Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Fungi isolated'

This thesis describes the cultivation and extraction of filamentous fungi isolated from extreme environments in the search for new antibiotic compounds. Filamentous fungi are a rich source of medicines including antibiotics, and it is believed that many currently unknown fungal species and bioactive fungal metabolites remain to be discovered. Aspergillus fumigatus and Penicillium nalgiovense strains were isolated from an antibiotic-contaminated riverbed near Hyderabad, India, and soil taken from a penguin’s nest on Paulete Island, Antarctica, respectively. It was anticipated that the extreme conditions within these environments would exert unusual selective pressures on their filamentous fungi, possibly causing the secretion of new bioactive compounds. The cultivation, extraction and analysis of metabolites from the A. fumigatus strain resulted in the isolation of the antimicrobial substance gliotoxin. Subsequent investigations revealed that this strain’s secretion of gliotoxin was increased by as much as 65 % when it was cultivated in the presence of pathogen-associated molecular patterns. These results indicate the existence of a fungal receptor/signaling system for detecting nearby bacteria. The scope for using gliotoxin and the related metabolite bis(methyl)gliotoxin as biomarker metabolites for diagnosing the lethal pulmonary condition invasive aspergillosis was also investigated. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from 42 patients with and without possible invasive aspergillosis was extracted and analyzed. The results obtained suggest that gliotoxin and bis(methyl)gliotoxin are not suitable markers for diagnosing invasive aspergillosis. Studies on the P. nalgiovense strain from Antarctica resulted in the isolation of the antifungal agent amphotericin B. The secretion of this compound increased when P. nalgiovense was cultured on a potato-dextrose agar enriched with coconut flakes rather than liquid RPMI 1640 medium. This was the first time amphotericin B was isolated from any organism other than the bacterium Streptomyces nodosus. The results presented in this thesis will be useful in the continuing search for novel bioactive compounds, the diagnosis of fungal infections, and as a source of insight into the interactions between microorganisms. Moreover, they show that even extensively studied fungal genera such as Aspergillus and Penicillium are not completely understood and may produce unexpected or previously unknown bioactive metabolites under appropriate conditions.

Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa AgropecuÃria
Banco do Nordeste do Brasil
Fungos endofÃticos tÃm sido apontados como uma fonte promissora de substÃncias biologicamente ativas, entre as quais compostos com potencial atividade anticÃncer. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho descreve o primeiro estudo de prospecÃÃo quÃmica e citotoxicidade de dois fungos endofÃticos isolados de Aroeira-do-sertÃo (Myracrodruon urundeuva Fr. All.): Pseudofusicoccum stromaticum (MUB58) e Lasiodiplodia theobromae (MUB65). Os extratos de acetato de etila MUB58 e MUB65 foram obtidos atravÃs de partiÃÃo lÃquido-liquido do caldo destas cepas fÃngicas, as quais foram cultivadas por 21 dias em extrato de BD e malte, respectivamente. Os extratos fÃngicos foram inicialmente analisados por cromatografia lÃquida de ultraeficiÃncia acoplada a espectrometria de massas de alta resoluÃÃo (CLUE-EM) e posteriormente submetidos a cromatografia em Sephadex LH-20, seguida de cromatografia lÃquida de alta eficiÃncia com detector de arranjo de diodo. AnÃlise de CLUE-EM permitiu caracterizar a presenÃa de sete metabÃlitos no extrato MUB-58: O-sulfato de colina, xantofusina, 7-hidroxi-1-isocromanona, Ãcido multicÃlico, djalonensona, 3-Ãcido carboxÃlico-8-metoxicarbonila-1-hidroxi-9-oxo-9H-xantona e ciclo-Phe-Leu-Val-Leu-Leu. AlÃm disso, foram isolados quatro metabÃlitos ciclo-L-Phe-D-Leu1-L-Leu2-L-Leu3-L-lle (FC1), 5-hidroxi-metilfurfural (FC2), rotenolona (FC3) e tefrosina (FC4). O composto FC1 à inÃdito na literatura, enquanto os compostos FC3 e FC4 estÃo sendo relatados pela primeira vez em fungos endofÃticos. Da mesma forma, a anÃlise CLUE-EM do extrato MUB-65 levou à caracterizaÃÃo quÃmica de oito compostos jà relatados na espÃcie L. theobromae: 4-hidroximeleina; meleina; (3R, 5R)- 5-hidroxila-de-O-metil-lasiodiplodina; (3R,5R)-hidroxilasiodiplodina; 2,4,6-trimetiloct-2-enoato,1,2,6,8a- tetrahidro-7-hidroxi-1-8a-dimetil-6-oxo-2-naftalenila; lasiodiplodina; lasiojasmonato A e lasiojasmonatos B ou C. Adicionalmente, dois metabÃlitos foram isolados: lasiodiplodina (LT1) e rel-11-12- (7âR*, 4âR*, 2âR*- tetrahidrofuro[1â,2â] piranil)- lasiodiplodina (LT2). O composto LT2 està sendo relatado pela primeira vez na literatura. As estruturas quÃmicas de todas as substÃncias isoladas foram elucidadas por espectrometrias de RessonÃncia MagnÃtica Nuclear de 1H e 13C, infravermelho e CLUE-EM. Os extratos e seus respectivos metabÃlitos isolados foram submetidos ao ensaio de citotoxicidade para avaliaÃÃo dos seus efeitos antiproliferativos frente a uma linhagem celular de cÃncer colorretal (HCT-116). O extrato de MUB58 apresentou significativa atividade (75%) correspondendo a um IC50 de 10,40 Âg.mL-1, enquanto o extrato de MUB65 foi inativo. Os metabÃlitos isolados LT1 (IC50 11,24 Âg.mL-1), FC3 (IC50 5,59 Âg.mL-1) e FC4 (IC50 0,51 Âg.mL-1) apresentaram atividades na faixa de 11,24 a 0,51 Âg.mL-1.
Endophytic fungi have been identified as a promising source of biologically active substances,including compounds with potential anticancer activity. In this context, this paper describes the first study of chemical prospecting and cytotoxicity two endophytic fungi isolated from Aroeira -do-SertÃo(Myracrodruon urundeuva Fr.ll.):Pseudofusicoccum stromaticum (MUB-58) and Lasiodiplodia theobromae (MUB - 65). The ethylacetate extracts MUB-58 and MUB-65 were obta ined by liquid-liquid partition broth these fungal strains which were cultured for 21 days on BD and malt extract , respectively. The fungal extracts were first analyzed by liquid chromatography of ultraefficiency coupled to spectrometry, high resolution mass (CLUE -MS) and subsequently subjected to chromatography on Sephadex LH - 20, followed by liquid chromatography of high efficiency with diode array detector. CLUE - MS analysis allowed to determine the prese nce of metabolites in seven MUB 58 extract: cholin - O - sulfate, xanthofusin, 7-hidroxy -1-isochromanone, multico licacid, djalonensone, 8 - methoxycarbonyl-1-hidroxy-9-oxo-9H-xanthene-3-carboxylix acidand cyclo-Phe-Leu-Val-Leu-Leu. In addition, were isolated four metabolites:cycloL-Phe-D-Leu1-L-Leu2-L-Leu 3-L-Ile (FC1), 5-hidroxy-methilfurfural (FC2), rotenolone (FC3) and tephrosin (FC4).The compound FC1 is unprecedented in the literature, while FC3 and FC4 compounds are being reported for the first time in en dophytic fungi. Likewise, a CLUE - MS analysis the MUB - 65 extract led to characterization of eight chemical compounds already reported in the species L. theobromae:4-hidroxymelein; Mellein;(3R,5R)-5-hidroxyl-de-O-methyl-lasiodiplodin;(3 R,5 R)- hydroxyla siodiplodin; 2,4,6-trimethyloct-2-enoic acid-1,2,6,8a-tetrahydro-7-hydroxy-1-8a-dimethyl-6-oxo-2- naphtalenyl-ester;lasiodiplodin;lasiojasmonate A and lasiojasmonates B ou C. Additionally, two metabolites w ere isolated: lasiodiplodin(LT1) and rel-11-12-(7'R* 4'R*, 2 'R*-tetrahydrofuro [1', 2'] pyranyl)-lasiodiplodin (LT2). The compound LT2 being first reported in the literature. The chemical structures of all isolated compounds were elucidated by spectrometries Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 1 H and 13C, IR and CLUE-MS. The extracts and their isolated metabolites were subjected to the cytotoxicity assay to evaluate their antiproliferative effects against a colorectal cancer cell line (HCT-116). The MUB-58 extract showed significant activity (75%) corresponding to an IC50of 10.40 μg.mL -1, while the MUB65 extract was inactive. The LT1 isolated metabolites (IC5011.24 μg.mL-1), FC3(IC50 5.59 μg.mL-1) and FC4(IC500.51 μg.mL-1) showed activity in the range of 11.24 to 0.51 μg.mL-1.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
Eucalyptus. grandis is one of the main species used in forestry, in the Rio Grande do Sul State. The reforestations have been concentrated in low fertility soil areas, especially in phosphorus, such as the Quartzarenic Neosoils, which occur in the south of the state. It represents a problem for the establishment of this culture in field. This forestry species has the capacity of making symbiosis with ectomycorrhizal fungi that increase plant grown and the absorption of water and nutritious. The aim of the work was to evaluate the initial growth of eucalyptus in sandy area and the ectomycorrhizal fungi inoculation isolated, individually or mixed in Neosoil. In the first stage, eucalyptus seedlings were produced in greenhouse, inoculated or no-inoculated with the UFSC-Pt116 isolated, produced in peat or in Neosoil. After 120 days seedlings were transplanted to an area subjected to the process of sanding in São Francisco de Assis and evaluated regarding the survival, height, stem s diameter and tenors of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, total phosphorus, inorganic phosphorus, and wood production. In the second stage it was tested, in greenhouse, the effect of ectomycorrhizal fungi inoculation with the UFSC-Pt116, UFSC-Pt188 and UFSC-SA9 isolates, individually or mixed in peat substrate and in Neosoil. Determinations were accomplished regarding stem s diameter and height, dry matter of the aerial portion and the roots, roots volume, mycorrhizal colonization as well as the level of nitrogen, potassium and total, organic and inorganic phosphorus of the aerial portion of plants. In field, the plants produced in Neosoil and inoculated with the isolated UFSC-Pt116 obtained the highest survival, stem s height and diameter, nitrogen level, as well as wood production in relation to the no-inoculated seedlings. In the second study, the plants that received individual inoculation of the isolated UFSC-Pt116 and UFSC-SA9 and that were produced with peat obtained the highest height, stem s diameter, mycorrhizal colonization and dry matter accumulation. The plants that were produced in Neosoil and the individually inoculated with the isolated UFSC-Pt116, UFSC-Pt118 and UFSCSA9 showed highest height, stem s diameter, dry matter of the aerial portion and roots volume. The seedlings produced in Neosoil obtained higher height and diameter than those produced in peat.
No Estado do Rio Grande do Sul o E. grandis é uma das principais espécies utilizadas na silvicultura. Os reflorestamentos têm se concentrado em regiões de solos com baixa fertilidade, especialmente em fósforo, como os Neossolos Quartzarênicos, que ocorrem na metade sul do Estado, tornando-se um problema para o estabelecimento dessa cultura no campo. Esta espécie florestal tem a capacidade de formar simbiose com fungos ectomicorrízicos que auxiliam o crescimento das plantas através do aumento na absorção de nutrientes e água. No presente trabalho teve-se por objetivos avaliar o crescimento inicial do eucalipto em área arenizada e a inoculação dos isolados fúngicos ectomicorrízicos, individualmente ou em mistura em Neossolo. Na primeira etapa do trabalho, foram produzidas mudas de eucalipto em casa de vegetação, que foram inoculadas ou não com o isolado UFSC-Pt116, produzidas em turfa ou em Neossolo. Após 120 dias, essas foram transplantadas para uma área arenizada em São Francisco de Assis e avaliadas quanto à sobrevivência, altura, diâmetro do caule e teores de nitrogênio, fósforo e potássio, fósforo total, fósforo inorgânico, fósforo orgânico e produção de madeira. Na segunda etapa testou-se em casa de vegetação o efeito da inoculação dos isolados de fungos ectomicorrízicos UFSC-Pt116, UFSC-Pt188 e UFSC-SA9, individualmente e em mistura no substrato turfa e no Neossolo. Foram realizadas avaliações quanto à altura e diâmetro do caule, massa seca da parte aérea e das raízes, volume de raízes, percentual de colonização micorrízica e teores de nitrogênio, fósforo e potássio da parte aérea das plantas. No campo, as plantas que foram produzidas no Neossolo e inoculadas com o isolado UFSC-Pt116 obtiveram a maior sobrevivência, altura e diâmetro do caule, teores de nitrogênio, bem como produção de madeira em relação às mudas não inoculadas. No segundo estudo, as plantas que receberam inoculação individual dos isolados UFSC-Pt116 e UFSC-SA9 e foram produzidas com turfa obtiveram a maior altura, diâmetro do caule, colonização micorrízica e acúmulo de massa seca. As plantas que foram produzidas em Neossolo e inoculadas com os isolados UFSC-Pt116, UFSC-Pt188 e UFSC-SA9 individualmente alcançaram a maior altura, diâmetro do caule, massa seca da parte aérea e volume de raízes. As mudas produzidas no Neossolo alcançaram altura e diâmetro maiores que as produzidas na turfa.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a fungal secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium species. It has been detected in a wide range of commodities, including cereals, coffee, grapes, raisins, must and wine. Within grape derivative products, the raisins, red wine and sweet wines have reported to contain the highest OTA levels. Aspergillus section Nigri (A. niger and A. carbonarius) are considered the OTA source in these commodities and they are commonly isolated among other fungi from grapes and raisins.
Starting from this basis the objectives of this thesis were focused into three main aspects: (1) Evaluation of the food products: vine dried fruits and special wines, concerning the mycobiota and OTA occurrence and incidence; (2) Ecophysiological studies of the ochratoxigenic fungi and accompanying mycobiota as affected by environmental conditions; (3) Control and preventive methods such as the evaluation of residual activity of pre-harvest fungicides during grape dehydration and the use of modified atmospheres.
Wine origin and winemaking procedure showed to be determinant for the final OTA content. All special wines analysed from northern European regions were negative for OTA while more than 50% of wines from warmer regions were positive for OTA contamination. The wines with higher OTA levels were fortified musts followed by those made from dried grapes. Acoholic and malo-lactic fermentations, biological 'crianza' (Flor yeast) and the action of Botrytis cinerea in noble rot of grapes may diminish the OTA levels in wine.
In grapes, the presence of Aspergillus section Nigri became predominant at harvest and mainly during sun-drying. Prevalence of Aspergillus section Nigri can be explained by their adaptation to environmental conditions of sun-drying, and by their ability to dominate other fungal species involved when coming into contact with them. Among the Aspergillus section Nigri, A. niger aggregate was dominant, although A. carbonarius increased its inci

