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1
Moore, Patrick M. "The Decisions Bridging the GATT 1947 and the WTO Agreement." American Journal of International Law 90, no. 2 (April 1996): 317–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2203695.
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On September 20, 1986, the contracting parties to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade of 1947 (GATT 1947) agreed to launch an eighth round of multilateral trade negotiations known as the Uruguay Round. More than seven years later they concluded the round, not with an amended version of the GATT 1947, but with an entirely new treaty, the Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
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Voon, Tania. "The Security Exception In WTO Law: Entering a New Era." AJIL Unbound 113 (2019): 45–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/aju.2019.3.
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For seventy years, the security exception in the multilateral trade regime has mostly lain dormant. The exception first appeared in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947 (GATT 1947), before being incorporated in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 (GATT 1994) upon the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO). However, security exceptions also exist in several other WTO provisions, including the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). Until recently, perhaps through a combination of WTO member restraint and fortuitous circumstances, WTO panels have not had to make a definitive ruling on the meaning and scope of these exceptions. Yet, suddenly, the security exception lies at the center of multiple explosive disputes, posing a potential threat to the WTO's very existence.
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He, Ling Ling, and Razeen Sappideen. "Reflections on China’s WTO Accession Commitments and Their Observance." Journal of World Trade 43, Issue 4 (August 1, 2009): 847–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2009033.
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China was one of the original contracting parties to General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1947. It ceased to be a member in the aftermath of her 1949 Revolution and establishment of an alternative seat of government by the ‘Nationalist Party’ in Taiwan. Following more than fifteen years of sustained negotiation, China once again became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) – its 143rd member – in December 2001. In the period between the original GATT agreement of 1947 and the Uruguay Round WTO agreement of 1994, GATT itself had been transformed from being an effete, uncoordinated body to the dominant force in international trade it now is. This article examines the reasons that prompted China to press on with her attempt to rejoin the international trading body in the face of the reputedly onerous accession commitments she was required to fulfil, and of the skirmishes she continues to have with some of the major players in the WTO, namely the EU and the US on her progress in fulfilling these commitments. This article is divided into the following four sections. Section 1 provides a historical perspective of the evolution of China’s foreign trade-related laws and its decision to regain membership of the WTO. Section 2 discusses the changes to China’s domestic trade laws to comply with the WTO laws, mainly the GATT, General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), and Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), as required by the Protocol on the Accession of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Section 3 discusses some continuing issues relating to the fulfilment of her accession commitments, and Section 4 concludes by an evaluation of the progress made thus far and of future directions relating to the legal convergence of China’s trade-related laws and the WTO laws.
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McKenzie, Francine. "GATT and the Cold War: Accession Debates, Institutional Development, and the Western Alliance, 1947–1959." Journal of Cold War Studies 10, no. 3 (July 2008): 78–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jcws.2008.10.3.78.
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Historical accounts of the Cold War usually relegate the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to footnotes, if they acknowledge the GATT at all. This article examines the impact of the Cold War on the institutional development of GATT, showing how geopolitical considerations influenced decisions about whether to grant membership in GATT to Communist and non-aligned countries. The accession debates in GATT also reveal the multicentered dynamic of the Western alliance, exposing a variety of views about whether the Cold War was a battle to be waged or a condition of global international relations to be accepted. But if the GATT could not evade the Cold War, its secretariat also manipulated Cold War circumstances, beliefs, and priorities to strengthen the institution. The result of the GATT accession debates was to reposition the GATT as a forum and instrument of the Western alliance, rather than the universal organization it was supposed to be, and to impart new meaning to the process of liberalizing world trade.
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Kusumadara, Afifah. "Perlindungan Lingkungan Hidup dalam Perdagangan Internasional." Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan 25, no. 5 (June 9, 2017): 443. http://dx.doi.org/10.21143/jhp.vol25.no5.1064.
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Isu lingkungan hidup tidak dapat dipisahkan dari perdagangan intemasional. Dalam sejarahpembentukan GATT pada tahun 1947 isu lingkungan hidup telah dimuat dalam artikel XX tentang "General Exception ". Aturan dasar ini kemudian disepakati dalam "Tokyo Round"menjadi "Agreement on Technical Barrier to Trade" dan disempumakan dalam "Uruguay Round". Melalui perjanjian ini GATT/WTO kemudian mengakui keberadaan "International Organization for Standarization (ISO)". Dengan demikian melahirkan pengakuan keterkaitan antara perdagangan intemasional dengan isu lingkungan hidup.
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Duchesne, Erick. "Governing Global Trade: International Institutions in Conflict and Convergence." Canadian Journal of Political Science 37, no. 4 (December 2004): 1070–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008423904500215.
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Governing Global Trade: International Institutions in Conflict and Convergence, Theodore H. Cohn, Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2002, pp. xi, 329.At a time when all eyes are riveted on the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the ups and downs associated with its current round of negotiation initiated in Doha, Qatar, in November 2001, Theodore Cohn's latest publication provides a vivid reminder: The global trading regime is made up of much more than the WTO. The GATT/WTO is still pivotal in Cohn's diachronic overview of the evolution of the global trade regime since the creation of the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) in 1947, but unlike several other studies on a similar topic, the author untangles the relationship between the GATT/WTO and other formal and informal international institutions, such as the G7/G8, the Quadrilateral Group (Quad), the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the G77, and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Each institution, as well as the United States and the European Union, is given relatively equal coverage in this notable study. Yet, as an indication that the GATT/WTO is still primus inter pares, most chapters revolve around the major negotiation rounds of the international organization. Chapter 2 traces the origins and early period of the postwar trade regime (1947–1962). Chapters 3 and 4 concentrate on the Kennedy (1962–1972) and Tokyo (1973–1979) rounds of the GATT respectively. Chapter 5 details the uncertainty associated with the survival of the GATT (1980–1986). Chapters 6 and 7 focus on the momentous Uruguay Round of the GATT (1986–1994), and chapter 8 highlights the post-Uruguay Round period (1995–2001).
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Trachtman, Joel. "The WTO Seal Products Case: Doctrinal and Normative Confusion." AJIL Unbound 108 (2014): 323–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s239877230000948x.
