June 2008): 5–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.47-50.5.

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Functionally gradient materials (FGMs) composed of 3YSZ and IN713LC were developed in three different configurations. A linear-mode FGM had its compositions with a monotonic change in coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Negative- and positive-deviated FGMs had their compositions with lower and higher CTEs, respectively, on the ceramic sides. Fracture behaviors of these three types of FGMs were evaluated with aids of residual stress analyses. FGMs with a positive CTE deviation demonstrated the best performance in the experiment. The brittle ceramic side was under high compressive stress, and high tensile stresses were primarily initiated in the metal-rich gradient layers.

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43

Chmielewski, M., and K. Pietrzak. "Metal-ceramic functionally graded materials – manufacturing, characterization, application." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences 64, no. 1 (March 1, 2016): 151–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bpasts-2016-0017.

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Abstract Functionally graded materials (FGMs) belong to a new, continuously developing group of materials, finding application in various branches of industry. The idea of freely designing their construction profile, restricted only by the available manufacturing techniques, enables obtaining materials with composition and structure gradients having unprecedented properties. In this paper, selected results of works carried out by the authors and relating to the application of the developed metal-ceramic composites were presented in order to manufacture functionally graded materials for target purposes. Gradient structures with various construction profiles that can play different roles were produced on the basis on the following material pairs: Cr-Al2O3, NiAl-Al2O3 and Cu-AlN. Manufacturing conditions, microstructure characteristics and selected properties, crucial from the point of view of future applications, were presented.

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44

Xiu, Ziyang, Boyu Ju, Saiyue Liu, Yiwei Song, Jindan Du, Zhimin Li, Chang Zhou, Wenshu Yang, and Gaohui Wu. "Spark Plasma Sintering of AlN/Al Functionally Graded Materials." Materials 14, no. 17 (August 27, 2021): 4893. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14174893.

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In this paper, six-layer AlN/Al gradient composites were prepared by a spark plasma sintering process to study the influences of sintering temperature and holding time on the microstructure and mechanical properties. The well-bonded interface enables the composite to exhibit excellent thermal and mechanical properties. The hardness and thermal expansion properties of the composite exhibit a gradient property. The hardness increased with the volume fraction of AlN while the CTE decreased as the volume fraction of AlN. The thermal expansion reaches the lowest value of 13–14 ppm/K, and the hardness reaches the maximum value of 1.25 GPa, when the target volume fraction of AlN is 45%. The simulation results show that this gradient material can effectively reduce the thermal stress caused by the mismatch of the thermal expansion coefficient as a transmitter and receiver (T/R) module. This paper attempts to provide experimental support for the preparation of gradient Al matrix composites.

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45

Karnati, Sreekar, Yunlu Zhang, Frank F. Liou, and Joseph W. Newkirk. "On the Feasibility of Tailoring Copper–Nickel Functionally Graded Materials Fabricated through Laser Metal Deposition." Metals 9, no. 3 (March 3, 2019): 287. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met9030287.

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In this study, pulse-width modulation of laser power was identified as a feasible means for varying the chemical gradient in copper–nickel-graded materials. Graded material deposits of 70 wt. %. copper-30 wt. %. nickel on 100 wt. %. nickel and vice versa were deposited and characterized. The 70/30 copper–nickel weight ratio in the feedstock powder was achieved through blending elemental copper and 96 wt. %. Ni–Delero-22 alloy. At the dissimilar material interface over the course of four layers, the duty cycle of power was ramped down from a high value to optimized deposition conditions. This change was theorized to influence the remelting and deposition height, and by extension, vary the chemistry gradient. X-ray Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis showed significant differences in the span and nature of chemistry gradient with varying duty cycles. These observations were also supported by the variation in microhardness values across the interface. The influence of different chemistry gradients on the tensile performance was observed through mini-tensile testing, coupled with Digital Image Correlation (DIC). The strain fields from the DIC analysis showed variations in strain for different chemistry gradients. The strength measurements from these specimens were also different for different chemistry gradients. The site of failure was observed to always occur within the copper-rich region.

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46

Kuang, Xiao, Jiangtao Wu, Kaijuan Chen, Zeang Zhao, Zhen Ding, Fengjingyang Hu, Daining Fang, and H. Jerry Qi. "Grayscale digital light processing 3D printing for highly functionally graded materials." Science Advances 5, no. 5 (May 2019): eaav5790. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav5790.

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Three-dimensional (3D) printing or additive manufacturing, as a revolutionary technology for future advanced manufacturing, usually prints parts with poor control of complex gradients for functional applications. We present a single-vat grayscale digital light processing (g-DLP) 3D printing method using grayscale light patterns and a two-stage curing ink to obtain functionally graded materials with the mechanical gradient up to three orders of magnitude and high resolution. To demonstrate the g-DLP, we show the direct fabrication of complex 2D/3D lattices with controlled buckling and deformation sequence, negative Poisson’s ratio metamaterial, presurgical models with stiffness variations, composites for 4D printing, and anti-counterfeiting 3D printing.

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47

Hashida, Toshiyuki, Hideaki Takahashi, and Kazuhiko Miyawaki. "Evaluation of thermal shock fracture of functionally gradient materials." Journal of the Japan Society of Powder and Powder Metallurgy 37, no. 2 (1990): 307–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.2497/jjspm.37.307.

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Takahashi, Hideaki. "The evaluation of fracture strength for functionally gradient materials." Journal of the Japan Society of Powder and Powder Metallurgy 37, no. 7 (1990): 913–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.2497/jjspm.37.913.

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49

Noda, N., and Z. H. Jin. "A crack in functionally gradient materials under thermal shock." Archive of Applied Mechanics 64, no. 2 (January 1994): 99–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00789101.

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TANAKA, Takeshi, Yoshitada ISONO, and Tatsuya KAWAI. "Fundamental Study on Sintering Characteristics of Functionally Gradient Materials." Journal of the Japan Society for Precision Engineering, Contributed Papers 70, no. 6 (2004): 818–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.2493/jspe.70.818.

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