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Tiquira, a strong content beverage from Maranhão ( Brazil ), obtained from cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.) has its production concentrated in several counties of the State, through a handmade process , rather primitive, in which the conversion of starch cassava is taken into fermentable sugars by fungi which is found on the native beijus of manioc where strains are picked at random. Alcoholic fermentation is also made by yeasts found in the environment. Its commercialization is practiced informally, making it difficult to record statistical data of production and the number of producers in the Ministry of Agriculture. In order to optimize this process, commercial enzymes, strains of fungi (Aspergillus niger), were used to in order to convert starch into fermentable wort and pressed yeasts for fermentation. The processes proposed here follow three steps: gelation of starch scarification and subsequent dextrinization the sugars, alcoholic fermentation and distillation of fermented wine. Substituting the mold for commercial enzymes in the proposed circumstances, the manufacturing of tiquira was performed in just 25 hours, whereas when using fungi isolated, the production of tiquira took approximately 136 hours for its processing. As one can see, there was a considerable reduction of time in the two cases presented here in relation to the traditional process, which takes approximately 20 days to achieve the distillate. It was also found that the fermentation and destillation of the wort resulting from the scarification of cassava is equivalent to that of cane sugar, and both processes can be processed with the same equipment by tiquira producers. It was shown that the concentrations of copper and ethyl carbamate were visibly reduced in comparison to the traditional process, enabling a better quality of the beverage, as well as reducing the risks to consumer health. From the experiments it can be concluded that the replacement of the traditional process by commercial enzymes, fungi isolated and pressed yeast are highly and technically recommended primarily to small producers.
A tiquira é uma bebida típica do Maranhão (Brasil), obtida a partir de mandioca (Manihot esculenta, Crantz.), sua produção se concentra em diversos municípios do Estado, através de um processo artesanal, bastante primitivo, no qual a conversão do amido de mandioca em açúcares fermentescíveis é feita por bolores nativos que surgem sobre os beijus de massa de mandioca, onde as cepas são colhidas ao acaso. A fermentação alcoólica também é feita por leveduras selvagens. Tem sua comercialização praticada de modo informal, dificultando o registro de dados estatísticos de produção e número de produtor no Ministério da Agricultura. Com o objetivo de otimizar o referido processo, utilizaram-se, enzimas comerciais, cepas de fungos (Aspergillus níger), para a conversão do amido em mosto fermentescíveis e leveduras prensadas para fermentação. Os processos aqui propostos seguiram três etapas: gelificação do amido com a posterior dextrinização e sacarificação a açúcares, fermentação alcoólica e destilação do vinho fermentado. Substituindo-se os bolores por enzimas comerciais nas circunstâncias propostas, a fabricação da tiquira foi realizada em apenas 25 horas, enquanto que ao utilizar fungos isolados, a produção do aguardente demorou, aproximadamente, 136 horas para o seu processamento. Evidenciou-se assim, uma considerável redução de tempo, nos dois processos aqui apresentados em relação ao processo tradicional, que demora, aproximadamente, 20 dias para a consecução do destilado. Verificou-se também que os processos de fermentação e destilação do mosto oriundos da sacarificação da massa de mandioca são equivalentes ao da cana-de-açúcar, podendo ser processados com os mesmos equipamentos, por pequenos produtores de tiquira. Comprovou-se que as concentrações de cobre e carbamato de etila foram visivelmente reduzidas nos processos propostos em relação ao processo tradicional, possibilitando uma melhor qualidade da bebida, assim como reduzindo os riscos à saúde dos consumidores. A partir dos experimentos realizados conclui-se que a substituição do processo tradicional por enzimas comerciais, fungos isolados e levedura prensada se mostra tecnicamente possível e recomendada, primordialmente, aos pequenos produtores.

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The selection of cellulase-producing fungi is one of the possible estrategies for obtaining necessary enzymes to hydrolyze the lignocellulosic material of plant biomass and thereby contribute to the viability of cellulosic ethanol production. The aim of this study was achive a screening of isolated fungi from the Amazon region to assess the production of enzymes related to plant biomass degradation, in order to select a line for production, purification and biochemical, kinetical and and structural biology characterizationof the ß-Galactosidase enzyme. Therefore, this work was undertaken in three stages, first of all it was performed a screening of 40 fungal strains isolated from the Amazon region through the cultivation in solid state fermentation (FES) at 35ºC for 240 hours, using as substrate wheat bran. It was evaluated the production of xylanase, endoglucanase, FPase, pectinase, ß-Glicosidase and total protein, and the fungi that stood out were: P6B2, the best producer of xylanase, P47C3 (Aspergillus niger), the best producer endoglucanase and ß-Glicosidase and P40B3, the best producer of FPase. These three fungi were selected for the second phase of this work for assessment in the production of xylanase, FPase, endoglucanase, ß-Glicosidase and total protein by submerged fermentation (FSm). The fermentation took place for 5 days at 30ºC and 200 rpm with a source of carbon: 1% of wheat bran washed and nutrient medium. The fungi P47C3, which was identified as Aspergillus niger, showed the best production of these enzymes, being selected for the third stage of this project. This last step involved the selection of an enzyme that has not been elucidated its structural biology. Given this fact, we carried out a study of selection of the medium, purification and biochemicalkinetical characterization of ß-Galactosidase. The Aspergillus niger (P47C3) was subjected to submerged for 5 days at 200 rpm at 30ºC. Purification occured in three steps using: ion exchange column SP-Sephadex C-50 and SP TSK-5PW column, and gelfiltration, with the resin Sephacryl S-200. The enzyme ß-Galactosidase showed a molecular weight of 125 kDa, being stable at pH 4,0, with anoptimum temperature of 55ºC. It was evaluated theKmap e Vmáxap of two substrates, PNPG and lactose, being: 2,204 mM-0,285 mM/min and 2,101 mM-0,75mM/min, respectively. The inhibition of hydrolasis of the substrate PNPG by ß-Galactosidase in the presence of galactose inhibitor product showed a Ki value of 5,01 mM. Finally, the ß-Galactosidase was subjected to crystallization conditions, the best conditions occurred in buffer 0,2M Tris- HCl, with the precipitation agent, 12% PEG 4000 at pH 8,6. Therefore, the unpublished protocol for purification of ß-Galactosidase was efficient and it is possible to crystallize this enzyme of isolated fungi from the Amazon region, which showed great potencial for the production of this enzyme and that the future can be used in industrial application and biotechnological innovations.
A seleção de fungos produtores de celulases é uma das possíveis estratégias para a obtenção das enzimas necessárias para hidrolisar o material lignocelulósico da biomassa vegetal e com isso contribuir para a viabilização da produção de etanol celulósico. O objetivo desse trabalho foi realizar um screening dos fungos isolados da região amazônica para a avaliação da produção de enzimas relacionadas à degradação da biomassa vegetal, a fim de selecionar uma linhagem para produção, purificação e caracterização bioquímica, cinética e biologia estrutural da enzima ß-Galactosidase. Dessa forma, esse trabalho foi realizado em três etapas, primeiramente foi realizado um screening de 40 linhagens fúngicas isoladas da região amazônica, através do cultivo em fermentação em estado sólido (FES), a 35°C, por 240 horas, utilizando como substrato o farelo de trigo. Avaliou-se a produção de xilanase, endoglucanase, FPase, pectinase, ßglicosidase e proteínas totais, sendo que os fungos que mais se destacaram foram o: P6B2, melhor produtor de xilanase, P47C3 (Aspergillus niger), melhor produtor de endoglucanase e ß-glicosidase e o P40B3, melhor produtor de FPase. Esses três fungos, foram selecionados para a segunda fase do trabalho para avaliação na produção de xilanase, FPase, endoglucanase, ß-glicosidase e proteínas Totais por fermentação submersa (FSm). A fermentação ocorreu por 5 dias, à 30ºC e 200 rpm tendo como fonte de carbono: 1% de farelo de trigo lavado e meio nutriente. O fungo P47C3, identificado como Aspergillus niger, apresentou melhor produção dessas enzimas, sendo selecionado para a terceira etapa desse projeto. Essa última etapa, envolveu a escolha de uma enzima que não estivesse sua biologia estrutural elucidada. Diante desse fato, realizou-se um estudo de seleção do meio de cultivo, purificação e caracterização bioquimico-cinética da ß-Galactosidase. O fungo Aspergillus niger (P47C3) foi submetido a fermentação submersa, durante 5 dias, à 200 rpm em 30ºC. A purificação ocorreu em três etapas utilizando: colunas de troca iônica SP - Sephadex C-50 e a coluna SP -TSK 5PW; e gel filtração, com a resina Sephacryl S-200. A enzima ß-Galactosidase apresentou uma massa molecular de 125 kDa, sendo estável em pH 4,0, e com temperatura ótima de 55ºC. Avaliou-se a Kmap e Vmáxap de dois substratos, o PNPG e a lactose, sendo: 2,204 mM - 0,285 mM/min e 2,101 mM 0,750 mM/min, respectivamente. A inibição da hidrólise do substrato PNPG pela ß-Galactosidase na presença do produto inibidor galactose apresentou um valor de Ki de 5,01 mM. Por fim, a ß-Galactosidase foi submetida a condições de cristalização, as melhores condições ocorreram em tampão 0,2M Tris-HCl, tendo como agente precipitante, PEG 4000 12% em pH 8,6. Portanto, o protocolo inédito de purificação da ß-Galactosidase foi eficiente, sendo possível cristalizar essa enzima do fungo isolado da região amazônica, o qual apresentou grande potencial para a produção dessa enzima e que futuramente possa ser utilizado em aplicações industriais e inovações biotecnológicas.