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The negotiators and drafters of the Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization(WTO), which includes the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947(GATT) and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade(TBT), as well as other subagreements dealing with domestic regulation, such as the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures(SPS), did not do a great job of doctrinal integration among the different documents that comprise the WTO Agreement. To be fair, at the end of the Uruguay Round, the hour was late and they may have felt that the basic ideas were sufficiently clear that it could all be sorted out in litigation. But in several contexts, including within the original GATT, the text of which dates from 1947, they covered the same ground in multiple places, without stating clearly how the different norms relate to one another,and without articulating plausible reasons for different treatment. For example, why is different language used for national treatment in three different places within Article III of GATT, and why is that language different from the language that appearsto have the same purpose in the TBT Agreement or in the SPS Agreement?
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Ngangjoh-Hodu, Yenkong. "Relationship of GATT Article XX Exceptions to Other WTO Agreements." Nordic Journal of International Law 80, no. 2 (2011): 219–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157181011x565568.
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AbstractThe 'Single Undertaking' concept was incorporated into the Uruguay Round Trade Talks at the last stage of the negotiations to among other things remedy the problems attributed to General Agreement on Tariff s and Trade (GATT) 1947 a la carte practice. Yet, no extensive discussion on coordination and hierarchy of World Trade Organization (WTO) norms seemed to have taken place. Even if the WTO members had hoped that the inherent flexibility in the GATT/WTO treaty system would be enough to resolve some unforeseen tensions arising from the treaty, the language of some of the WTO treaty provisions does not always point to this direction. As a consequence, it becomes very daunting to demarcate with certainty how some of the legal instruments forming the WTO are to interact with each other. In view of the Appellate Body (AB) report on China - Publications and Audiovisual Products, this article examines the relationship between GATT Article XX exceptions and WTO covered agreements outside GATT 1994.
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Kurniawardhani, Arriza Briella. "SEJARAH ORGANISASI EKONOMI INTERNASIONAL WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO)." Widya Winayata: Jurnal Pendidikan Sejarah 9, no. 1 (April 30, 2021): 49. http://dx.doi.org/10.23887/jjps.v9i1.30381.
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The World Trade Organization (WTO) adalah organsasi internasional global yang secara khusus mengatur permasalah dalam perdagangan antarnegara. Tujuan utama nya sendiri berguna untuk membantu produsen barang dan jasa serta mengurangi atau menghilangkan penghalang dan pembatas perdagangan di seluruh dunia.WTO sendiri menggantikan peran GATT 1947 sebagai lembaga perdagangan internasional. Keberlakuan GATT masih berlaku dibawah persetujuan WTO yang dimana termasuk ketentuan yang memberikan hak hak istimewa kepada Negara-negara sedang berkembang anggota WTO. Dengan diterbitkannya Undang-Undang No.7 Tahun 1994 pada tanggal 2 November 1994 tentang pengesahan Agreement Establising the World Trade Organization, yang dimana Indonesia resmi telah menjadi anggota World Trade Organization (WTO).
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Hart, Michael. "Twenty Years of Canadian Tradecraft: Canada at GATT, 1947-1967." International Journal 52, no. 4 (1997): 581. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40203244.
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Bohanes, Jan. "Developing WTO Members as Users and Targets of Anti-dumping Policy." Global Trade and Customs Journal 16, Issue 10 (October 1, 2021): 531–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2021063.
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For most of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1947 era, the use of anti-dumping duties was typically limited to a small circle of developed countries. However, starting with the final years of the GATT 1947 era and especially in the WTO era, there has been a considerable expansion in the use of anti-dumping measures in general, and especially by developing countries. Today, developing countries represent the majority of both users and targets of anti-dumping measures. Like developed country users, developing countries have imposed many measures against exporters from other developing countries. The article discusses these trends and the underlying detailed statistics. The article concludes that anti-dumping policy is an integral part of the modern international trade policy landscape, and that the significant and increasing involvement of developing countries both as users and targets gives rise to an increased need for technical capacity on their part. Trade remedies, anti-dumping, safeguards, countervailing duties, developing countries, Advisory Centre on WTO Law (ACWL), users, targets
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Zapatero Miguel, Pablo. "Superando fase: historia de la formacion de un regimen en el Club del Gatt." CUADERNOS DE DERECHO TRANSNACIONAL 12, no. 2 (October 8, 2020): 818. http://dx.doi.org/10.20318/cdt.2020.5632.
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Tras la creación del fragil Acuerdo General de Aranceles y Comercio (GATT) en 1947, la comunidad de delegados y representantes comerciales empezó a reforzarlo cuidadosamente, con creatividad. Desde la denominada “organización accidental”, sin una estructura institucional apropiada y bajo aplicación provisional durante décadas, los diplomáticos del comercio de la vieja escuela, y los juristas comerciales posteriormente, se las arreglaron para dar forma progresivamente a un poderoso régimen convencional y, por tanto, una infraestructura crítica de la interdependencia económica global. La historia del GATT y ahora la OMC puede entenderse mejor explorando los cambiantes roles que ha tenido en su interior, a lo largo del tiempo, la diplomacia y el derecho.
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Mollaian, Saba L. "Does Trade Equal Peace? The Role of the WTO in International Peace." Legal Issues of Economic Integration 46, Issue 1 (February 1, 2019): 77–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/leie2019005.
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This article contends that the World Trade Organization (‘WTO’) plays a vital role in the maintenance of international peace through continued international trade. In exploring this argument, the article looks to the history of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (‘GATT 1947’) and the WTO. After doing so, the article analyses the other side of the coin: when trade is weaponized through the use of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (‘GATT 1994’) security exception Article XXI. Lastly, the article discusses the effectiveness of trade sanctions and whether the security exception is in need of reform in order for the WTO to better engage in the pursuit of international peace through international trade.
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Wigle, Randall M., and Michael Hart. "Fifty Years of Canadian Tradecraft: Canada at the GATT 1947-1997." Canadian Public Policy / Analyse de Politiques 25, no. 2 (June 1999): 279. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3551895.
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M. Almodarra, Bader Bakhit. "The Special and Differential Treatment Provisions in the Trade Facilitation Agreement: New Teeth for an Old Gum?" African Journal of International and Comparative Law 30, no. 2 (May 2022): 135–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/ajicl.2022.0401.
