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Journal articles on the topic 'Ge'ez text'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 5 June 2025

Last updated: 16 July 2025

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Gusarova, Ekaterina. "Textological features of the Chronicle of John of Nikiu." St. Tikhons' University Review. Series III. Philology 77 (December 25, 2023): 31–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.15382/sturiii202377.31-39.

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In the frame of the present research the text of the Chronicle of John of Nikiu’s translation in Geez is considered on the base of its textological features. This compilation was created in Egypt at the end of the 7th century AD by John, Bishop of the city of Nikiu, most probably in Greek. Later it was translated in Arabic and finally in the very beginning of the 17th century in Ge'ez. It reached our days exclusively in the Ethiopic revision. Nevertheless the test has conserved traces of the history of its existence. In particular it concerns foreign in relation to Ethiopia loans in lexis and some grammar constructions not intrinsic for traditional Ethiopian historiography. Such textological features of the translation from Arabic into Geez are of great interest for the scientists. They shed, albeit limited, light on the original Greek and then Arabic versions of the text of the Chronicle. In addition it forms an idea about the process of translating and personal and professional qualities of the translators in the Middle Ages in Egypt and Ethiopia.

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Seffi, Gebeyehu, Wolde Worke, and S. Shibesh Zelalem. "Information extraction model from Ge'ez texts." Information extraction model from Ge'ez texts 30, no. 2 (2023): 787–95. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v30.i2.pp787-795.

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Taddia, Irma. "Ethiopian Source Material and Colonial Rule in the Nineteenth Century: The Letter to Menilek (1899) By Blatta Gäbrä Egzi'abehēr." Journal of African History 35, no. 3 (1994): 493–516. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700026803.

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Despite his important political and literary activities, Blatta Gäbrä Egzi'-abehēr is almost unknown to scholars of Menilek's Ethiopia. This historical period is not particularly well researched, and the author stands out as one of the few Ethiopian intellectuals to have written such an important number of literary works focused on nationalistic and anti-Italian feelings. The Amharic/Ge'ez text under discussion, his letter to Menilek written in 1899, is a remarkable document from this point of view because it reveals a strong opposition to colonialism and the Italian occupation of Eritrea. This document is one of the first Ethiopian sources to testify to the growing nationalism and the growth of concepts of unity and independence. It allows us to consider more carefully the beginning of an Ethiopian secular ideology of the modern state. And such an ideology must be placed in the colonial context. The letter to Menilek raises some important questions regarding the new source material in the late nineteenth century available to historians of modern Ethiopia. A translation of the text is given as well as a comment on its historical significance.

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Gusarova, Ekaterina. "Foreign Borrowings in the Lexis of the Chronicle of John of Nikiu." Vostok. Afro-aziatskie obshchestva: istoriia i sovremennost, no. 4 (2024): 147. https://doi.org/10.31696/s086919080031358-0.

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In the frame of the present research a universal history intitled the Chronicle of John of Nikiu is approached. The Chronicle was compiled in Egypt at the end of the 7th century AD by John, Bishop of the city of Nikiu, most probably in Greek. Later it was translated in Arabic and finally in the very beginning of the 17th century in Ge‘ez, the language of Christian Ethiopia. It reached our days exclusively in the Ethiopic revision. The text of the Chroniclein Geʻez bears a vast variety of textual features, unusual for this classical language of Ethiopian Church and historiography. Thus, it deserves a detailed consideration. The work was realized by two learned scribes, both Christians, one Ethiopian and one Egyptian Copt, whose names we know due to the colophone at the end of the compilation. The Ethiopic text has conserved traces of the history of its existence, external (the colophones, additions of the translators, chapter division etc.) and internal (on textual and content sides). In particular we are considering foreign in relation to Ethiopia loans in lexis of the Chronicle and some grammar constructions not intrinsic for traditional Ethiopian historiography. Such textual features of the translation are of great interest for the researchers of the Medieval Ethiopia historiography and Ethiopian literature in Geʻez in general. The loans shed light on the original Greek and then Arabic versions of the text of the Chronicle and the degree of familiarity of Medieval Ethiopian and Coptic scribes with foreign lexis.

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Gebeyehu, Seffi, Worke Wolde, and Zelalem S. Shibeshi. "Information extraction model from Ge’ez texts." Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 30, no. 2 (2023): 787. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v30.i2.pp787-795.