In clinical microbiology laboratories, the conventional method for identification of pathogenic fungi is based on fungal culture and observation of fungal phenotypic characters. However, it is time-consuming, subjective and unreliable due to the long incubation period and variations in fungal colony morphology. Thus, there is a need for a rapid, objective and accurate identification of pathogenic fungal isolates. ITS regions are most commonly used targets for molecular identification of fungal pathogens because of the optimal inter- and intra-species variations and large copies in fungal genome. In this study, twenty-two clinical fungal isolates were identified using the phenotypic method and ITS sequencing. The results showed that there were only thirteen isolates identified to species level by phenotypic method, while others were only differentiated in genus level. Due to the poor differentiation based on the conventional phenotypic approach, misidentification of fungal pathogens occasionally occurred. However, ITS sequencing successfully achieved accurate species-level identification of all fungal isolates. The results were demonstrated in phylogenetic trees with high bootstrap support. In conclusion, ITS sequencing is a rapid and reliable for the identification of pathogenic fungal isolates.
published_or_final_version
Microbiology
Master
Master of Medical Sciences

An investigation was made into the isolation and screening of highly cellulolytic anaerobic fungi and their production of cellulolytic enzymes using immobilised rhizomycelia. A total of 46 anaerobic fungi were isolated on cellulosic substrates from ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores. Primary screening of these isolates was performed using dye release from cellulose-azure which qualitatively detected cellulolytic activity. Twelve isolates were chosen on the basis of their maximum solubilisation rates of the labelled cellulose and then subjected to secondary screening which involved the quantification of enzyme activity. The enzyme mixtures were characterised by carboxymethylcellulase, xylanase, B-glucosidase, B-xylosidase and cellobiase assays, measured by the production of either reducing sugars, p-nitrophenol or glucose. All strains produced a number of enzymes that allowed them to hydrolyse straw and highest enzyme activity was measured in static cultures grown on 0.5% straw. A monocentric isolate, Piromyces strain KSX1 from a red kangaroo, and a cattle polycentric isolate, Orpinomyces strain 478P1, were selected for study of cellulolytic enzyme production on the basis of high fibre digestion capability and amenability toward encapsulation. The immobilised polycentric strain proved to be operationally superior to strain KSX1 as strain 478P1 did not produce any viable growth in the culture liquor. Studies into single batch cultures of free cells of strains KSX1 and 478P1 revealed that the maximum specific rate of B-glucosidase production occurred concomitantly with maximum specific growth rate suggesting that the immobilised fungus must grow for continuous enzyme production to occur. Although the physiology of cellulase synthesis in strains KSX1 and 478P1 was found to be growth-associated, immobilisation of the fungus offered the advantage of the repeat-batch use of cells with the accumulation of extracellular enzymes after each batch. Thus, operational gains were the key issues in assessing the potential application of immobilised anaerobic fungi in the production of cellulolytic enzymes. The repeat-batch system was operationally more efficient than the free cell batch cultures because immobilisation removed the need of reculturing the cells for every single batch.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

En aquets tesis es vol enfocar en l'estudi dels géneres fúngics Acremonium, Arthrographis, Arthropsis, Ochroconis, Sarocladium, Scytalidium i Verruconis. Alguns d'ells són ocasionalment aïllats de mostres clíbiques, encara què, l'espectre real de les seves espècies en l'area clínica es poc coneguda, sumant-li la seva difícil identificació i complexa taxonomia. Es van estudiar un total de 248 aïllats, 131 obtingust de mostres clíniques o de sòls i 117 corresponents a soques tipus o de referència de col.leccions internacionals de cultius. La caracterizació fenotípica dels aïllats es va realitzar a traves de l'observació de les seves característiques macroscópiques i microscópiques. La identificació molecular, mitjacant la seqüenciació de les regions ribosomals ITS i LSU. Per obtenir una millor resolució filogenética entre algunes espècies, es van seqüenciar regions parcials d'altres gens (actina, tubulina, factor de elongació, RNA polimerasa i quitina sintasa). L'activitat in vitro d'alguns antifúngics va a ser evaluata front a espècies de Arthrographis, Arthropsis, Ochroconis i Scytalidium. Apart de les espècies comunment conegudes com a patògens oportunistes A. kalrae i V. gallopava, altres espècies no conegudas previament a partir de mostres clíniques vàren ser identificades (Arthropsis hispanica, Sarocladium terricola, Scytalidium cuboideum i Ochroconis cordanae). Incluint les noves espècies descrites aquí: Acremonium dimorphosporum, A. moniliforme, Arthrographis chlamydospora, A.
pseudostrictum i S. subulatum. Adicionalment, quatre géneres nous, Acremoniopsis, Brunneomyces, Cervusimilis i Collarina i 16 nous taxons, Acremoniopsis suttonii, Acremonium asperulatum, A. citrinum, A: parvum, A: pilosum, A. variecolor, Brunneomyces brunnescens, B. hominis, B. europaeus, Cervusimilis alba, Collarina aurantiaca, Ochroconis icarus, Sarocladium gamsii, S. implicatum, S. summerbellii i S. terricola, vàren ser descrits de mostres de diferents origens. En general, les proves de sensibilitat antifúngica mostrar que la terbinafina va ser la droga més activa davant les espècies avaluades, excepte per S. cuboideum, on el posaconazol va a mostrar la millor activitat En esta tesis nos enfocamos en el estudio de los géneros fúngicos Acremonium, Arthrographis, Arthropsis, Ochroconis, Sarocladium, Scytalidium y Verruconis. Algunos de ellos son ocasionalmente aislados de muestras clínicas, sin embargo, el espectro real de sus especies en el área clínica es poco conocido, sumado a su difícil identificación y compleja taxonomía. Se estudiaron un total de 248 aislados, 131 obtenidos de muestras clínicas o de suelos y 117 correspondientes a cepas tipo o de referencia de colecciones internacionales de cultivos. La caracterización fenotípica de los aislados se realizó a través de la observación de sus características macroscópicas y microscópicas, y la identificación molecular, mediante la secuencación de las regiones ribosomales ITS y LSU. Para obtener una mejor resolución filogenética entre algunas especies, se secuenciaron regiones parciales de otros genes (actina, tubulina, factor de elongación, RNA polimerasa II y quitina sintasa). La actividad in vitro de varios antifúngicos fue evaluada frente a especies de Arthrographis, Arthropsis, Ochroconis y Scytalidium. Aparte de las especies comunmente reportadas como patógenos oportunistas, Arthrographis kalrae y Verruconis gallopava, otras especies no reportadas previamente a partir de muestras clínicas fueron identificadas (Arthropsis hispanica, Sarocladium terricola, Scytalidium cuboideum y Ochroconis cordanae), incluyendo las nuevas especies descritas aquí:
Ochroconis olivacea, O. ramosa, Sarocladium bifurcatum, S. hominis, S. pseudostrictum y S. subulatum. Adicionalmente, cuatro géneros nuevos, Acremoniopsis, Brunneomyces, Cervusimilis y Collarina, y 16 nuevos taxones, Acremoniopsis suttonii, Acremonium asperulatum, A. citrinum, A. parvum, A. pilosum, A: variecolor, Brunneomyces brunnescens, B. hominis, B. europaeus, Cervusimilis alba, Collarina aurantiaca, Ochroconis icarus, Sarocladium gamsii, S. implicatum, S. sumerbellii y S. terricola, fueron descritos de muestras de diversos orígenes. En general, las pruebas de sensibilidad antifúngica revelaron que la terbinafina fué la droga más activa frente a las especies evaluadas, excepto para S. cuboideum, donde el posaconazol mostró la mejor actividad. In this thesis, we have studied the fungal genera Acremonium, Arthrographis, Arthropsis, Ochroconis, Sarocladium, Scytalidium and Verruconis. Some of them are occasionally recovered from clinical specimens, but the real spectrum of their species in the clinical setting is poorly known. Furthermore, the scarce morphological differentiation of their species make difficult their identification and taxonomy. A total of 248 isolates were studied. 131 obtained from clinical or soil samples and 117 corresponding to type or reference strains from international culture collections. Phenotypical characterization was performed by the observation of their macroscopic and microscopic features in artificial media. Molecular identification was assessed by sequencing of two ribosomal regions (ITS and partial LSU). To obtain deeper phylogenetic resolution of some species, fragments of different loci were also used (actin, tubulin, translation elongation factor, RNA polymerase II and chitin syntase). The in vitro activity of several antifungal drugs was evaluated against Arthrographis, Arthropsis, Ochroconis and Scytalidium species. Apart from the commonly reported opportunistic species Arthrographis kalrae and Verruconis gallopava, other species never associated before to clinical specimens were identified (Arthropsis hispanica, Sarocladium terricola, Scytalidium cuboideum, Ochroconis

Many insects are important agricultural pests, and active control is necessary to keep them at abeyance. The naturally occurring entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium is a promising tool to control pest insects, and its use avoids the well-known harmful side effects of chemical pesticides. Thousands of unique isolates of Metarhizium exist throughout the world. These isolates vary widely in their ability to cause infection and to tolerate stressful habitats. The research reported here tests the THESIS: A laboratory-based system can be devised that identifies, from among many Metarhizium isolates, those isolates with the greatest potential for successful biological control of pest insects in the field. The study was built on the testing of four hypotheses: (1) Laboratory bioassays using target pest insects will distinguish highly virulent strains of Metarhizium from less virulent strains, (2) Quantity and quality of mass-produced pathogenic fungi will vary among species and strains of Metarhizium, (3) The tolerance to ultraviolet radiation will vary among species and strains of Metarhizium, (4) The effect of temperature on growth rates and survival of both Metarhizium spores and hyphae will vary among isolates and species. These hypotheses test four field-relevant traits using a panel of ten isolates of Metarhizium isolates. Seven sets of laboratory experiments were devised to define the range of responses within the traits covered by the hypotheses. This series of general laboratory tests was developed to assist in identifying fungal isolates with high potential for field use. These tests included evaluation of each isolate's (a) insect pathogenicity, (b) mass–production capabilities, (c) tolerance to high temperatures, (d) tolerance to UV-B radiation, (e) rate of vegetative growth, (f) rate of spore germination, and (g) an evaluation of presence or absence of a post–stress growth inhibition. The application of this protocol to the isolates used in this study indicates that four isolates have high field potential, i.e., DWR 203, DWR 346, DWR 356 and ARSEF 324, and three of these were tested in a field trial. By following the procedures outlined in this thesis, selection of “good” isolates can be accomplished in the laboratory, and a successful isolate can be identified from the abundance of isolates present in nature.