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Various provisions on special and differential treatment of developing countries have been enacted from the time of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947 (GATT 1947) through to the current era of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Perhaps the most significant epoch in the recognition of the special and differential treatment of developing countries in the international trade regime was the 1979 Decision on Differential and More Favourable Treatment, Reciprocity and Fuller Participation of Developing Countries, more popularly known as the Enabling Clause. The Enabling Clause, inter alia, allowed for a permanent derogation from the most favoured nation provision in Article I of the GATT 1947 in order to enable developed countries grant preferential treatment to goods coming from developing countries. The advent of the WTO in 1995 also came with specific provisions in the multilateral trade agreements that catered for the special needs of developing countries. Developing countries have, however, raised concerns regarding the effectiveness and utility of most of the special and differential treatment provisions considering the fact that most of these provisions have been formulated in non-mandatory language and thus do not obligate compliance. This article considers the special and differential treatment of developing countries in WTO law and analyses similar provisions in the most recent multilateral trade agreement in the WTO - the Trade Facilitation Agreement - which came into effect on 22 February 2017. The article aims to ascertain the effectiveness of special and differential treatment provisions in the Trade Facilitation Agreement with respect to addressing long-standing concerns of developing countries.
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SANTOS, NORMA BREDA DOS. "Latin American countries and the establishment of the multilateral trading system: the Havana Conference (1947-1948)." Revista de Economia Política 36, no. 2 (June 2016): 309–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0101-31572015v36n02a04.
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ABSTRACT This article proposes to study the participation of Latin American delegations during the Havana Conference, which negotiated and approved the Charter of International Trade Organization (ITO), including the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), in 1947-1948. It shows that the prevalent understanding of Latin American countries was that the Havana negotiations would be the outcome of their existing political and material power asymmetries in relation to the industrialized countries. They believed that their fragile economies should face the strong economies of the industrialized countries by economic planning and import substitution, already in place in several Latin American countries since the 1930s and the 1940s. The article also shows that the construction of the post-World War II international trade regime was in fact characterized by strong material and political inequalities, which undermined Latin American countries abilities to negotiate.
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MASTROMATTEO, ANDREA. "WTO and SOEs: Article XVII and Related Provisions of the GATT 1994." World Trade Review 16, no. 4 (October 2017): 601–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474745617000222.
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AbstractBy acting as a trader, a government may influence the direction of international trade through its purchases and sales decisions without resort to other more direct means of trade regulation. The GATT recognizes that governments may choose to participate in international commerce in competition with private firms, but it does not leave them with a free hand when it comes to carrying out trading operations. The core rules regulating a State's trading activities are found in Article XVII and related provisions of the GATT. In the 70 years since their adoption, developments in both the GATT 1947 and the WTO have delineated a set of relatively limited disciplines rooted in the principle of non-discrimination, raising doubts about their effectiveness to address the kinds of problems caused by ‘State trading’ today. It remains true, however, that while State trading enterprises continue to operate across the world, and fundamental questions about the full reach and scope of the existing disciplines endure, opportunities to clarify their role in the modern trading system may well arise in the future practice of WTO Members.
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González García, Juan, and América Ivonne Zamora Torres. "Asia Pacífico: ¿Opción estratégica de diversificación comercial de México ante la renegociación del TLCAN?" Anuario Asia Pacífico el Colegio de México, no. 18 (January 1, 2019): 52–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.24201/aap.2019.282.
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Desde el punto de vista de los procesos de integración económica y comercial impulsados en el mundo, particularmente luego de la creación del GATT-OMC (1947 el primero y 1995 la segunda), 2018 será recordado en la historia económica contemporánea como el año del parteaguas contra el pilar fundamental del paradigma neoliberal, construido en el mundo por los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica (EUA) desde inicios de la década de los ochenta del siglo XX: el neoliberalismo económico de libre mercado.
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Gagliani, Gabriele. "Intellectual Property-Related Local Content Requirements in International Trade Law: An Evolving Concept Amid Persisting Questions." Global Trade and Customs Journal 16, Issue 4 (April 1, 2021): 149–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2021016.
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Despite the challenges they pose under international trade law, recent discussions and cases at the World Trade Organization (WTO) demonstrate that local content requirements (LCRs) have enjoyed continued success among both developed and developing countries. This article focuses on a specific type of LCRs, intellectual property-related LCRs (IP-related LCRs). The article argues that the concept and related regulation of LCRs concerning IP rights have undergone a remarkable evolution under international trade law. The notion and regulation of IP-related LCRs, in particular, have changed from the 1883 Paris Convention on the Protection of Industrial Property (Paris Convention) and the 1886 Berne Convention on the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Convention) to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade of 1947 and, later, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) and other Agreements at the WTO. Indeed, while the Paris Convention and the Berne Convention are still in force, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1947 and the WTO Agreements have reframed the debate and implications of IP-related LCRs. Nevertheless, some questions on what is permissible under international trade law remain open at the WTO. Given LCRs continued success, some clarifications on their consistency with WTO law may be further needed. Local Content Requirements (LCRs), Agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement), General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade of 1994 (GATT 1994), World Trade Organization (WTO), Intellectual Property Rights
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Baldwin, Robert E. "What's at Stake for the LDCs, Now that the Uruguay Round Talks have been Suspended? (The Distinguishedl Lecture)." Pakistan Development Review 30, no. 4I (December 1, 1991): 579–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.30541/v30i4ipp.579-599.
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Until negotiations collapsed in early December, the Uruguay Round gave promise of being the most significant multilateral trade negotiation since 1947, when the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GA TI) was implemented and tariffs levels of the industrial countries were sharply cut. There are at least three reasons for this conclusion. First, by agreeing at the outset to bring both agriculture and textiles under GATT discipline, the participants created the opportunity for both rich and poor agricultural exporting nations and relatively low-wage, newly industrializing LDCs to benefit significantly from GATT-sponsored trade negotiations. Prior to the Uruguay Round, the benefits to these countries of such negotiations had been limited, since these two sectors were excluded from any significant liberalization. Second, by agreeing to formulate new rules relating to trade in services, trade-related aspects of· intellectual property rights, and trade-related investment issues, members took an important step in modernizing the GATT. As economic globalization has accelerated, there is a growing realization that arms-length merchandise transactions, the traditional concern of the GATT, are only one aspect of the real-side economic relations of current concern to national policy-makers and the economic interests they represent Now international commercial activities also involve merchandise trade among multinational firms and their foreign affiliates, international trade in services among independent agents as well as among affiliated enterprises, foreign direct investment activities, production nf goods and services in foreign affiliates for sale either abroad or at home, international flows of technology, and temporary movements of labour across borders. Although the so-called new issues in the Uruguay Round do not cover all of these matters, they go a considerable way in making the GATT more relevant for dealing with the problems of increasing internationalization.