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Nowadays, voluminous and unstructured textual data is found on the Internet that could provide varied valuable information for different institutions such as health care, business-related, training, religion, culture, and history, among others. A such alarming growth of unstructured data fosters the need for various methods and techniques to extract valuable information from unstructured data. However, exploring helpful information to satisfy the needs of the stakeholders becomes a problem due to information overload via the internet. This paper, therefore, presents an effective model for extracting named entities from Ge'ez text using deep learning algorithms. A data set with a total of 5,270 sentences were used for training and testing purposes. Two experimental setups, i.e., long short-term memory (LSTM) and bidirectional long short-term memory (Bi-LSTM) were used to make an empirical evaluation with training and a testing split ratio of 80% to 20%, respectively. Experimental results showed that the proposed model could be a practical solution for building information extraction (IE) systems using Bi-LSTM, reaching a training, validation, and testing accuracy as high as 98.59%, 97.96%, and 96.21%, respectively. The performance evaluation results reflect a promising performance of the model compared with resource-rich languages such as English.Bi-LSTM;Deep learning;Entity extraction;Ge’ez text;<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;" lang="EN-US">Information extraction

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Zarzeczny, Rafał. "Miracles of Saint Menas the Martyr: The Ethiopic Recension (Ta’ammera Minās, CAe 2386)." Vox Patrum 94 (June 15, 2025): 273–348. https://doi.org/10.31743/vp.18363.

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The Ethiopic recension of the Miracles of Saint Menas the Martyr comprises nineteen episodes. The prologue attributes the compilation to Archbishop Theophilus of Alexandria. The Ge‘ez text derives from an Arabic source, although the specific original model remains unidentified. Currently, the Ethiopic text fully survives in three manuscripts, dating from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. A modern paper copy also exists, made from the oldest extant codex. This publication offers the first complete translation of the Ethiopic collection; the edition of the Ge‘ez text will appear separately.

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Ullendorff, Edward. "An Ethiopic Text in a Volume to Celebrate the Congress of Vienna, 1814–15." Aethiopica 5 (May 8, 2013): 67–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.15460/aethiopica.5.1.446.

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The interest of this short inscription in Geʿez lies in the curious (and unexplained) reason why such a version on the Congress of Vienna should have been composed in Ethiopic. The name of the alleged writer, Dr. Middeldorpf, is otherwise unknown in Ethiopian studies. ATTENTION: Due to copy-right no online publication is provided.

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Zuurmond, Rochus. "The Textual Background of the Gospel of Matthew in Ge‘ez." Aethiopica 4 (June 30, 2013): 32–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.15460/aethiopica.4.1.489.

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The Gospel of Matthew in Ge‘ez has been handed down in two ancient Versions: A-text and B-text. The A-text is the earlier one, translated from the Greek and completed not later than the 6th century. It is a very ‘free’ translation, adapting the text not only to a Semitic vernacular but also to a new cultural background. The Vorlage of the A-text was rather close to the Byzantine type of text, but it has more readings in common with Greek manuscripts such as ﬡ, W and B, than those commonly understood as ‘Byzantine.’ The B-text, although strongly influenced by the A-text, removes practically all translational liberties of the A-text. It contains readings that seem to have originated from Syriac or Coptic Gospels and therefore is probably a medieval revision of the A-text on the basis of Arabic Gospels. Existing European editions of the Gospel of Matthew by and large exhibit a B-text.

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Kassa, Senkoris Ayalew, and Daniel Assefa Kassaye. "The conversation between Elijah and Mother Earth." Ethiopian Renaissance Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities 11, no. 2 (2025): 98–114. https://doi.org/10.4314/erjssh.v11i2.6.