Anecdotal evidence of two South African Geranium species (Pelargonium reniforme and Pelargonium sidoides) from the United Kingdom with regard to plants being used against tuberculosis, which lacked scientific evidence’ prompted us to investigate these two plants for their antimicrobial properties. The German herbal remedy (‘Umckaloabo’) is prepared from these two plant species and is currently being sold for bronchitis. Acetone, chloroform and ethanol extracts were investigated against three bacteria (pathogens causing bronchitis), three fungi (fungal species associated with the upper and lower respiratory tract) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This is the first report on the extracts’ activity against Moraxella catarrhalis, and three fungi (Asperigilus niger, Rhizopus stolonifer and Fusarium oxysporum). Acetone and ethanol root extracts of P. sidoides and its combination with P. reniforme exhibited activity against bacteria at 5.0 mg/ml concentration. The fungi were significantly inhibited by the acetone and ethanol extracts of P. reniforme and the ethanol extract of P. sidoides at a concentration of 5.0 mg/ml. Antituberculosis activity was observed on acetone, chloroform and ethanol root extract of P. reniforme and chloroform extract of P. sidoides at 5.0 mg/ml concentration. The isolation and purification of compounds were attempted using two different approaches, of which the second approach resulted in isolation of four compounds and two flavonoids. One flavonoid (epigallocatechin) is isolated for the first time from P. sidoides. Laboratory investigations showed no activity of compounds isolated against M. tuberculosis. As Mycobacteria are intracellular pathogens, antimycobacterial activities may be due to either direct or indirect effects. Though the compounds in this study did not show antituberculosis activity, it can be speculated that the anecdotal evidence of TB-patients could be due to their immunostimulant activity.
Dissertation (MSc (Plant Physiology))--University of Pretoria, 2005.
Plant Science
unrestricted

Metarhizium anisoplia var. acridum, a gyphomycetous fungus registered worldwide for grasshopper and locust control, is currently under consideration as a worldwide for grasshopper and locust control, is currently under consideration as a potential alternative to chemical insecticides for grasshopper control in Canada. Research in this thesis has contributed data required for the registration of biological control agents in Canada. A diagnostic PCR assay was developed for the specific detection of M. anisopliae var. acridum DNA. The assay was highly sensitive and effective for the detection of fungal DNA in infected grasshoppers. A survey of southern Alberta soils conducted in the spring of 2004 revealed the presence of Metarhizium spp. at low natural incidennce. Two indigenous isolates demonstrated pathogenicity when bioassayed against laboratory-reared and field collected grasshoppers. One of the isolates demonstrated virulence comparable to a commercial isolate. An analysis of historical weather data revealed that summer weather in the Prairie provinces should not preclude the efficacy of M. anisopliae var. acridum under local conditions.
xv, 127 leaves : ill. (some col.) ; 28 cm.

Thesis (PhD(Agric))--University of Stellenbosch, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to characterize the race and vegetative compatibility of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis (FOM) isolates collected in the major melon producing areas, to report on their geographical distribution, and their possible relatedness to isolates from other countries. Seventy two FOM isolates obtained from 30 fields in 17 melon producing regions were race-typed using the differential cultivars Topmark (susceptible to all races), Doublon (Fomi), CM 17187 (Fom2) and Perlita (Fom3) and grouped by means of vegetative compatibility. All isolates belonged to vegetative compatibility group 0134, indicating a high degree of genetic homogeneity among the South African FOM population. Fifty four isolates were identified as race 0, eight as race 1, and 10 as race 2. Race 0 occurred in 15 of the regions whereas race 1 was sporadically recovered. Race 2, on the other hand, was obtained only from four fields located in one geographical region. Perlita plants (carrying the gene Fom3) inoculated with local isolates ofrace 0 and race 2 and reference isolates of race 0 became stunted, their leaves turned yellow, and became thickened and brittle. These results suggested that Fom3 in Perlita confers a tolerant reaction compared to the resistant reaction of gene FornI in Doublon. The disease reaction of cultivar Perlita to FOM was therefore reinvestigated. Twenty isolates, including the four FOM races (0, 1, 2, and 1,2) obtained from different countries, were used. The differential cultivars were included to verify virulence of the isolates. Perlita plants inoculated with three isolates of race 2 remained asymptomatic. The remaining race 2 and 0 isolates, induced severe stunting of Perlita plants, but mean percentage stunting values did not differ significantly (P = 0.05) and ranged between 25.1 and 50.0. Leaves of stunted plants were chlorotic, thickened and brittle. Disease reaction of Perlita was verified at a lower inoculum concentration with two race 2 (pipette method) and two race 0 isolates (root dip method). Results proved that Fom3 does not confer similar resistance towards race 0 and some race 2 isolates as FornI in Doublon. Cultivars possessing Fom3, should therefore be considered tolerant to FOM races 0 and 2. The ability of a nit mutant isolate, generated from FOM race 0 which belongs to VCG 0134, to change its virulence during infection of melon plants, was investigated under quarantine. Seedlings of melon cultivars Imperial 45 and Early Sweet (no resistance genes), Amber (Fom2) and Fiata (FomI, Fom2) were consecutively grown in two cement troughs in a gauzehouse. Each planting was terminated when plants had advanced Fusarium wilt or after the fruit were harvested. In the first planting, Imperial 45 seedlings were transplanted and artificially inoculated with the nil mutant isolate. In the consecutive plantings, seeds were sown in the infested soil to enable natural infection. For each crop, representative plants showing Fusarium wilt were selected for isolation. All F. oxysporum isolates recovered were single-spored and their nit mutant and VCG status verified. Virulence of the labelled isolates was determined using differential cultivars. In trough A, all plants of the susceptible cultivars Imperial 45 and Early Sweet crops showed Fusarium wilt. The labelled isolates recovered from the selected plants were all designated race O. In the first crop (planting No.5) of the resistant cultivar Amber, 6.7% of the plants developed Fusarium wilt. In the second Amber crop the disease incidence increased to 56.6%, and to 81.8% in the final crop. Contrary to the susceptible cultivars, only race 2 isolates were obtained from the symptomatic Amber plants. Similar data were found with the susceptible cultivar Imperial 45 and the resistant cultivar Amber in trough B. Planting of Fiata caused a dramatic reduction in Fusarium wilt incidence in trough B. However, 1.2% of plants were affected by Fusarium wilt in the first Fiata crop (planting No.6), whereas 4% of the plants were symptomatic in the final planting. From these symptomatic Fiata plants only race 1,2 isolates were obtained. These findings, and the fact that the symptomatic plants represented a substantial proportion of the first Amber (approximately 7-15%) and Fiata (approximately 2%) crops, provedthat changes in the race structure of this fungal pathogen occurred rapidly when confronted with a resistant cultivar. The potential of RAPD analysis to differentiate between the isolates displaying virulence changes was evaluated. Four F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum isolates were included as an outgroup. A histopathological study was conducted to verify whether these isolates retain their ability to behave as true vascular pathogens. The three primers used clearly distinguished the 12 FOM isolates from the four F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum isolates. However, the primers showed a highly conserved and characteristic banding pattern for the FOM isolates which represented three physiological races (race 0, race 2, race 1,2), indicating that RAPD analysis cannot detect race-specific groupings in FOM. Disease reactions on the three differential cultivars confirmed the virulence of FOM isolates. The histopathological data furthermore proved that the two FOM races (race 2, race 1,2), which derived from the race 0 parent isolate, retained their ability to behave as true vascular pathogens.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: DIE KARAKTERISERING EN PATOGENESITEIT VAN SUID-AFRIKAANSE ISOLATE VAN FUSARIUMOXYSPORUMF. SP.MELONIS Die doel van die studie was om Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis (FOM) isolate wat in die hoof spanspekproduserende gebiede versamel is, volgens ras en vegetatiewe verenigbaarheid te karakteriseer, en hul geografiese verspreiding en verwantskap met isolate van ander lande aan te dui. Twee en sewentig FOM isolate afkomstig vanaf 30 landerye wat 17 spanspekproduserende areas verteenwoordig, is gebruik. Die differensiële kultivars Topmark (vatbaar vir alle rasse), Doublon (Forni), CM 17187 (Fom2) en Perlita (Fond) is gebruik om die rasbepalings te doen asook om die vegetatiewe verenigbare groepe (VVG) te bepaal. Al die isolate is as VVG 0134 geklassifiseer, wat 'n hoë mate van genetiese homogenesiteit binne die Suid-Afrikaanse populasie aandui. Vier en vyftig isolate is as ras 0, agt as ras 1 en 10 as ras 2 geklassifiseer. Ras 0 is vanaf 15 gebiede afkomstig, terwyl ras 1 sporadies voorgekom het. Ras 2 is vanuit vier landerye binne dieselfde geografiese gebied verkry. Plante van die kultivar Perlita wat met plaaslike isolate van ras 0 en 2, asook verwysings-isolate van ras 0 geïnokuleer is, het verdwerg voorgekom. Die blare van die plante het vergeel, verdik en bros voorgekom. Hierdie siekte reaksie het aangedui dat Fond in Perlita toleransie bewerkstellig in teenstelling met die weerstandbiedende reaksie van geen Fomi in Doublon. Die siekte reaksie van Perlita teenoor FOM is dus verder ondesoek. Hiervoor is 20 isolate wat al vier FOM rasse insluit (0, 1, 2, en 1,2), en van verskillende wêrelddele afkomstig is, gebruik. Die virulensie van die isolate is met die differensiële kultivars bevestig. Drie van die ras 2 isolate het geen siektesimptome op Perlita veroorsaak nie. Die ander ras 2 isolate, en al die ras 0 isolate, het egter die Perlita plante aansienlik verdwerg en die blare vergeel en verdik. Laasgenoemde groep isolate het 'n gemiddelde verdwergingsindeks van tussen 25.1% en 50.0% veroorsaak. Die siekte reaksie by Perlita is verder bevestig deur plante teen 'n laer inokulumdigtheid van twee ras 2 (pipet metode), en twee ras 0 (wortel-doop metode) isolate, te inokuleer. Uit die resultate was dit duidelik dat die weerstand wat Fom3 teenoor ras 0 en sommige ras 2 isolate verskaf, van FornI verskil. Kultivars wat oor die weerstandsgeen Fom3 beskik moet dus as tolerant beskou word. 'n Ondersoek is geloods na die vermoë van 'n nil mutant isolaat, genereer vanaf die wilde ras 0 isolaat van FOM (VVG 0134), om onder kwarantyn sy virulensie gedurende infeksie van spanspekplante te verander. Saailinge van die spanspekkultivars Early Sweet (geen weerstandsgene), Amber (Fom2) en Fiata (FornI, Fom2) is opeenvolgens in twee sement trêe in 'n gaashuis verbou. Die afsonderlike aanplantings is beëindig sodra gevorderde Fusarium-verwelksimptome verkry is, of nadat vrugte ge-oes is. Vir die eerste aanplanting is oorgeplante Imperial 45 saailinge kunsmatig met die nil mutant isolaat geïnokuleer. Tydens die opeenvolgende aanplantings is saad direk in die besmette grond gesaai ten einde natuurlike infeksie te verkry. Met elke aanplanting is isolasies gedoen vanaf verteenwoordigende plante wat Fusarium-verwelksimptome getoon het. Alle F. oxysporum isolate wat verkry is, is ge-enkelspoor en hul nit mutant status en VVG is bevestig. Virulensie van die gemerkte isolate is bepaal deur inokulasie van die differensiële kultivars. Alle plante van die vatbare Imperial 45 en Early Sweet kultivars wat in trog A geplant is, het Fusarium-verwelksimptome getoon. Die gemerkte isolate wat vanaf die verteenwoordigende plante verkry is, is almal as ras 0 geklassifiseer. Tydens die eerste aanplanting van die weerstandbiedende kultivar, Amber (aanplanting No.5), het 6.7% van die plante Fusarium-verwe1ksimptome ontwikkel. Tydens die tweede en derde aanplanting van Amber het die frekwensie van siektevoorkoms verhoog na 56.6% en 81.8 %, onderskeidelik. In teenstelling met die vatbare kultivars, is slegs ras 2 vanuit die Amber plante met siektesimptome verkry. Soortgelyke resultate is met Imperial 45 en Amber in trog B verkry. Aanplanting van kultivar Fiata het egter 'n dramatiese verlaging in die voorkoms van Fusarium-verwelk bewerkstellig. Tydens die eerste Fiata aanplanting (aanplanting No.6) het 1.2% plante Fusarium-verwelksimptome ontwikkel, en 4% tydens die laaste aanplanting. Vanaf hierdie plante is slegs ras 1,2 isolate verkry. Hierdie bevindings, en die feit dat 'n aansienlike hoeveelheid van die Amber (ongeveer 7-15%) en Fiata plante (ongeveer 2%) siektesimptome getoon het, bewys dat FOM vinnig van virulensie verander wanneer die patogeen 'n weerstanbiedende kultivar infekteer. Die vermoë van RAPD analise om tussen isolate wat in virulensie verander het, te onderskei, is ondersoek. Vier isolate van F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum is as 'n buite-groep ingesluit. Om te bevestig dat die isolate wat van ras verander het wel egte vaskulêre patogene is, is 'n histopatologiese ondersoek gedoen. Die drie inleiers wat gebruik is, het die 12 FOM isolate duidelik van die vier F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum isolate onderskei. Die 12 FOM isolate wat drie fiosologiese rasse (ras 0, ras 2, ras 1,2) verteenwoordig het, is egter saam gegroepeer, wat aandui dat hierdie metode nie tussen rasse van FOM kan onderskei nie. Inokulasiestudies met die differensiële kultivars het die virulensie van die isolate bevestig. Die histopatologiese ondersoek het verder bewys dat beide FOM rasse (ras 2, ras 1,2) wat vanaf die wilde tipe ras ° isolaat ontstaan het, hul vermoë behou het om as egte vaskulêre patogene op te tree.