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Walter, Antonia. "Environmental Protection in the EU and the WTO: Is Article XX GATT in its Present Interpretation Consistent with the Current Standard of Environmental Protection of the EU?" European Energy and Environmental Law Review 23, Issue 1 (February 1, 2014): 2–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/eelr2014001.
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In this essay, I address the different approaches of the EU and the WTO to the trade and environment conflict and find out in how far the present environmental policy of the EU is compatible with the conditions of the WTO's Art XX GATT. Therefore, I first establish the current level of environmental protection in the EU by analysing the standard aimed for by the EU and its realization in legislation and jurisprudence. To show how environmental protection works in practice, I analyse selected case law and show how EU courts treat trade restrictions on environmental grounds enacted by Member States. Having evaluated the current standard of the EU, I proceed to compare the result with the WTO. I briefly explain institutional environmental developments within the GATT 1947, important environmental cases before the establishment of the WTO 1994 and textual changes in the new WTO Agreement. I then evaluate how Art XX GATT is dealt with in key case law and simultaneously compare this to the results of my analysis of similar EU cases. To conclude, I give a brief outlook on pending cases and a summary of the results of my study in both the EU and the WTO ambit. I point out some important differences in legal texts and case law and finally come to give a negative answer to my initial question.
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Dal Ri Júnior, Arno, and Mariana Clara De Andrade. "A frágil gênese da tutela jurídica do meio ambiente no sistema multilateral de comércio: uma análise do período de Bretton Woods à Rodada de Tóquio (1947-1979)." Seqüência: Estudos Jurídicos e Políticos 37, no. 73 (August 21, 2016): 193. http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/2177-7055.2016v37n73p193.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/2177-7055.2016v37n73p193O presente artigo tem por objetivo estudar os traços iniciais das discussões sobre questões ambientais no âmbito do Acordo Geral sobre Tarifas e Comércio (GATT), durante o período compreendido desde as negociações da pretendida carta da Organização Internacional do Comércio (ITO), em 1947, até o final da Rodada de Tóquio, em 1979. Para tanto, foram analisados principalmente os textos dos acordos da época e os documentos produzidos nas rodadas de negociação. O estudo desse período mostra-se relevante por esboçar as origens de uma discussão que viria a ganhar força nos anos subsequentes, repercutindo até os dias atuais.
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Cameron, James, and Kevin R. Gray. "Principles of International Law in The WTO Dispute Settlement Body." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 50, no. 2 (April 2001): 248–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iclq/50.2.248.
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Unlike the original 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and trade (GATT), the 1994 Agreement establishing the World Trade Organization (WTO Agreement)1 covers a much wider range of trade. It extends beyond goods and now embraces services, intellectual property, procurement, investment and agriculture. Moreover, the new trade regime is no longer a collection of ad hoc agreements, Panel reports and understandings of the parties. All trade obligations are subsumed under the umbrella of the WTO, of which all parties are members. Member States have to accept the obligations contained in all the WTO covered agreements: they cannot pick and choose.
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Pauwelyn, Joost. "The Use of Experts in WTO Dispute Settlement." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 51, no. 2 (April 2002): 325–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iclq/51.2.325.
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In seven years of WTO dispute settlement (1995–2001), six panels appointed scientific experts,2 two panels requested expert advice from other international organisations3 and one panel nominated a linguistic expert.4 Under GATT 1947, in contrast, only one panel saw the need to seek expert advice.5 Very often also the parties to a WTO dispute nominate experts on their delegation, be they lawyers, economists, scientists or linguists. In addition, an increasing number of ‘outsiders’ or amici curiae, such as NGOs, but also industry and academics, have pressed their (expert) opinion on WTO panels and the Appellate Body.
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Steger, Debra P. "Afterword: The “Trade and … ” Conundrum—A Commentary." American Journal of International Law 96, no. 1 (January 2002): 135–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2686130.
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The issue of whether and how the trading system should deal with social and economic policies not strictly within the ambit of the WTO has been with us at least since the inception of the GATT in 1947-1948. It is not a new question. The problem, however, has become even more vexing since the 1970s, as tariffs became less important in trading relationships and governments struggled to respond to a proliferation of nontariff barriers to trade. I will argue, in this Afterword, that the question is not whether the WTO should or should not deal with the “trade and … ” subjects—trade and environment, trade and public health, trade and labor rights, trade and human rights, trade and competition, trade and investment, and trade and intellectual property, to name a few. It already does and has done so, in many respects, since 1948. The question I would pose is this: how should these so-called nontrade subjects be dealt with within the WTO system? And who should define the scope of WTO recognition/cognizance of these subjects: WTO member governments (the “Members”) or the quasi-judicial bodies of the dispute settlement system (the panels and the Appellate Body)?
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Marceau, Gabrielle, and Alain Richer. "La première année de l’Organe de règlement des différends de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce." Canadian Yearbook of international Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international 33 (1996): 223–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0069005800006081.
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SommaireLa première année de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC) fut un grand succès. Les Membres de l’OMC ont notamment mis en place tout le nouveau système de notification préalable et de révision des législations nationales, et mis sur pied les nouveaux comités sur l’environnement, sur les arrangements régionaux et sur les pays les moins avancés. En plus d’assurer l’achèvement des activités GATT 1947 et la transition formelle en faveur de l’OMC, les Membres ont également procédé à la nomination des présidents de plusieurs comités et des “juges” du nouvel organe d’appel. L’élément peutêtre le plus impressionnant du départ de cette nouvelle organisation est la participation particulièrement active des pays en développement au nouveau système obligatoire de règlement des différends; la moitié des vingt-cinq requêtes pour consultation ont été initiées par ceux-d. Quel changement alors qu’entre 1948 et 1994, les pays en développement n’avaient initié que onze des 126 différends. En fait l’OMC a déclenché un nouveau processus pour lequel il n’y a pas de marche arrière possible.