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The purpose of this article is to show the literary value of the Geʽez text of gadla ̓Eləyas or Elijah the Prophet, focusing on the conversation between the biblical prophet Elijah and Mother Earth. This article presents an English Translation of gadla ̓Eləyas for the first time. The text presents two characters in debate. In the debate, the two characters Prophet Elijah and mother Earth are symbolised in stylistic icons. The Prophet symbolised as merciless man and the Earth symbolised as kind hearted mother. Why does the text personify the Earth? Are there elements caries the reader can appreciate from the dialogue she carries with the prophet Elijah? Which points are underlined? Why does the Earth criticize this famous prophet? The article showed that the reader is invited to discover the clemency of the Earth before the apparent harshness of the prophet. However, the paper uses a qualitative research with a best text and a critical edition method to address the objective. Despite the researcher has collected five combat of Elijah written in Geʽez, he chose a manuscript (T) that recorded in fourteenth century for analysis in terms of its grammatical character, readability and precedence. In addition to this research work, this selected text has been translated by the researcher for the first time in this study. This work of translation is also used as a resource and resource for other researchers. Finally, the researcher concludes his thoughts by giving a hint of the ideas that he thinks are good to be studied and used in research.

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Raineri, Osvaldo. "La battaglia di Adua secondo Cerulli Etiopico 318." Aethiopica 1 (September 13, 2013): 85–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.15460/aethiopica.1.1.618.

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This article: “La battaglia di Adua secondo Cerulli Etiopico 318” (“The Battle of Adwa according to Cerulli Etiopico 318”) on the unpublished Ethiopian text (Geʿez) and Italian translation is an extended version of my contribution to the Adwa Victory Centenary Conference (26th February - 2nd March, Addis Ababa - Adwa, Ethiopia). It represents a short account of the reign of Menelik (1889 - 1913), which for the main part of its contents, is dedicated to the war led by the Ethiopian sovereign against the Italians, with particular emphasis on the Battle of Adwa.

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Amare, Tesfu. "On the philosophies of Zera Ya‘qob and Welde Hiwot: a comparative analysis on their lessons of social philosophies." Ethiopian Renaissance Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities 9, no. 2 (2023): 112–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/erjssh.v9i2.8.

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Philosophical thinking is one of the areas of knowledge that has existed in Ge‘ez literature since ancient times. The focus of this study was to analyze lessons of social philosophies from the various concepts in the indigenous philosophical books known as Hateta Zera Ya‘qob and Hateta Wolde Hiwot. According to the books, Hateta Zera Ya‘qob was written by an ancient Ethiopian philosopher known in the community as Worke, also called in the Christen name Zera Ya‘qob, who was born in 1592 E.C. Hateta Wolde Hiwot was also a philosophical thought which was written by Wolde Hiwot who was a student of Zera Ya‘qob. Many Europeans have written against Africans as they do not have any philosophical knowledge or ideas, and, they used this as a potent tool to make African generations lose their identities. On the contrary, this study focuses on the status of 17th century thiopian philosophy. Document review was the tool of data collection for the study, and the Ge‘ez texts written by Zara Ya‘qob and Wolde Hiwot have been used as sources of information. Interviews were also conducted with selected scholars to secure a better clarity. The information gathered is presented in a comprehensive analysis with qualitative approach. Accordingly, the social lessons described by Zara Ya‘qob and Wolde Hiwot by were classified into their categories and presented with analysis. Finally, the study suggested the incorporation of the identified philosophical ideas in to the text books of ethical education as they contribute immensely to social building.

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Bausi, Alessandro. "Tedros Abraha, ed., tr., Gädlä Abunä Yonas Zä-Bur. Eritrean Saint of the 15th Century. Geʿez text edited and translated". Aethiopica 18 (7 липня 2016): 257–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.15460/aethiopica.18.1.851.

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Gusarova, Ekaterina V. "The St. Sisynnios Ethiopian Legend Revisited." Scrinium 15, no. 1 (2019): 340–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18177565-00151p23.

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Abstract The St. Sisynnios legend is an integral part of both Christian and popular Ethiopian historical traditions. It is known to exist in the Ge’ez language and constitutes a part of the compilation corpus based upon the so called magic or protective scrolls. There are two versions of the vita of St. Sisynnios. The shorter one is found in the Synaxarion, whereas the longer one is included in a corpus of hagiographical compilations “The Lives of the Martyrs”. The text of the legend comprises various stories based on real facts from the Saint’s life. However only some of them have been preserved intact; others have been re-told. Until recently have been discovered only three redactions of the vita. A new redaction recently discovered by the author of this article is of a paramount importance since it changes our view on how this legend did exist indeed in the Ethiopian cultural tradition.

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Gusarova, Ekaterina V. "The Legend of St. Sisynnios in Ethiopian Charms: Interconnection with His Life." Acta Ethnographica Hungarica 64, no. 2 (2019): 321–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/022.2019.64.2.4.