Os fungos entomopatogênicos do gênero Metarhizium e Beauveria compreendem um importante grupo de patógenos de artrópodes-praga. A seleção de isolados de fungos promissores é a primeira e uma das mais importantes etapas no desenvolvimento de um biopesticida, pois alguns isolados podem apresentar alta virulência e não necessariamente boa produção em substrato e vice-versa, sendo interessante a combinação desses dois parâmetros para a viabilidade comercial de um produto. A dificuldade de criação ou manutenção de algumas espécies de pragas em laboratório é um limitante para a condução de testes de virulência, tornando-se interessante a utilização de espécies modelo, de fácil criação, nas etapas preliminares de seleção. Nesse sentido, este estudo objetivou selecionar isolados com alta produção de conídios e virulência, comparando a eficiência de controle de M. anisopliae e B. bassiana às pragas alvo Mahanarva fimbriolata e Bemisia tabaci Biótipo B, respectivamente, com a mortalidade em Tenebrio molitor. Inicialmente, foram selecionados 50 isolados a partir de 100 isolados de cada gênero, baseado em avaliações visuais do crescimento e esporulação em meio de cultivo em placas de Petri. Estes isolados selecionados foram cultivados em arroz parboilizado para quantificação do rendimento produtivo de conídios. Os 25 isolados mais produtivos de cada espécie de fungo foram utilizados nos bioensaios com T. molitor. Posteriormente, os cinco isolados que causaram maior e menor mortalidade de cada gênero, foram utilizados nos bioensaios com as respectivas pragas-alvo. A variação no rendimento de conídios de Beauveria spp., foi de 0,3 a 7,7 x 109 conídios.grama de arroz-1 e de Metarhizium spp. foi de 0,1 a 2,5 x 109 conídios.grama de arroz-1. A mortalidade confirmada de larvas de T. molitor por Beauveria spp., variou de 5,5 a 96,4% e por M. anisopliae variou de 29,1 a 89,1%. Alguns isolados causaram mortalidade elevada tanto no inseto modelo quanto na praga-alvo, porém, não foi verificada uma relação entre a virulência para as duas espécies. Da mesma forma, não foi observada associação entre os parâmetros produção de conídios e virulência. O isolado ESALQ 4958 de B. bassiana se destacou nos dois bioensaios apresentando mortalidades elevadas de ninfas de B. tabaci Biótipo B. Nos bioensaios utilizando ninfas de M. fimbriolata, ESALQ 1641 foi o isolado que apresentou os maiores percentuais de mortalidade nos dois bioensaios. Analisando conjuntamente as variáveis produção de conídios e virulência a T. molitor e a espécie alvo, os isolados ESALQ 540 (B. bassiana) e ESALQ 1116 (M. anisopliae) se destacaram por apresentarem valores elevados para todas as variáveis de interesse. Os resultados reforçam a necessidade de uma análise conjunta destas variáveis com um peso diferenciado para cada variável na seleção de isolados para utilização em produtos microbianos para o controle de pragas.
The genus Metarhizium spp. and Beauveria spp. are important entomopathogenic fungi used to control arthropod pests. The selection of promising fungal isolates is the first and one of the most important steps on the development of a biopesticide, since some isolates may present high virulence and not necessarily good production in substrate and vice-versa, being the combination of these two parameters important for the commercial viability. Difficulties of rearing or maintaining some species of pests in laboratory are limitations for the conduction of virulence tests, justifying the use of easy to breed model species on the preliminary steps of selection. Therefore, this study aimed to select isolates with high conidia production and virulence, comparing the control efficiency of M. anisopliae and B. bassiana to the target pests, Mahanarva fimbriolata and Bemisia tabaci biotype B, respectively, with mortality in Tenebrio molitor. At first, 50 isolates were selected from 100 isolates of each genus, based on growth and sporulation in culture medium on Petri dishes. These isolates were grown in parboiled rice to quantify the yield of conidia. The 25 most productive isolates of each fungus species were used in the bioassays with T. molitor. After, the five isolates that caused higher and lower mortality of each genus were used in the bioassays with the respective target pests. Beauveria spp. conidia yield ranged from 0.3 to 7.7 x 109 conidia.grams of rice-1 and Metarhizium spp. from 0.1 to 2.5 x 109 conidia.gram of rice-1. The confirmed mortality of T. molitor larvae by Beauveria spp. varied from 5.5 to 96.4% and M. anisopliae varied from 29.1 to 89.1%. Some isolates caused high mortality in both, model insect and the target pest; however, no relationship between the virulence of both species was observed. Similarly, there was no association between the parameters conidia production and virulence. The B. bassiana isolate ESALQ 4958 in both bioassays presented high mortalities of B. tabaci Biotype B. In bioassays using M. fimbriolata nymphs, ESALQ 1641 was the isolate that presented the highest mortalities in both bioassays. Analyzing the variables, conidia production and virulence to T. molitor and the target species, the isolates ESALQ 540 (B. bassiana) and ESALQ 1116 (M. anisopliae) showed high values for all variables of interest. The results reinforce the necessity of a joint analysis of these variables with different weight for each one in the selection of isolates, aiming to use them in microbial products for pest control.

The cultivation of flowers is, in Brazil, very recent and little known species have a high ornamental potential, Cartamus is such a species and there are cultivars for the production of oil and as well as for ornamental pourposes. Being a recent crop in Brazil, little is known about its associated diseases, specially those that affect the seeds and the soil borne, such as white mold that causes great losses to several crops. Six experiments were conducted with the objectives of testing the reaction of the crop to isolates of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, the biocontrol of S. sclerotiorum and of pathogens associated to the seeds, and the effect of the biocontrollers on cartamus plant growth. Isolates of the pathogen from chrisantemum, lettuce, soybean, and carrots, as well as isolates of Trichoderma sp. (ETSR 20 e TC 1.15) and comercial products of Trichoderma spp. (Agrotrich and Trichodel®) were used. In the reaction test, the cartamus crop was more severely attacked by the isolate obtained from lettuce, which when incorporated to commercial substrate did not promote the development of the disease in plant, but reduced plant growth. Trichodel® was the product that promoted the highest growth of plants when incorporated to the substrate, even in the absence of the pathogen. The product more efficient in controlling seed pathogens was Agrotrich. In the growth of seedlings, the isolates ETSR20 and TC1.15 were the best, when applied to the seeds and the latter promoted the best emergency of seeds in commercial substrate. Therefore, the Trichoderma based products can be used in the control of seed pathogens and growth promotion of cartamus plants as seed or substrate treatment. There are differences in disease severity on cartamus among isolates of S. sclerotiorum from different crops and its presence reduces the crop s growth, even in the absence of visible symptoms
A floricultura, no Brasil, é relativamente recente, existindo espécies pouco conhecidas com alto potencial ornamental. O cártamo é uma delas e possui cultivares tanto para a produção de óleo quanto para ornamentação. Por ser uma cultura recente no Brasil, pouco se conhece sobre as doenças associadas a ela, especialmente as que afetam as sementes e as veiculadas pelo solo, como o mofo branco, que causa grandes prejuízos a diversas culturas. Seis experimentos foram conduzidos com o objetivo de testar a reação da cultura a isolados de Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, o biocontrole de patógenos associados às sementes e de Sclerotinia sclerotiorum e o efeito dos biocontroladores no crescimento de plantas de cártamo. Foram utilizados isolados de Sclerotinia sclerotiorum das culturas do crisântemo, alface, soja e cenoura, e isolados de Trichoderma spp. (ETSR 20 e TC 1.15) e formulados comerciais à base de Trichoderma spp. (Agrotrich e Trichodel®). No teste de reação, a cultura do cártamo foi mais severamente atacada pelo isolado proveniente da alface, o qual, quando incorporado ao substrato comercial, não promoveu o desenvolvimento da doença nas plantas, porém prejudicou seu crescimento. Trichodel® foi o produto que maior crescimento proporcionou às plantas quando incorporado ao substrato, mesmo sem a presença do patógeno. O produto mais eficiente no controle dos patógenos das sementes foi o formulado comercial Agrotrich. No crescimento de plântulas, os isolados ETSR 20 e TC 1.15 se sobressaíram quando aplicados às sementes e este obteve melhor resultado na emergência de plântulas em substrato. Assim, os produtos a base de Trichoderma são viáveis para controle de patógenos de sementes e crescimento de plantas tanto no tratamento de sementes como do substrato. Existem diferenças na severidade da doença em cártamo entre isolados de Sclerotinia sclerotiorum oriundos de diferentes culturas e sua presença reduz o crescimento da cultura, mesmo na ausência de sintomas visíveis