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Cancino Gómez, Rodolfo. "ENTRE EL MULTILATERALISMO Y EL REGIONALISMO." Revista de la Facultad de Derecho de México 65, no. 263 (May 30, 2017): 103. http://dx.doi.org/10.22201/fder.24488933e.2015.263.59639.
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<p> En el Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio (GATT) de 1947 se establece una excepción al principio de no discriminación materializada en el artículo XXIV, que faculta la suscripción de Tratados o Acuerdos Comerciales Regionales (ACR), siempre que no constituyan obstáculos comerciales a terceros países no miembros de esos tratados, los cuales bajo la perspectiva de la OMC son instrumentos que completan y fortalecen el sistema multilateral. Mediante la pulverización del principio de no discriminación, se ha dado una fragmentación del orden jurídico internacional, que ha propiciado una dispersión de competencias, donde coexisten interacciones y jurisdicciones convergentes y concurrentes en temas comerciales paralelos.</p>
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Voon, Tania. "Flexibilities in WTO Law to Support Tobacco Control Regulation." American Journal of Law & Medicine 39, no. 2-3 (June 2013): 199–217. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009885881303900201.
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Cases concerning the regulation of tobacco have long existed within the World Trade Organization (WTO) and its predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947 (GATT 1947), although often these cases have not centered on the detrimental health impact of tobacco products. With the 2012 circulation of the Report of the WTO Appellate Body in U.S.—Clove Cigarettes, the potential friction between international trade law and tobacco regulation in the context of public health has come to the fore. In that Report, the Appellate Body found in part against the United States’ flavored cigarette ban. Combined with the ongoing WTO challenges to mandatory plain tobacco packaging in Australia—Tobacco Plain Packaging, governments might begin to fear that the WTO agreements represent an insurmountable barrier to ambitious tobacco control measures. However, careful examination of the Clove Cigarettes case alongside the two other recent Appellate Body Reports (U.S.—Tuna II (Mexico)5 and U.S.—COOL6) on the WTO's Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement)7 demonstrates that the TBT Agreement has ample flexibility to accommodate health objectives underlying tobacco regulation.
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Ukas, Ukas. "ANALISIS YURIDIS MEKANISME PENYELESAIAN SENGKETA PERDAGANGAN INTERNASIONAL (DALAM KERANGKA GATT-WTO)." JCH (Jurnal Cendekia Hukum) 4, no. 1 (September 28, 2018): 129. http://dx.doi.org/10.33760/jch.v4i1.93.
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The dispute settlement mechanism of the World Trade Organization and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, is a document containing juridical elements, stated about the rights and obligations of the participating countries of the agreement explicitly, of course, often lead to disputes. GATT as an institution has implemented procedures and procedures to deal with disputes arising between participating countries, in the context of international law in general. The process in which the party to the dispute is encouraged to counsel and endeavor to settle the dispute among themselves, and or through the WTO. The formulation of the problem in this research is how the dispute settlement mechanism in international trade and the impact of what is caused in the international trade sector. The method used in this research is empirical juridical analysis, from existing data, with qualitative analysis approach. The point is that the settlement of disputes refers to the provisions and Articles contained in GATT 1947 with the stages of consultation and or the establishment of a panel. The impact associated with international trade is to facilitate import-export and create harmony in international trade between countries.
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Chairunisa, Amanda Fadhilla, and Imam Haryanto. "Analysis of Renewable Energy Directive Ii on Trading of Indonesian Palm Oil Associated with GATT." Yuridika 36, no. 3 (September 1, 2021): 509. http://dx.doi.org/10.20473/ydk.v36i3.25075.
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International economic relations sure is very important for a country and the important thing that follows is the policy that regulates international economic relations it self. In this study, the authors will analyze hows Renewable Energy Directive II (RED II) policy as a derivative of the RED (Renewable Energy Directive) policy by the European Union will affect the Indonesian palm oil trade which this also would show the violations of previous policies that is General Agreement on Tarifs and Trades. Authors also going to show General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as a policy that regulates how international trade relations should be carried out and the violations of this international agreement undoubtedly could affect Economic relations between the two countries, both on a micro scale and macro scale. In conducting the research authors will be using the normative juridical methods which means the legal research will be based off library materials and secondary materials therefore the main result from this study would be a reflection of how RED II can affect trade in indonesian palm oil products and also by effecting this regulation in 2021 the european union will be violating the non-discrimination principle in GATT 1947.
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Hummer, Waldemar, and Andrea Schmid. "Die Doppelstellung der E(W)G im GATT 1947 und in der WTO (Teil 1)." Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht 65, no. 2 (May 4, 2010): 225–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00708-010-0055-1.
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Hummer, Waldemar, and Andrea Schmid. "Die Doppelstellung der E(W)G im GATT 1947 und in der WTO (Teil 2)." Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht 65, no. 3 (September 2010): 345–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00708-010-0064-0.
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Obolenskiy, V. "Protectionism and Free Trade in Modern World." World Economy and International Relations, no. 12 (2013): 14–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.20542/0131-2227-2013-12-14-23.
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In the second part of XX century the world saw a steady strengthening and consolidation of liberalization trend in trade policies of many nations. This helped to establish the GATT in 1947 and, later on as a result of Uruguay round of multilateral trade negotiations (1986-1994), the new international economic institution - the WTO. However, the pace and scale of multilateral liberalization do not satisfy the participants of international trade. This triggers a widespread drive for concluding bilateral, regional and then transcontinental agreements on economic cooperation. The article is devoted to an in-depths analysis of the contradictions that arise between the WTO and regional trade agreements, as well as to the available ways of their reconciliation.
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O'Connor, B. "The Law of International Trade in Agricultural Products. From GATT 1947 to the WTO Agreement on Agriculture." Journal of International Economic Law 6, no. 2 (June 1, 2003): 535–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jiel/6.2.535.
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Eba Nguema, Ismaelline. "A necessary reform of agriculture market access rules." Journal of International Trade Law and Policy 19, no. 2 (June 30, 2020): 101–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jitlp-06-2019-0030.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate by text and empirical facts, the need to reform the rules in force. Design/methodology/approach This study confronts current standards with empirical facts. To do this, it is postulated that even though current market access standards are better that the Gatt 1947 rules, they leave the possibility for some members to hijack them to eventually increase their protection effective tariff. Findings Market access standards for agricultural products should be reformed because of their asymmetry. To put an end to this asymmetry, these standards should be rebalanced. This is precisely the challenge of the current multilateral negotiations. Originality/value Unlike the studies conducted on this subject (to my knowledge), which are mainly based on economic or political science methods, this analysis is essentially based on legal reasoning law.