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AbstractThe legend of St. Sisynnios has been widespread in both Christian and popular Ethiopian tradition up to the present time. It exists in the form of written texts in the Ge’ez language, inserted in so-called magic scrolls among other closely connected texts of both magical and religious character. These scrolls have a protective function, and St. Sisynnios is venerated by the Ethiopian Church. There are two versions of his life. The shorter one comprises part of the Synaxarion whilethe longer one is included in a corpus of hagiographical compilations entitled “The Lives of the Martyrs”. Both of these were translated from the Arabic prototype, borrowed from the mother Coptic Church of Alexandria. There is a notable interconnection between the legend in the amulets and the religious texts. It is unknown whether the text of the legend once existed in form of verbal charm or not. In any case, different elements of the saint’s life passed to the legend. Some have remained unchanged while others have undergone transformations or lost some elements. It is important to study different elements of the legend using the examples conserved in the available manuscript scrolls. Analysis of these interconnections and the evolution of the text constitutes the basis of the present research.

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Zarzeczny, Rafał. "Euzebiusz z Heraklei i jego "Homilia efeska" (CPG 6143) z etiopskiej antologii patrystycznej Qerellos." Vox Patrum 57 (June 15, 2012): 807–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.31743/vp.4175.

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Classical oriental literatures, especially in Syriac, Arabic and Coptic languages, constitute extraordinary treasury for patristic studies. Apart from the texts written originally in their ecclesiastical ambient, the oriental ancient manuscripts include many documents completely disappeared or preserved in their Greek and Latin originals in defective form only. The same refers to the Ethiopian Christian literature. In this context so-called Qerəllos anthology occupies a particular place as one of the most important patristic writings. It contains Christological treaties and homilies by Cyril of Alexandria and other documents, essentially of the anti-nestorian and monophysite character, in the context of the Council of Ephesus (431). The core of the anthology was compiled in Alexandria and translated into Ge’ez language directly from Greek during the Aksumite period (V-VII century). Ethiopic homily by Eusebius of Heraclea (CPG 6143) is unique preserved version of this document, and also unique noted text of the bishop from V century. Besides the introduction to the Early Christian patristic literature and especially to the Qerəllos anthology, this paper offers a Polish translation of the Eusebius’s Homily with relative commentary.

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Belay, Birhanu, Tewodros Habtegebrial, Million Meshesha, Marcus Liwicki, Gebeyehu Belay, and Didier Stricker. "Amharic OCR: An End-to-End Learning." Applied Sciences 10, no. 3 (2020): 1117. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10031117.

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In this paper, we introduce an end-to-end Amharic text-line image recognition approach based on recurrent neural networks. Amharic is an indigenous Ethiopic script which follows a unique syllabic writing system adopted from an ancient Geez script. This script uses 34 consonant characters with the seven vowel variants of each (called basic characters) and other labialized characters derived by adding diacritical marks and/or removing parts of the basic characters. These associated diacritics on basic characters are relatively smaller in size, visually similar, and challenging to distinguish from the derived characters. Motivated by the recent success of end-to-end learning in pattern recognition, we propose a model which integrates a feature extractor, sequence learner, and transcriber in a unified module and then trained in an end-to-end fashion. The experimental results, on a printed and synthetic benchmark Amharic Optical Character Recognition (OCR) database called ADOCR, demonstrated that the proposed model outperforms state-of-the-art methods by 6.98% and 1.05%, respectively.

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Гусарова, Екатерина Валентиновна. "Bahrey. History of the Galla." Библия и христианская древность, no. 2(14) (June 15, 2022): 15–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.31802/bca.2022.14.2.001.

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Настоящая публикация представляет новое более полное критическое издание текста сочинения эфиопского монаха Бахрэя, названное им «История галла» (Zena-hu lä-galla). Это старейшее из произведений, которые составляют корпус литературы, посвящённый народу оромо. Это сочинение на языке геэз представляет собой уникальный источник по истории, этнографии и географии расселения кушитоязычного народа оромо (галла - в эфиопской христианской традиции), который на протяжении уже более четырёх столетий проживает на обширных территориях Африканского Рога. В отличие от предыдущих изданий, нами был использован ранее не известный четвёртый список этого произведения. This publication presents a new, more complete critical edition of the text of the work of the Ethiopian monk Bahrey, which he called «The History of the Galla» (Zena-hu lä-galla). This is the oldest of the works that make up the body of literature dedicated to the Oromo people. This essay in the Geez language is a unique source on the history, ethnography and geography of the settlement of the Cushitic-speaking Oromo people (Galla - in the Ethiopian Christian tradition), who have been living in the vast territories of the Horn of Africa for more than four centuries. Unlike previous editions, we used the previously unknown fourth list of this work.