Este trabalho descreve o estudo de bioprospecÃÃo de metabÃlitos secundÃrios citotÃxicos do PecÃm-CE. Inicialmente, foi realizado o estudo cinÃtico da produÃÃo de metabÃlitos secundÃrios por P. lilacinus cultivado no meio de batata-dextrose (BD) durante 7, 14 21 e 28 dias. AtravÃs da anÃlise cromatogrÃfica dos extratos, bem como dos resultados de atividade citotÃxica dos mesmos, frente à linhagem de cÃlula tumoral HCT -116 (cÃncer de cÃlon), foi possÃvel selecionar o extrato oriundo do crescimento do fungo por 14 dias (inibiÃÃo de crescimento:85,7 %) como o mais citotÃxico. O fracionamento bioguiado do extrato orgÃnico do fungo cultivado por 14 dias em grande escala levou ao isolamento dos esterÃides wortimanina e 11-deacetoxiwortimanina, ambos inÃditos no gÃnero Paecilomyces . Os metabÃlitos secundÃrios foram isolados at ravÃs de mÃtodos cromatogrÃficos usuais e CLAE (Cromatografia lÃquida de alta eficiÃncia). A caracterizaÃÃo estrutural foi realizada atravÃs do uso de mÃtodos espectromÃtricos, especialmente espectrometria de massas, ressonÃncia magnÃtica nuclear (1H e 13C) e infravermelho, alÃm de comparaÃÃo de dados da literatura. TambÃm foi realizado um estudo de desreplicaÃÃo do extrato, o qual sugeriu a presenÃa dos compostos ciclosinefungina, estatana A, virescenosideo -D, (+)-esclerotiorina, 2'-Amino-2'-deoxiguanosina , fumaramidimicina e deoxinivalenol, todos inÃditos no gÃnero Paecilomyces produzidos por Paecilomyces lilacinus (cepa BRF053) recuperado de sedimentos da praia.
The bioprospection of cytotoxic secondary metabolites produced by Paecilomyces lilacinus(fungal strain BRF053) recovered from sediments collected at PecÃm beach, Cearà state, was investigated. First, the production of compounds by the fungal strain was performed by culturing the microorganism in potato-dextrose broth (PDB) for 7,14,21 and 28 days. Both HPLC analysis and cytotoxic activity(tumor cell line HCT-116) of the extracts from each period of culture revealed 1 4 days as the optimum time for producing cytotoxic compounds (growth inhibition 85.7 %). Bioguided fractionation of the organic extract from the fungus cultured in large scale under the same conditions (14 days) allowed the isolation of the steroids wortimann in and 11-deacetox ywortiman n in, both new compounds in Paecilomyces. These compounds were isolated by chromatography column and HPLC, and their structures were elucidated by spectrometric methods (HRMS, 1H, 13C NMR, and IR) besides comparison with literature data. Dereplication of the extract by LC -MS suggested the presence of cyclosinefungin, stanna A, virescenoside-D, (+)-esclerotiorin, 2'-Amino-2'-deoxiguanosine, fumaramidimicin e deoxy nivalenol, all of the new compounds in Paecilomyces.

碩士
國立臺灣大學
農業化學系
85
Obligate anaerobic fungi are found in gastrointestinal trace of the ruminants. It had been reported that five genera and sixteen species were isolated from many ruminants before 1996. The obligate anaerobic fungi have been known to possess diverse plant polysaccharide hydrolase activities. The Neocallimastix cellulases have been shown to form a large multienzyme complex, which exhibits very high activity against crystalline cellulose. In this study, I isolated seven isolates of obligate anaerobic fungi from the feces of llama, water baffulo and Taiwan native animals Formosan Sika deer and Taiwan yellow bos. The seven isolates were cultured on modified basal medium with filter paper as the carbon source. According to their morphological characters, D-21, X-26, X-34, Y-15, Y-24 and L-87 were classified to genera Neocallimastix, and X-55 isolate was similar to genera Caecomyces. In my study, I have also compared cellulolytic ability with the crude extracts of the six Neocallimastix isolates and the commercial cellulases of Trichoderma viride (B.M.) and Aspergillus niger (Sigma). The activity of the complete cellulase complex was measured by using Whatman No. 1 filter paper. This assay is recommended by the Commission on Biotechnology (IUPAC) for measurement of activity of total cellulase or true cellulase. The cellulolytic activity of N. frontalis X-26 was 0.02 IU/mg which of T. viride and A. niger were 0.035 and 0.015 IU/mg. The endoglucanase activity of N. frontalis D-21 was 0.460 IU/mg which of T. viride and A. niger were 0.545 and 0.148 IU/ mg protein. This result suggests the anaerobic fungi exhibits very high activity against cellulose. I report here the cellulolytic activites of six isolates and provide that obligate anaerobic fungi can also be found in gastrointestinal trace of the Taiwan native ruminants - Formosan Sika deer and Taiwan yellow bos.

碩士
臺北醫學大學
生醫材料暨工程研究所
97
In the present study, SACCHACHITIN and RHIZOCHITIN were used to evaluate the effectiveness in accelerating chronic wound healing, by employing a cell line in vitro model and a chemical-induced diabetic rat in vivo model. For In vitro, Hs68 fibroblast cells were cultured in high-glucose medium (110 mM glucose) for 24 hours and then SACCHACHITIN and RHIZOCHITIN (100, 250, and 500 μg/ml) were supplemented as suspension to the medium. After 7 days, we observed both SACCHACHITIN and RHIZOCHITIN resumed cell viability and cell mobility of Hs68 cell in high-glucose condition. In in vivo model, full-thickness skin wounds (4 cm2) were created on the dorsum of wistar diabetic rats. The cutaneous wounds were treated with membrane of SACCHACHITIN or RHIZOCHITIN, and the area of wounds was analysed at 3, 7, 14, 21 days. The data in vivo indicated both SACCHACHITIN and RHIZOCHITIN induced wound healing, significantly. Furthermore, new wound dressings were designed to combine with GF18, a mixture of human platelet growth factor, with SACCHACHITIN or RHIZOCHITIN, and the effects of the novel wound dressings on diabetic wound healing were evaluated. The data in vivo indicated the addition of GF18 optimized the recovery effect of SACCHACHITIN and RHIZOCHITIN. Transforming growth factor-beta1(TGF-β1) was assayed by ELISA in the samples of wound area. As a result, SACCHACHITIN, RHIZOCHITIN, GF18 and new wound dressings all significantly increased the production of TGF-β1 in different stages of the healing process.

Fungi isolated from stained wood, mostly coniferous and recently attacked by bark beetles, in New Zealand, Norway, Western Canada, and the U. S.A. were grown in culture under prescribed conditions to determine their specific characteristics and taxonomic relationships. The study resulted in the preparation of detailed descriptions of 36 taxa which represent species of the genera Acremonium, Aphanocladium, Beauveria, Chalara, Dipodascus, Engyodontium, Gliocladium, Graphium, Hyalodendron, Hyalopesotum, Hyalorhinocladiella, Leptodontidium, Mariannaea, Monocillium, Phaeoisaria, Phialographium, Phialophora, Pitomyces, Rhinocladiella, Verticillium, Volutella, and taxonomic genus 1. Of these, nine are proposed as new, and are to be found in Acremonium, Beauveria, Gliocladium, Graphium, Hyalopesotum (synanamorph Hyalorhinocladiella), Monocillium, Phialographium (synanamorph Phialophora), and one for which the new genus will be erected. In addition, to accommodate one of these species, the genus Erostella was re-established, and its type, E. minima, and the only other previously described species, E. fraxinopennsylvanica, were included for comparison with E. novae-zelandiae sp. nov. prop. Wood-staining fungi, especially members of the Ophistomatales and their anamorphs, many of which cause blueing of the sapwood of economically important timber trees, have been the subject of numerous studies. However, other fungi which occur in association with the wood-staining organisms in and around bark beetle galleries have largely been ignored, especially if they are non-staining. This investigation sought at least partially to redress this neglect. This study is a taxonomic investigation of various fungi from the bark beetle galleries. Its aim was to identify the more poorly known entities and thus add information as to the nature of the bark beetle-host tree-microorganism ecosystem.

The hypothesis that inoculation of transplants with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi before planting into saline soils would alleviate salt effects on growth and productivity was tested on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and onion (Allium cepa L.). A secondary hypothesis was that the fungi isolated from a saline soil would be more effective than those from a nonsaline soil. VAM inocula from a high-and a low-salt soil were trap-cultured, their propagules quantified, adjusted, and added to a pasteurized growth medium in which seeds germinated and seedlings grew for a few weeks. These seedlings, once colonized by VAM fungi, were transplanted into saline soil. Seedlings were exposed to high concentrations of NaCl at the time of transplant; in this respect, our technique aimed to simulate conditions of high salinity prevalent in soils affected by NaCl. Preinoculated lettuce and onion transplants grown for 10 weeks had increased shoot biomass compared with nonVAM plants at all salinity (NaCl) levels tested. Leaves of VAM lettuce at the highest salt level were significantly greener than those of the nonVAM lettuce. NonVAM onions were stunted due to available P deficiency in the soil, but inoculation with VAM fungi alleviated P deficiency and salinity effects except at the highest salinity level; nevertheless, VAM onions were significantly larger at all salinity levels. Increasing the level of available P by weekly applications to nonVAM plants partially alleviated the salinity effects on onion growth. VAM fungi from the saline soil site were not more effective in ameliorating the reduction on plant growth caused by salt than those from the nonsaline site. Colonization of roots and length of soil hyphae produced by the test fungi decreased with increasing salt. Results indicate that preinoculation of transplants with VAM fungi can effectively alleviate deleterious effects of saline soils on crop productivity.
Graduation date: 2000