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Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrick. "How to Reform the UN System? Constitutionalism, International Law, and International Organizations." Leiden Journal of International Law 10, no. 3 (September 1997): 421–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156597000332.
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The UN system requires far-reaching changes so as to achieve the objectives of the UN Charter (e.g. with regard to human rights and maintenance of peace) more effectively. European integration law suggests that ‘international constitutionalism’ offers the most effective approach for strengthening the rule of law and peaceful cooperation among democracies. Section 2 outlines basic principles for a constitutional theory of international law. Section 3 discusses the difficulties of ‘constitutionalizing’ the state-centered and power-oriented concepts of the UN Charter. Section 4 explains why the successful Uruguay Round strategy for replacing the old GATT 1947 by the new World Trade Organization (WTO) – notably the ‘package deal negotiations’, the incorporation of other worldwide treaties into WTO law and the mandatory WTO dispute settlement and enforcement systems – offer important lessons for the needed reforms of the UN Charter.
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Mitchell, AndrewD, and Tania Voon. "Tariff Negotiations and Renegotiations under the GATT and the WTO: Procedures and Practices. By Anwarul Hoda. [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2001, 137, (Appendices) 136 and (Index) 36 pp. Hardback £45.00 net. ISBN 0–521–80449–3.]." Cambridge Law Journal 61, no. 2 (June 24, 2002): 463–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008197302501690.
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Oneof the most important achievements of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) to date has been a substantial reduction in the level of tariffs applied in international trade. The average tariff on industrial products has diminished from more than 40 per cent. in 1947 to less than 5 per cent. today. As a result of this success, multilateral negotiations within the WTO have begun to place more emphasis on non-tariff barriers. Nevertheless, tariffs remain an important issue. Many OECD countries, for example, continue to impose high tariffs on agricultural products and other products of particular interest to developing countries. The work programme adopted at the Fourth WTO Ministerial Conference held in Doha late last year provides for negotiations to improve market access for agricultural products and to reduce or eliminate tariffs on non-agricultural products and environmental goods.
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Skrynka, D. V. "HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF NON-VIOLATION COMPLAINTS IN INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC LAW." Actual Problems of International Relations, no. 138 (2019): 135–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/apmv.2018.138.0.135-143.
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The article contains a brief review of historical roots and process of development of the non-violation clauses in various international legal agreements, including the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and other WTO agreements. It points out the connection between the gradual transition from conditional to unconditional most-favored-nation treatment and the introduction of the clause about nullification or impairment of benefits. Finally, the article points out the fact that even though the WTO system of legal rules is much more detailed than the GATT system of legal rules, the non-non-violation clause not only remained in the original text of the GATT, but also was included in a number of other WTO agreements. The article notes that the very need to introduce non-violation clauses in international trade treaties is connected with the global process of gradual introduction of unconditional most favored treatment clauses (in contrast to earlier treaty practice, where most-favored-nation treatment was provided on a conditional basis). The article points out that one of the earliest attempts to establish the principle of unconditional most-favored-nation treatment as a global uniform approach was made at the London World Economic Conference, the most ambitious global attempt to do so before the successful conclusion of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in 1947. Even though the original cause for non-violation complaints has been a relatively limited scope of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the significant expansion of the scope of application of this multilateral trade system as a result of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations did not result in the removal of the original non-violation clause from the text of the GATT. Moreover, non-violation clauses were included in a number of other WTO agreements. This, in turn, leads to a question, whether indeed it would be possible at any time in the future to conclude an international trade agreement, which would cover each and every measure affecting international trade, available to national governments.
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Srinivasan, T. N. "Developing Countries in the World Trading System: From GATT, 1947, to the Third Ministerial Meeting of WTO, 1999." World Economy 22, no. 8 (November 1999): 1047–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9701.00247.
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Abida, Montej, and Ilhem Gargouri. "WHAT ARE THE THREATS TO THE FUTURE OF THE WTO?" Revue Européenne du Droit Social 53, no. 4 (September 12, 2021): 133–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.53373/reds.2021.53.4.046.
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Today we are witnessing a serious crisis that could lead to the collapse of the World Trade Organization (WTO). This crisis is the consequence of the uncooperative behavior of the triad: the United States, the European Union and East Asia. When there is a confrontation between these three most powerful regional blocs, there is inevitably a blockage and a destructive trade war similar to that of the 1930s. In these times of crisis, each country tries to save its economy by relying on the strategy of protectionism. The negotiation and regulatory functions of the WTO are paralyzed: the Dispute Settlement Body is seriously affected by the refusal of the United States, since 2016, to renew the members of the Appellate Body (AB) whose mandates were expiring. This jeopardizes international rules negotiated since 1947, when the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was created. The existence of liberalization fatigue and a growing rejection of globalization raises questions about the future of the WTO.
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Barnekow, Sarah Ellis, and Kishore G. Kulkarni. "Why Regionalism? A Look at the Costs and Benefits of Regional Trade Agreements in Africa." Global Business Review 18, no. 1 (January 25, 2017): 99–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0972150916666881.
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Countries were involved in regional trade agreements (RTAs) long before the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947. In recent years, however, RTAs have proliferated, particularly in Africa. In this article, we examine the various reasons why African countries have chosen to engage in these agreements, particularly in light of the fact that they do not seem to be ‘trade creating’ in nature. As Jacob Viner made it popular in the 1950s, not all trade agreements lead to higher economic welfare for the nations engaging in them. In the case of African countries where there is a limited degree of variation in the goods that are produced, and infrastructure and trading systems are designed for intercontinental rather than intra-continental trade, RTAs may not necessarily lead to greater welfare. Our examination of RTAs does not yield a strong positive result that they are welfare-enhancing exercises. A greater care needs to be taken for future RTAs.
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İlke, GÖÇMEN. "BÖYLE BUYURDU DİVAN: ULUSLARARASI ANLAŞMALAR VE BU KAPSAMDA 1947 TARİHLİ GATT VE DTÖ ANLAŞMASI VE EKLERİNİN TOPLULUK HUKUKUNDA DOĞURDUĞU ETKİLER." Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 57, no. 3 (2008): 253–335. http://dx.doi.org/10.1501/hukfak_0000001528.