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Gusarova, Ekaterina. "Chronicle of John of Nikiu and Ethiopic chronographs." St. Tikhons' University Review. Series III. Philology 81 (December 30, 2024): 25–39. https://doi.org/10.15382/sturiii202481.25-39.

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In the frame of the present research an attempt was made to discover continuity between the text of the Chronicle of John of Nikiu, translated from Arabic into Geez in the very beginning of the 17th century, the Ethiopian Chronographs, translated from Arabic in the 16th century and the universal history accounts, that form the initial part of the collections of the chronicles of Ethiopian kings. As the main example of chronograph the text attributed to al-Makîn from the manuscript Eth. 29 from the fonds of the Institute of Oriental manuscripts (St Petersburg) was taken. In particular, due to the large volume of the texts, the chapter dedicated to the Roman Emperors was chosen for the comparative analysis. The study of the corresponding parts of the compilations revealed a series of common features, especially in the way of dating events and attributing certain events to the Emperor’s reigns. Moreover, we managed to identify a number of concurrences in the way of describing some events. Wherein in the Chronopraph there are subjects, that do not take part of the Chronicle of Juhn of Nikiu, that means that different sources were usen when compiling the two operas. The comparison was also realized through additional historical writings. The analysis of the texts demonstrates that the compilations in question are interconnected by the form and content. This reflects the specific features of the translated annals that don’t represent an integral part of classical Ethiopic historiography. Besides we managed to show that the translated operas left their marks in the local chronicles, compiled at that time in Ethiopia.

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Anggraeny, Intan, and Monika Pretty Aprilia. "Authoritarian Parenting dalam Film Drama Keluarga Indonesia." MUKASI: Jurnal Ilmu Komunikasi 1, no. 2 (2022): 123–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.54259/mukasi.v1i2.811.

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This study aims to determine the frequency of authoritarian parenting in family drama films and to find out how the film frames the parenting style, especially authoritarian parenting in each scene so that the messages contained can be easily understood by the audience. This research was researched with descriptive quantitative content analysis method. This study also uses four indicators of authoritarian parenting from Robinson, Roper, Mandleco, & Hart, 1995, which include indicators of punishment, release, direction and discipline. The samples in this study are scenes taken from films that aired in 2019 – 2021, namely, NKCTHI, Imperfect, Geez & Ann, Dignitate and Maripossa, with a total of 36 scenes. Calculation of the reliability test on the measuring instrument using two coders, with a sample of 23 scenes. The coding results show that the coding sheet is reliable with the results, in Maripossa film of 0.75 (75%), Imperfect film of 1.0 (100%) and NKCTHI film of 0.8 (80%). The results of the study stated that the indicator that has the highest calculation is the direction indicator with 50%, then 30.4% discipline, 17% vent, and 2.6% punishment. This research can represent social problems related to the harmonious relationship between parents and children, with appropriate framing and emotional play in each scene that makes the message conveyed well through film media.

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Vatvedt Fjeld, Ruth E., Elsa Kristiansen, Marianne Rathje, et al. "The worldwide use and meaning of the f-word." Intercultural Pragmatics 16, no. 1 (2019): 85–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ip-2019-0004.