Eight phylloplane yeasts were isolated from backyard apple trees in Corvallis, OR. Yeast isolates were classified to genus or species level. All isolates were tested in vitro for antagonistic activity against the postharvest pathogens Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum. Of these isolates, Aureobasidium pullulans, Sporobolomyces roseus Rhodotorula sp., consistently reduced mycelial growth of B. cinerea and P. expansum in nutrient yeast dextrose agar (pH 4.5 or 7.0) incubated for 8 or 30 days at 24 or 1 C, respectively. These three yeasts also were evaluated for their ability to suppress spore germination of B. cinerea and P. expansum in a gradient of apple juice concentrations and to suppress development of gray and blue mold lesions in inoculated fruits of Golden Delicious apple. Germination of B. cinerea and P. expansum was reduced significantly (P���0.05) when incubated with the yeast isolates in 100 or 50% apple juice, but not in 0, 1 or 10% apple juice. S. roseus and A. pullulans reduced significantly (P���0.05) the size of gray mold lesions in wounded fruit stored at 5 C and 24 C by 63 to 72 and 81 to 90%, respectively, when compared to the nontreated control. Size of blue mold lesions in fruit stored at 5 and 24 C also were reduced significantly (P���0.05) by 66 to 38 and 74 to 63%, respectively, when pre-treated with S. roseus and A. pullulans. In general, fruit rot suppression by some yeasts isolated in this study was similar in magnitude to suppression obtained by Cryptococcus laurentii isolate 87-108, a yeast with commercial potential to suppress postharvest rots of pome fruits. Pretreatment of apple wounds with washed cells of A. pullulans, S. roseus, Rhodotorula sp., resulted in disease suppression, but treatment of wounds with cell-free culture supernatant of these isolates did not affect lesion development. Population size of A. pullulans, S. roseus, and C. laurentii increased in apple wounds incubated at 5 or 24 C for up to 25 days, indicating that they colonized the wound site. Data collected in this study support the hypothesis that yeast isolates antagonize fruit pathogens by competing for nutrients in wounds on fruit surfaces. The isolates of A. pullulans and S. roseus show promise for commercial development.
Graduation date: 1997

Fruit and vegetables are often spoilt during storage, handling and transportation due to microorganisms. The common spoilage causes are fungi within the order Mucorales, the largest order of the class Zygomycetes. Such spoilage can result in reduced food supplies, poor quality and severe losses to producers and traders. The study was to investigate the type of Mucorales prevalent in various commodities and in a particular market than others. Fifty infected papaya, peaches and strawberries were collected at five occasions from large, medium and small markets. Isolation was done aseptically in a biosafety cabinet. Mucorales were identified morphologically, through culture based tests and molecular techniques. Mucorales isolated are Rhizopus stolonifer, Mucor circinelloides and Mucor racemosus. Mucorales were isolated at a higher rate in samples collected from the small market than other two markets. Spoilage in all three markets is assumed to be influenced by lack of modified temperatures in the storage room.
Life and Consumer Sciences
M. Sc. (Life Sciences)

Although the molecular mechanisms underlying the onset and progression of cancer has been unraveled to a great extend, cancer continues to remain a leading cause of death around the world. Clinical efficacy of the existing anticancer drugs are largely compromised by the inherent and acquired resistance of cancer cell types and the severe side effects evoked by chemotherapeutic agents. Hence, the search for novel anticancer drugs with minimum side effects remains an active area of cancer research. Although molecular targeted drugs are preferred over the conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy, the screening of natural compounds with cytotoxic potentialities continues as they can serve as lead structures for the development of tumor selective anticancer drugs. Plants and microorganisms have been the prominent sources of therapeutic agents. Microorganisms being readily renewable, inexhaustible sources of diverse bioactive secondary metabolites are preferred over plants as sources of bioactive compounds. Endophytes are microorganisms that reside within the living tissue of host plant and they enhance the survival value of the host plant by mediating various stress tolerance mechanisms. Endophytic fungi have gained attention as potential sources of bioactive secondary metabolites following the discovery of a taxol producing endophytic fungus Taxomyces adrenae, from Taxus brevifolia. Moreover, endophytes occupy a unique biological niche in which they maintain a balanced interaction with the host organism and other co-inhabiting microorganisms. All these factors contribute to the chemical diversity of the metabolites they produce. Plants restricted to extreme or unique habitats or those with ethnobotanical value are likely to lodge endophytes that possess a unique hoard of secondarymetabolites. Saraca asoca is a traditionalmedicinal plant with its occurrence restricted to countries such as India, Sri Lanka, Burma and Malaysia. The purpose of the present study is to explore the endophytic fungal population associated with S. asoca in search of novel anticancer lead structures. S. asoca was found to house a diverse endophytic fungal population belonging to 37 different species. Identification of the fungal isolates was based on ITS (internal transcribed spacer region) sequence analysis as well as colony and spore characteristics. The organic extracts of all fungal species were assessed for their in vitro cytotoxicities in three human cancer cell lines, HeLa, HepG2 and PC3 byMTT assay. 18 species exhibited remarkable cytotoxic activities, among which Pestalotiopsis sp. 6 exhibited themost significant cytotoxicity. The strain with second highest activity was Lasiodiplodia theobromae. In order to identify the active principle present in the organic extracts of Pestalotiopsis sp. 6 and L. theobromae, the organic extracts were chromatographed on TLC plates and individual compounds were recovered by scraping off from the TLC plates and extracting with methanol. The cytotoxicity assay of the TLC purified compounds suggested the cytotoxic activity of Pestalotiopsis sp.6 to be a synergetic effect of two or more compounds whereas the cytotoxicity of L. theobromae organic extract was largely due to a single compound. Hence the active principle present in L. theobromae organic extract was purified by bioassay - guided column chromatography. Repeated chromatography of the crude extract using three silica gel columns resulted in the isolation of anticancer compound. Based on the analysis of ESI-MS, IR, NMR and UV spectral data, the isolated compound was identified as a novel steroidal saponin, cholestan-3-O-¯-Dglucopyranoside (cholestanol glucoside - CG). The in vitro cytotoxic effects of CG towards seven human cancer cell lines, HeLa, HepG2, PC3, U251,MCF 7, OVCAR3 and A549 were examined. Among the cell lines screened, HeLa cells weremost vulnerable to CG treatment, with an IC50 value of 3.2 ¹M. Hence themode of cell death induction in HeLa cells by CG was further investigated. Analysis of cell cycle progression by propidium iodide (PI) staining revealed that CG arrests the cells in S phase of cell cycle prior to the induction of cell death. The morphological and biochemical features of apoptosis were investigated by nuclear staining, DNA fragmentation assay and Annexin V-FITC/ PI dual staining. All these results suggested that CG effectively induced apoptosis in HeLa cells in a concentration dependent manner. It was also found that CG treatment induced remarkable ROS generation and mitochondrial membrane potential loss. The pretreatment of cells with an antioxidant, N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), blocked CG induced ROS generation, mitochondrialmembrane depolarization and apoptotic cell death. Hence it could be concluded that CG kills the cancer cells by augmenting their basal oxidative stress and hence is less likely to be toxic to normal cells. Moreover, a high Bax to Bcl-2 ratio, high levels of Apaf-1 and p53, activation of procaspase-3 and procaspase-9 and cleavage of PARP were observed in CG treated HeLa cells. Taken together, our results suggested that CG induced apoptosis in HeLa cells via ROS mediated mitochondria dependent pathway. Biosynthesis of secondarymetabolites by filamentous fungi is influenced by the availability of nutrient factors. Therefore, it is essential to optimize the culturemedium components to ensure a maximum and consistent yield of desired metabolite by the fungal isolate. We designed a chemically defined production medium for CG production by L. theobromae. Carbon source, nitrogen source and microelements in the production medium were further optimized in stationary flask cultures to improve the mycelial growth and yield of CG by L. theobromae. The conventional one-factor at a time (OFAT)method was employed for the optimization of carbon and nitrogen sourceswhose contribution effects towards the final yield are large. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed for the optimization of microelements. Optimization of culturemedium enhanced the yield of CG from 10mg L¡1 to 50mg L¡1. Various secondarymetabolites are produced by organisms in response to different stress conditions. This knowledge has been exploited in plant cell culture systems to increase the yield of particular secondary metabolites by artificial implementation of stress conditions. We investigated the effect of oxidative, osmotic and heat shock stresses on the production of CG by L. theobromae. Heat shock and osmotic stresses in liquid cultures were found to enhance the yield of CG by 1.2-fold, relative to the controls. Oxidative stress by both menadione and H2O2 enhanced the yield by 1.8-fold compared to the controls. Thus oxidative stress proved to be an efficient enhancer of CG production by L. theobromae. These findings ensure a large scale, cost-effective production of CG.

The genus Bacillus is comprised of Gram-positive, rod-shaped, spore-forming bacteria which are well known for their ability to produce a diverse array of antimicrobial compounds. Ofparticular interest is the ability of certain strains to produce antifungal compounds. Such organisms have the potential for application in agriculture where they can be used as biocontrol agents against selected plant pathogenic fungi. A study was undertaken to further characterize selected Bacillus isolates that exhibit broad spectrum antifungal activity. Dual culture bioassays were used to screen seven selected Bacillus isolates for activity against four plant pathogenic fungi in vitro. All isolates were able to inhibit the pathogens to varying degrees. Two isolates, R29 and B81, were selected for further testing and characterization. Further bioassays were performed on five complex nutrient media which were adjusted to pH S.S and 7, and both incubated at 2SoC and 30°C" respectively. It was found that pH and media composition showed significant influences on the antifungal activities of the isolates tested, but that a SoC temperature difference in incubation temperature did not. Tryptone soy agar was found to give rise to the largest inhibition zones. Both isolates were tentatively identified using standard biochemical and morphological tests. Based on its phenotypic characteristics, R29 was identified as a strain of B. subtilis. B81 proved to be more difficult to assign to a specific group or species of Bacillus, though B. subtilis and B. licheniformis were considered to be the nearest candidates. Genomic DNA was extracted from both isolates and a portion of each of their 16s rDNA genes were amplified and sequenced for homology testing against the GeneBank database. Homology testing confirmed that both isolates were members of the genus Bacillus and most probably strains of B. subtilis. The DNA fragment used for sequencing proved to be too small to give conclusive identification of the isolates. Isolate R29 was selected for further characterization of its antifungal compound/so Growth curve studies using a defined synthetic medium showed that antifungal activity arose during the stationary phase and appeared to be closely linked to sporulation. The antifungal component of cell free culture supematant was extracted using various methods including thin layer chromatography, acid precipitation, hydrophobic interaction chromatography and methanol extractions. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of extracts from acid precipitation and hydrophobic interaction chromatography revealed two active peaks indicating that at least two antifungal compounds were produced. Methanol extracted samples produced the cleanest sample extract but only revealed one active peak from the HPLC fraction . Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of purified samples indicated that the antifungal compound/s have aromatic complex and peptide structures. The extracted antifungal compounds were Protease K resistant and found to be thermostable at temperatures ranging 80-121oC, and, were active at pH ranges of 3-13. The antifungal compounds were found to exhibit similar properties to known antifungallipopeptides i.e. iturin A and fengycin A and B. Further characterization and identification of the active compounds is recommended usmg methods such as liquid chromatography mass spectrometer and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of- flight. The results presented in this dissertation provide a basis from which antifungal compounds produced by strains ofBacillus can be further characterized.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