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JOERGES, CHRISTIAN, and CHRISTINE GODT. "5 Free trade: the erosion of national, and the birth of transnational governance." European Review 13, S1 (March 2005): 93–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1062798705000219.
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Free Trade has always been highly contested, but both the arguments about it and the treaties that regulate it have changed dramatically since the Second World War. Under the 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) regime, objections to free trade were essentially economic, and tariffs were a nation state's primary means of protecting its interests. However, by the early 1970s, tariffs had been substantially reduced, and the imposition and removal of non-tariff barriers that reflected a wide range of domestic concerns about the protection of health, safety, and the environment have since come to dominate trade agreements and their implementation. The expanding scope of these international treaties, and their effect on domestic regulatory objectives, has created new challenges for the nation-state, and for the international trade system as a whole. Domestic regulatory objectives that are generally embedded in a nation state's legal system or even in its constitution, are now negotiable and are susceptible to adjudication at the international level where they may, or may not, be used to camouflage unrelated economic interests. The international trade system adapted to this situation in 1994 by transforming the GATT into the World Trade Organization (WTO), which has more effective means for dispute resolution and includes a number of special agreements – such as the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) – with rules for balancing the economic concerns of free trade with the social concerns of regulatory objectives. These developments have generated legal queries about the general legitimacy of transnational governance arrangements and their ‘constitutionalization’, i.e. the quest for transnational governance that is mediated by law and not only accepted de facto but considered deserving of acceptance.
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MITCHELL, ANDREW D. "A legal principle of special and differential treatment for WTO disputes." World Trade Review 5, no. 3 (October 19, 2006): 445–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474745606002941.
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Based on the notion that the needs of developing countries are substantially different from those of developed countries, the principle of special and differential treatment (S&D) in the World Trade Organization (WTO) allows a certain degree of discrimination in favour of developing countries. This article considers the potential of this principle in resolving disputes within the WTO. S&D developed in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1947 and is today reflected in a series of provisions in various WTO agreements. The meaning of S&D as a broader principle could assist in interpreting such provisions. In addition, the principle of S&D could conceivably be used as part of the inherent jurisdiction of Panels and the Appellate Body in connection with procedural aspects of dispute settlement. However, the article concludes that, due to the incoherence of S&D, as well as the difficulties involved in distinguishing between developing countries and in advancing their interests as an amorphous group, S&D is presently of limited value as an independent principle in WTO dispute settlement.
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Brouder, Alan. "Petros C. Mavroidis, The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: A Commentary, Series: Oxford Commentaries on the GATT/WTO Agreements (Oxford/New York, Oxford University Press 2005) xxxiii + 383 pp., GATT 1947 & GATT 1994 appended, ISBN 0-19-927813-X / ISBN 978-0-19-927813-8." European Business Organization Law Review (EBOR) 7, no. 02 (June 2006): 614. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1566752906226053.
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Xu, Andrea. "Brexit and the WTO: What Happens Next." Michigan Journal of Environmental & Administrative Law, no. 7.1 (2017): 179. http://dx.doi.org/10.36640/mjeal.7.1.brexit.
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In the summer of 2016, the United Kingdom (the “UK”) announced its decision to leave the European Union (the “EU”). This decision, more commonly known as “Brexit,” subsequently stirred British politics, which included Theresa May replacing David Cameron as Prime Minister. Brexit created a unique situation in European and global politics, and instigated a discussion among politicians, academics, economists, and the likes about how the UK will leave the EU and Brexit’s implications in the UK, Europe, and the world as a whole. This Note analyzes one specific aspect of Brexit: the administrative procedures the UK must undergo to establish itself as an independent Member State in the World Trade Organization (“WTO”). This Note solely focuses on the UK’s Schedule of Concessions and considers three possible administrative proceedings that address the UK’s challenges with its Schedule of Concessions. This Note advances the argument that the most realistic administrative proceeding will be for the UK to de facto adopt the EU’s Schedule of Concessions under Article XXVI:5(c) and invoke the UK’s right to reserve to renegotiate certain provisions of its Schedule of Concessions under Article XXVIII of the 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (the “GATT”). This procedure will allow the UK greater freedom to choose its own trade policies and draft a Schedule of Concessions in the shortest period, thus mitigating a potentially severe disruption in international trade.
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Souza, Igor Abdalla Medina de. "[Artigo Retratado] A Rodada Uruguai e a África: Uma Crítica à Abordagem Liberal do Regime de Comércio." Contexto Internacional 36, no. 2 (December 2014): 385–416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0102-85292014000200003.
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Desde o momento em que acadêmicos de Relações Internacionais enfocaram o GATT 1947 para convergir em torno do conceito de regimes, arranjos normativos têm sido concebidos como instrumentos que levam os Estados a melhoras de Pareto. Este artigo apresenta as estimativas de perdas absolutas da África com o Acordo da OMC para investigar a Rodada Uruguai do ponto de vista do conceito de poder institucional. Após resolverem amplas divergências em agricultura, os Estados Unidos e as Comunidades Europeias usaram o seu poder demercado paramudar o fórum da propriedade intelectual e impor aos países menos poderosos escolha entre aderir à OMC ou arcar com os custos de exclusão do novo regime de comércio. Desencadeou- se dinâmica de rolo compressor que aumentou os custos de exclusão e fez com que países africanos, que perdem em termos de PIB, renda real, exportações e medidas de bem-estar econômico, aderissem à organização. Aceitou-se a OMC como uma escolha pelo mal menor. A visão de soma positiva dos arranjos normativos cega acadêmicos de RI para a realidade de que instituições são frequentemente apresentadas como ofertas que os países mais pobres não podem recusar. As assimetrias criadas pelo Acordo da OMC seriam remediadas, na Rodada Doha, com abrangente liberalização agrícola, uma profunda revisão do TRIPS e suporte a que os países pobres possam arcar com custos de ajuste e implementação, bem como participar efetivamente das negociações de novos acordos e domecanismo de solução de controvérsias.
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Maruyama, Warren H. "Can the Appellate Body Be Saved?" Journal of World Trade 55, Issue 2 (April 1, 2021): 197–230. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2021008.