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Abstract This article documents the increasing use of the English curse word fuck worldwide, as well as its degree of adaption into the host language, its syntactic function, and its meaning and its strength as taboo. Comparing the use of fuck with a special focus on the Nordic countries (Norway, Denmark, and Iceland) with its use in Eurasia and Africa (with different alphabets, namely Cyrillic in Russia, Devanāgarī in India and Ge’ez script in Ethiopia), we found some similar developmental patterns, but also differences, for example to what degree the English loan word has replaced local curses and in what ways among social groups within a country. Comparing the terms used for the same concept was challenging because some countries have better text corpora and more research on written languages and especially on taboos, and those without such resources required additional minor investigations for a baseline. Findings revealed that fuck has spread worldwide from English, and it is commonly used in Nordic languages today. In Russian fuck is also adopted into the heritage language to a relatively high degree, and it has further gained importance in the vocabulary of India, where English has become the most used language by the higher and middle classes, but less so by lower classes. In contrast, the study of Amharic language in Ethiopia shows that the f-word is rarely used at all, and only by youngsters. We found a pattern starting from the outer North with Icelandic having adapted and adopted the word fuck the most, a slight decline in use in Norwegian and Danish, with less adaption and use in Russian, even less in Indian-English or Hindi, and being more or less absent in the African language Amharic. Formally though it is used conceptually both in Hindi and Amharic.

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Emiru, Eshete Derb, and Desalegn Mamo Wendyifraw. "Ge'ez Grammar Error Handling Using Neural Machine Translation Approach." ACM Transactions on Asian and Low-Resource Language Information Processing, January 10, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1145/3711829.

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The goal of natural language processing (NLP), which has recently gained popularity, is to improve the capacity of computers to comprehend and interact with human language. Consequently, in order to converse using natural language, it's crucial that spoken language be grammatically correct, especially for Ge'ez language. Geéz language sentences must follow certain norms of agreement in terms of number, person, gender, tense, and other factors in order to be considered grammatically correct. If the input sentence in Geéz language is improper, it can have problems with subject-verb agreement, object-verb agreement, adjective-noun agreement, and adverb-verb agreement. The goal of the proposed work is to provide a neural machine translation approach for detecting and correcting grammar errors in Ge'ez sentences. We have prepared manually 11490 Geéz parallel corpuses (Geéz language grammatically incorrect and grammatically correct sentences). After we have prepared a parallel Ge'ez sentence, we have used normalization, tokenization, padding, and one hot encoding as preprocesses. We have used two deep learning algorithms, including a bidirectional long-short-term memory encoder decoder and a long-short-term memory encoder decoder, for training the proposed model. Keras and TensorFlow were used for importing the required libraries, and we used the Python 3.7 environment for implementation. Two test cases are used for the evaluation technique. The first one is for the long-short-term memory encoder decoder model, and the second one is for the bidirectional long-short-term memory encoder decoder model. Finally, the bidirectional long short-term memory encoder decoder model achieved best results with an accuracy of 82%, recall of 82%, precision of 85%, and f1 measure of 83% with balanced error type classes.

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Woldeyes, Yirga Gelaw. "“Holding Living Bodies in Graveyards”: The Violence of Keeping Ethiopian Manuscripts in Western Institutions." M/C Journal 23, no. 2 (2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.5204/mcj.1621.