by Wong Yuk Hang.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1994.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 110-114).
Abstract --- p.i
Acknowledgement --- p.iv
Dedication --- p.v
Table of Contents --- p.vi
List of Tables --- p.xi
List of Figures --- p.xii
Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction and literature review
Chapter 1.1 --- Introduction --- p.2
Chapter 1.2 --- Literature review --- p.5
Chapter 1.2.1 --- General considerations --- p.5
Chapter 1.2.2 --- Nature of glucosinolate --- p.6
Chapter 1.2.3 --- Degradation of glucosinolates by myrosinase --- p.7
Chapter 1.2.4 --- Toxicology of glucosinolate and hydrolysis products --- p.8
Chapter 1.2.5 --- Plant myrosinase --- p.9
Chapter 1.2.6 --- Fungal myrosinase --- p.11
Chapter 1.2.7 --- Purification and properties of fungal myrosinase --- p.11
Chapter Chapter 2 --- Screening of fungi with myrosinase activity and physiological studies of myrosinase production in Aspergillus oryzae
Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.15
Chapter 2.2 --- Materials and methods --- p.16
Chapter 2.2.1 --- Fungal strains --- p.16
Chapter 2.2.2 --- Media --- p.16
Chapter 2.2.3 --- Screening --- p.17
Chapter 2.2.4 --- Enzyme assay and protein determination --- p.18
Chapter 2.2.4.1 --- Myrosinase assay --- p.18
Chapter 2.2.4.2 --- Definition of myrosinase unit and specific activity --- p.19
Chapter 2.2.4.3 --- Protein determination --- p.19
Chapter 2.2.5 --- Physiological studies of myrosinase production in Aspergillus oryzae --- p.19
Chapter 2.2.5.1 --- Incubation time --- p.20
Chapter 2.2.5.2 --- Inducer concentration --- p.20
Chapter 2.3 --- Results --- p.21
Chapter 2.3.1 --- Screening --- p.21
Chapter 2.3.1.1 --- Degradation of sinigrin in culture medium --- p.21
Chapter 2.3.1.2 --- Confirmation of myrosinase activity --- p.21
Chapter 2.3.2 --- Physiological studies of myrosinase production in Aspergillus oryzae --- p.21
Chapter 2.3.2.1 --- Incubation time --- p.21
Chapter 2.3.2.2 --- Inducer concentration --- p.22
Chapter 2.4 --- Discussion --- p.23
Chapter 2.4.1 --- Fungi selection in screening programme --- p.23
Chapter 2.4.2 --- Medium composition --- p.23
Chapter 2.4.3 --- Screening --- p.24
Chapter 2.4.4 --- Physiological studies of myrosinase production in Aspergillus oryzae --- p.25
Chapter 2.4.4.1 --- Incubation time --- p.25
Chapter 2.4.4.2 --- Inducer concentration --- p.25
Chapter Chapter 3 --- Purification and characterization of myrosinase in Aspergillus oryzae
Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.33
Chapter 3.2 --- Materials and methods --- p.35
Chapter 3.2.1 --- Reagents --- p.35
Chapter 3.2.2 --- Fungal propagation --- p.35
Chapter 3.2.3 --- Purification of the fungal myrosinase --- p.36
Chapter 3.2.3.1 --- Preparation of crude extract --- p.36
Chapter 3.2.3.2 --- Dialysis --- p.37
Chapter 3.2.3.3 --- DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B ion-exchange chromatography --- p.37
Chapter 3.2.3.4 --- Sephacryl S-200 molecular sieving chromatography --- p.37
Chapter 3.2.3.5 --- FPLC Phenyl Superose hydrophobic interaction chromatography --- p.38
Chapter 3.2.3.6 --- FPLC Mono P chromatofocusing --- p.38
Chapter 3.2.4 --- Myrosinase assay and protein concentration determination --- p.39
Chapter 3.2.4.1 --- Spot test for myrosinase activity --- p.39
Chapter 3.2.4.2 --- Standard end-point assay --- p.40
Chapter 3.2.4.3 --- Determination of protein concentration --- p.42
Chapter 3.2.5 --- Physicochemical characterization of the myrosinase isozymes --- p.42
Chapter 3.2.5.1 --- Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis --- p.42
Chapter 3.2.5.2 --- Protein staining and glycoprotein detection --- p.43
Chapter 3.2.5.3 --- Chromatofocusing --- p.43
Chapter 3.2.5.4 --- Gel filtration with FPLC Superose 6 --- p.44
Chapter 3.2.6 --- Enzymatic properties --- p.44
Chapter 3.2.6.1 --- Effect of pH on crude enzyme stability --- p.44
Chapter 3.2.6.2 --- Effect of substrate concentration on enzyme activity --- p.45
Chapter 3.2.6.3 --- Effect of pH on enzyme activity --- p.45
Chapter 3.2.6.4 --- Effect of temperature on enzyme activity --- p.46
Chapter 3.2.6.5 --- Effects of metallic ions on enzyme activity --- p.46
Chapter 3.2.6.6 --- Effects of various compounds on enzyme activity --- p.46
Chapter 3.2.6.7 --- Effects of various buffers on enzyme activity --- p.47
Chapter 3.3 --- Results --- p.48
Chapter 3.3.1 --- Fungal propagation --- p.48
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Purification of fungal myrosinase in Aspergillus oryzae --- p.48
Chapter 3.3.2.1 --- Extraction of the enzyme --- p.48
Chapter 3.3.2.2 --- Dialysis --- p.49
Chapter 3.3.2.3 --- DEAE-Sepharose ion-exchange chromatography --- p.49
Chapter 3.3.2.4 --- Sephacryl S-200 molecular sieving chromatography --- p.50
Chapter 3.3.2.5 --- FPLC Phenyl Superose hydrophobic interaction chromatography --- p.50
Chapter 3.3.2.6 --- FPLC Mono P chromatofocusing --- p.51
Chapter 3.3.3 --- Physicochemical characterization --- p.52
Chapter 3.3.3.1 --- Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis --- p.52
Chapter 3.3.3.2 --- Chromatofocusing --- p.53
Chapter 3.3.3.3 --- Gel filtration --- p.53
Chapter 3.3.4 --- Enzymatic properties --- p.53
Chapter 3.3.4.1 --- Effect of pH on the crude enzyme stability --- p.53
Chapter 3.3.4.2 --- Effect of substrate concentration on enzyme activity --- p.54
Chapter 3.3.4.3 --- Effect of pH on enzyme activity --- p.54
Chapter 3.3.4.4 --- Effect of temperature on enzyme activity --- p.55
Chapter 3.3.4.5 --- Effects of metallic ions on enzyme activity --- p.55
Chapter 3.3.4.6 --- Effects of various compounds on enzyme activity --- p.56
Chapter 3.3.4.7 --- Effects of various buffers on enzyme activity --- p.57
Chapter 3.4 --- Discussion --- p.58
Chapter 3.4.1 --- Purification of Aspergillus oryzae myrosinase --- p.58
Chapter 3.4.1.1 --- Dialysis --- p.58
Chapter 3.4.1.2 --- Enzyme purification --- p.58
Chapter 3.4.2 --- Physicochemical properties --- p.60
Chapter 3.4.2.1 --- Glycoprotein --- p.60
Chapter 3.4.2.2 --- Molecular weights --- p.60
Chapter 3.4.2.3 --- Isoelectric points --- p.61
Chapter 3.4.3 --- Enzymatic properties --- p.61
Chapter 3.4.3.1 --- pH and temperature optima --- p.61
Chapter 3.4.3.2 --- Substrate affinity --- p.62
Chapter 3.4.3.3 --- Inhibitions by various compounds and metallic ions --- p.63
Chapter 3.4.3.4 --- Inhibitions by various buffer systems --- p.64
Chapter Chapter 4 --- Summary --- p.106
References --- p.110

碩士
國立中興大學
昆蟲學系
88
Ten isolates of the entomopathogenic fungus, Nomuraea rileyi, were bioassayed by spraying against 5th-instar larvae of the common cutworm, Spodoptera litura. Among these isolates, IPL-TC1 isolate was most virulent, resulting in 83.3 % larval mortality, whereas IPL-WF1 isolate caused only 8.3%. To investigate the genetic variability of these isolates, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was used to analyze 10 N. rileyi isolates. The optimal RAPD conditions amplified in PCR machine were 200 ng template DNA, 200 µM dNTP, 1x PCR buffer, 0.2 µM primer and 2.5 U Taq polymerase, with 40 cycles. Fifteen reproducibility primers were screened from 80 random primers. RAPD analysis of 10 N. rileyi isolates with fifteen 10-mer oligonucleotide primers of arbitrary sequence showed 187 scorable characters, the amplified DNA fragments ranged from 0.5 to 5.4 kb. Cluster analysis of RAPD characters showed that most of N. rielyi isolates were in one of three phenetic groups. The phenetic groups were not correlated with virulence, geographical origin, or host species. One RAPD fragment was cloned to prepare DNA probe, pA7. The results indicated that specific hybridization of this probe with N. rileyi isolates was observed. In addition, extra nucleic acid bands were detected from 10 N. rileyi isolates during purification of genomic DNA. On the basis of digestion of nuclease using different salt concentrations, the extra bands proved to be dsRNA. Through 20-70 % linear sucrose gradient by ultracentrifugation, dsRNA and virus-like particle were recovered in the same gradient. Therefore, it is indicated that these isolates of N. rileyi were infected with mycoviruses.

碩士
國立中興大學
植物病理學系所
103
Endophytic fungi are the microorganisms which live inside of plant tissue without causing symptoms. Endophytic fungi can protect host against pathogens based on their secondary metabolites or induced systemic resistance. Previous studies demonstrated that certain endophytic fungi can produce similar metabolites as host plants. Especially, the endophytic fungi from medicinal plants have been considered as the important source of the novel metabolites. In this study, the endophytic fungi CB10 isolate from medicinal plant fingered citron, Citrus medica var. sarcodactylis, of Rutaceae have been reported to show the ability against several plant fungal pathogens. The CB10 isolate was identified as Lasmenia sp. based on morphology and molecular characters. Moreover, the temperature test indicated that 20-24℃ was optimum for CB10 isolate growth and same with fingered citron. The colonies morphology were variable with different temperatures. The analysis result showed that CB10 isolate cultured on wheat grain could produce volatile compounds of citrus-like aroma based on GC/ MS, especially, aroma monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes existed in the citrus. The extracellular enzyme test revealed that CB10 isolate could produce amylase, cellulase, lipase, xylanase, laccase and liginase. The results indicated that CB10 isolate might play a role of saprophyte in plant during the host died. Solid culture test indicated that CB10 isolate could grow on cereal, such as wheat, oat grain, oatmeal; the agriculture waste, such as rice bran, soybean meal, sesame meal, mushroom sawdust. Moreover, CB10 isolate cultured on oatmeal, rice bran, and soybean meal showed high efficacy on inhibiting the mycelia growth of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (Fol146). The result revealed that substrates with high nitrogen could promote the production of the active compounds. CB10 isolate cultured on rice bran (RBCB10) mixed 1: 5 (w/ w) ratio with infested soil had efficacy on inhibiting the growth of Fol146. However, CB10 isolate cultured on oatmeal (OMCB10) didn’t show the efficacy. Mixed 0.5% (w/ v) RBCB10 with the Fol146 infested soil made from non-sterilized soil could decrease the population of Fol146 in the soil and delayed 29.6% disease severity of tomato. In other hand, the RBCB10 mixed with the Fol146 infested soil made from sterilized soil didn’t show the control efficacy. Moreover, mixed 1% (w/ v) rice bran with peat moss as seedbed soil had negative efficacy on the growth of tomato seedlings in the greenhouse. However, mixed 0.5% (w/ v) did’t show negative efficacy. In addition, mixed 0.5% (w/ v) RBCB10 with peat moss as seedbed soil could decrease 26.7% disease severity of tomato Fusarium wilt; meanwhile, mixed 0.5% (w/ v) RBCB10 with infested soil decreased the 40.7% disease severity. Evaluation of the efficacy of diosmin on control Fusarium wilt showed that diosmin didn’t has ability to inhibit Fol146 or induce resistance of tomato against Fusarium wilt. Moreover, comparing the profile of mycelia extract of CB10 isolate with diosmin based on HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) analysis indicated that the active compound did not show same profile with diosmin. Thus, the active compounds are not diosmin analogue.