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The ‘Walker Paper’ represents a commendable effort to find middle-ground on the World Trade Organization (WTO) Appellate Body, but does not address the US concerns about the Appellate Body’s overreaching in antidumping, countervailing duty, and General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Article XIX ‘escape clause’ disputes, and instead seizes on a series of half-hearted fixes to the long list of concerns in US Trade Representative’s (USTR’s) ‘Report on the Appellate Body of the World Trade Organization’. US concerns about overreaching date back to the Bush 43 and Obama Administrations and are rooted in the Appellate Body’s ‘zeroing’ line of cases. The concerns rest on the conviction of US trade officials who participated in the Uruguay Round negotiations and later served in the Bush 43, Obama, and Trump Administrations, that there was never a WTO agreement to abolish ‘zeroing’. This view was shared by the WTO Secretariat and WTO Panels and underpinned the contentious, decade-long impasse between USTR, the WTO Secretariat, and WTO Panels on the one hand, and the Appellate Body and Appellate Body Secretariat on the other. While the Appellate Body’s overreaching has multiple sources, one is its dismissive approach to negotiating history under Article 32 of the Vienna Convention, and obsessive reliance on the Oxford English Dictionary as a main source of meaning in interpreting the WTO Agreements. Had the Appellate Body taken a more respectful look at the Uruguay Round negotiating history, it would have found no support for efforts to read a broad prohibition on zeroing into terms that dated back to the Kennedy Round Antidumping Agreement, Tokyo Round Antidumping Code, and GATT 1947. The Appellate Body’s overreaching also appears to stem from hubris, as some Appellate Body Members have sought to make their mark on international jurisprudence or serve as saviours of the WTO system. While some in Geneva are clearly hoping the US concerns will disappear once the Biden Administration takes office, these concerns predated Ambassador Lighthizer by over a decade and are shared by both Republicans and Democratic Members of Congress. Accordingly, even if the new Administration were to seize on some variant of the Walker paper as an excuse to placate US allies and trading partners, it’s unlikely to offer a lasting solution, since the same problems will likely recur without serious systemic and structural reforms. World Trade Organization, WTO, Appellate Body, Dispute Settlement Understanding, Dispute Settlement, Antidumping Agreement, Zeroing
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Maleczek, Werner, Peter Malina, Ernst Tatzer, and Franz Waldhauser. "Hans Asperger, Leben und Wirken 1931 bis 1946." Monatsschrift Kinderheilkunde 168, S3 (August 13, 2020): 176–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00112-020-00948-2.
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Zusammenfassung Dieser Beitrag handelt von Hans Asperger, seiner Prägung durch den katholisch-jugendbewegten „Bund Neuland“, seinem beruflichen Werdegang ab 1931 und seiner Tätigkeit an der „Heilpädagogischen Abteilung“ der Univ.-Kinderklinik Wien bis zu seiner Einberufung zum Militär im Frühjahr 1943. Besonderes Augenmerk wird auf seine Ablehnung der NS-Ideologie gerichtet, was u. a. aus seiner Mitgliedschaft im Vorstand der „St.-Lukas-Gilde“ katholischer Ärzte und deren strikter Ablehnung der Zwangssterilisation hervorgeht. Er war weder Anwärter noch Mitglied der NSDAP. Die Untersuchung seiner Schriften nach 1938 und einiger Dokumente, die aus dem NS-Überwachungsapparat stammen, macht deutlich, dass er nach außen zu Kompromissen gezwungen war. Der geäußerte Verdacht, er sei durch seine Gutachten über manche seiner PatientInnen oder seine Tätigkeit als fachärztlicher Gutachter im Referat „Schulkinderfürsorge“ des Hauptgesundheitsamtes an den „Euthanasie“-Morden „Am Spiegelgrund“ beteiligt gewesen, wird im Detail untersucht und widerlegt. Die strikte Anwendung geschichtswissenschaftlicher Methoden bei der Interpretation der vorliegenden, auch zahlreicher bisher unbekannter Dokumente ergibt mit größtmöglicher Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass Asperger weder wissentlich noch willentlich an den Untaten beteiligt war. Bei der deutschen Wehrmacht hatte er v. a. vom Herbst 1943 bis zum Kriegsende als Truppenarzt in Kroatien zu dienen. Ab August 1945 arbeitete er wieder bei seiner alten Dienststelle an der Univ.-Kinderklinik und, da er als „unbelastet“ galt, wurde er zwischen 1946 und 1949 zu deren provisorischem Leiter bestellt.
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Silva, Rodrigo Cássio Marinho da. "O Brasil, a América Latina e a Europa." Revista Espacialidades 9, no. 01 (November 5, 2016): 191–224. http://dx.doi.org/10.21680/1984-817x.2016v9n01id17779.
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O presente artigo trata das implicações da política de subsídio europeia e as consequências para o Mercosul e seu processo de integração. O texto está assim divido: em primeiro plano, está a do sentido de integração entre Mercosul e UE, com destaque para os países do Mercosul. A seguir, apresenta um histórico sobre as relações entre o Mercosul e a UE e um comparativo da formação dos dois, assim como as assimetrias quanto ao modelo adotado. Em seguida, concentra-se no destaque desempenhado pelo Brasil como “potência emergente”, nas negociações no mercado de grãos e pelo fim dos subsídios. Ao apontar os cenários que compõem a implementação do acordo, dando atenção ao mercado de grãos, uma vez que a relação “Norte-Sul” tem relevância dentro do desenvolvimento das negociações entre os blocos. Por fim, um breve desenvolvimento do comercio mundial a partir da criação do GATT em 1947 e da Rodada de Doha em 2001, que pode contribuir para a conclusão desse acordo envolvendo blocos regionais ou países em desenvolvimento ou emergentes. O acordo entre os blocos pode se tornar concreto à medida que as assimetrias existentes entre ambos possa ser eliminada no tocante a política de subsídios? Abordando a perspectiva teórica baseada no funcionalismo de David Mitrany, que tem como proposta de integração regional o compartilhamento de soberania e responsabilidades entre os Estados, desenvolvida durante o período entreguerras de 1919-1939, e na interdependência complexa de Joseph Nye e Robert Keohane, desenvolvida em fins da década de 1970, a partir do fundamento de que as relações entre atores estatais e não-estatais seriam de dependência, junto a organizações transnacionais e blocos econômicos.