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IntroductionThere are two types of Africa. The first is a place where people and cultures live. The second is the image of Africa that has been invented through colonial knowledge and power. The colonial image of Africa, as the Other of Europe, a land “enveloped in the dark mantle of night” was supported by western states as it justified their colonial practices (Hegel 91). Any evidence that challenged the myth of the Dark Continent was destroyed, removed or ignored. While the looting of African natural resources has been studied, the looting of African knowledges hasn’t received as much attention, partly based on the assumption that Africans did not produce knowledge that could be stolen. This article invalidates this myth by examining the legacy of Ethiopia’s indigenous Ge’ez literature, and its looting and abduction by powerful western agents. The article argues that this has resulted in epistemic violence, where students of the Ethiopian indigenous education system do not have access to their books, while European orientalists use them to interpret Ethiopian history and philosophy using a foreign lens. The analysis is based on interviews with teachers and students of ten Ge’ez schools in Ethiopia, and trips to the Ethiopian manuscript collections in The British Library, The Princeton Library, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies and The National Archives in Addis Ababa.The Context of Ethiopian Indigenous KnowledgesGe’ez is one of the ancient languages of Africa. According to Professor Ephraim Isaac, “about 10,000 years ago, one single nation or community of a single linguistic group existed in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and the Horn of Africa” (The Habesha). The language of this group is known as Proto-Afroasiatic or Afrasian languages. It is the ancestor of the Semitic, Cushitic, Nilotic, Omotic and other languages that are currently spoken in Ethiopia by its 80 ethnic groups, and the neighbouring countries (Diakonoff). Ethiopians developed the Ge’ez language as their lingua franca with its own writing system some 2000 years ago. Currently, Ge’ez is the language of academic scholarship, studied through the traditional education system (Isaac, The Ethiopian). Since the fourth century, an estimated 1 million Ge’ez manuscripts have been written, covering religious, historical, mathematical, medicinal, and philosophical texts.One of the most famous Ge’ez manuscripts is the Kebra Nagast, a foundational text that embodied the indigenous conception of nationhood in Ethiopia. The philosophical, political and religious themes in this book, which craft Ethiopia as God’s country and the home of the Ark of the Covenant, contributed to the country’s success in defending itself from European colonialism. The production of books like the Kebra Nagast went hand in hand with a robust indigenous education system that trained poets, scribes, judges, artists, administrators and priests. Achieving the highest stages of learning requires about 30 years after which the scholar would be given the rare title Arat-Ayina, which means “four eyed”, a person with the ability to see the past as well as the future. Today, there are around 50,000 Ge’ez schools across the country, most of which are in rural villages and churches.Ge’ez manuscripts are important textbooks and reference materials for students. They are carefully prepared from vellum “to make them last forever” (interview, 3 Oct. 2019). Some of the religious books are regarded as “holy persons who breathe wisdom that gives light and food to the human soul”. Other manuscripts, often prepared as scrolls are used for medicinal purposes. Each manuscript is uniquely prepared reflecting inherited wisdom on contemporary lives using the method called Tirguamme, the act of giving meaning to sacred texts. Preparation of books is costly. Smaller manuscript require the skins of 50-70 goats/sheep and large manuscript needed 100-120 goats/sheep (Tefera).The Loss of Ethiopian ManuscriptsSince the 18th century, a large quantity of these manuscripts have been stolen, looted, or smuggled out of the country by travellers who came to the country as explorers, diplomats and scientists. The total number of Ethiopian manuscripts taken is still unknown. Amsalu Tefera counted 6928 Ethiopian manuscripts currently held in foreign libraries and museums. This figure does not include privately held or unofficial collections (41).Looting and smuggling were sponsored by western governments, institutions, and notable individuals. For example, in 1868, The British Museum Acting Director Richard Holms joined the British army which was sent to ‘rescue’ British hostages at Maqdala, the capital of Emperor Tewodros. Holms’ mission was to bring treasures for the Museum. Before the battle, Tewodros had established the Medhanialem library with more than 1000 manuscripts as part of Ethiopia’s “industrial revolution”. When Tewodros lost the war and committed suicide, British soldiers looted the capital, including the treasury and the library. They needed 200 mules and 15 elephants to transport the loot and “set fire to all buildings so that no trace was left of the edifices which once housed the manuscripts” (Rita Pankhurst 224). Richard Holmes collected 356 manuscripts for the Museum. A wealthy British woman called Lady Meux acquired some of the most illuminated manuscripts. In her will, she bequeathed them to be returned to Ethiopia. However, her will was reversed by court due to a campaign from the British press (Richard Pankhurst). In 2018, the V&A Museum in London displayed some of the treasures by incorporating Maqdala into the imperial narrative of Britain (Woldeyes, Reflections).Britain is by no means the only country to seek Ethiopian manuscripts for their collections. Smuggling occurred in the name of science, an act of collecting manuscripts for study. Looting involved local collaborators and powerful foreign sponsors from places like France, Germany and the Vatican. Like Maqdala, this was often sponsored by governments or powerful financers. For example, the French government sponsored the Dakar-Djibouti Mission led by Marcel Griaule, which “brought back about 350 manuscripts and scrolls from Gondar” (Wion 2). It was often claimed that these manuscripts were purchased, rather than looted. Johannes Flemming of Germany was said to have purchased 70 manuscripts and ten scrolls for the Royal Library of Berlin in 1905. However, there was no local market for buying manuscripts. Ge’ez manuscripts were, and still are, written to serve spiritual and secular life in Ethiopia, not for buying and selling. There are countless other examples, but space limits how many can be provided in this article. What is important to note is that museums and libraries have accrued impressive collections without emphasising how those collections were first obtained. The loss of the intellectual heritage of Ethiopians to western collectors has had an enormous impact on the country.Knowledge Grabbing: The Denial of Access to KnowledgeWith so many manuscripts lost, European collectors became the narrators of Ethiopian knowledge and history. Edward Ullendorff, a known orientalist in Ethiopian studies, refers to James Bruce as “the explorer of Abyssinia” (114). Ullendorff commented on the significance of Bruce’s travel to Ethiopia asperhaps the most important aspect of Bruce’s travels was the collection of Ethiopic manuscripts… . They opened up entirely new vistas for the study of Ethiopian languages and placed this branch of Oriental scholarship on a much more secure basis. It is not known how many MSS. reached Europe through his endeavours, but the present writer is aware of at least twenty-seven, all of which are exquisite examples of Ethiopian manuscript art. (133)This quote encompasses three major ways in which epistemic violence occurs: denial of access to knowledge, Eurocentric interpretation of Ethiopian manuscripts, and the handling of Ge’ez manuscripts as artefacts from the past. These will be discussed below.Western ‘travellers’, such as Bruce, did not fully disclose how many manuscripts they took or how they acquired them. The abundance of Ethiopian manuscripts in western institutions can be compared to the scarcity of such materials among traditional schools in Ethiopia. In this research, I have visited ten indigenous schools in Wollo (Lalibela, Neakutoleab, Asheten, Wadla), in Gondar (Bahita, Kuskwam, Menbere Mengist), and Gojam (Bahirdar, Selam Argiew Maryam, Giorgis). In all of the schools, there is lack of Ge’ez manuscripts. Students often come from rural villages and do not receive any government support. The scarcity of Ge’ez manuscripts, and the lack of funding which might allow for the purchasing of books, means the students depend mainly on memorising Ge’ez texts told to them from the mouth of their teacher. Although this method of learning is not new, it currently is the only way for passing indigenous knowledges across generations.The absence of manuscripts is most strongly felt in the advanced schools. For instance, in the school of Qene, poetic literature is created through an in-depth study of the vocabulary and grammar of Ge’ez. A Qene student is required to develop a deep knowledge of Ge’ez in order to understand ancient and medieval Ge’ez texts which are used to produce poetry with multiple meanings. Without Ge’ez manuscripts, students cannot draw their creative works from the broad intellectual tradition of their ancestors. When asked how students gain access to textbooks, one student commented:we don’t have access to Birana books (Ge’ez manuscripts written on vellum). We cannot learn the ancient wisdom of painting, writing, and computing developed by our ancestors. We simply buy paper books such as Dawit (Psalms), Sewasew (grammar) or Degwa (book of songs with notations) and depend on our teachers to teach us the rest. We also lend these books to each other as many students cannot afford to buy them. Without textbooks, we expect to spend double the amount of time it would take if we had textbooks. (Interview, 3 Sep. 2019)Many students interrupt their studies and work as labourers to save up and buy paper textbooks, but they still don’t have access to the finest works taken to Europe. Most Ge’ez manuscripts remaining in Ethiopia are locked away in monasteries, church stores or other places to prevent further looting. The manuscripts in Addis Ababa University and the National Archives are available for researchers but not to the students of the indigenous system, creating a condition of internal knowledge grabbing.While the absence of Ge’ez manuscripts denied, and continues to deny, Ethiopians the chance to enrich their indigenous education, it benefited western orientalists to garner intellectual authority on the field of Ethiopian studies. In 1981, British Museum Director John Wilson said, “our Abyssinian holdings are more important than our Indian collection” (Bell 231). In reaction, Richard Pankhurst, the Director of Ethiopian Studies in Addis Ababa, responded that the collection was acquired through plunder. Defending the retaining of Maqdala manuscripts in Europe, Ullendorff wrote:neither Dr. Pankhurst nor the Ethiopian and western scholars who have worked on this collection (and indeed on others in Europe) could have contributed so significantly to the elucidation of Ethiopian history without the rich resources available in this country. Had they remained insitu, none of this would have been possible. (Qtd. in Bell 234)The manuscripts are therefore valued based on their contribution to western scholarship only. This is a continuation of epistemic violence whereby local knowledges are used as raw materials to produce Eurocentric knowledge, which in turn is used to teach Africans as though they had no prior knowledge. Scholars are defined as those western educated persons who can speak European languages and can travel to modern institutions to access the manuscripts. Knowledge grabbing regards previous owners as inexistent or irrelevant for the use of the grabbed knowledges.Knowledge grabbing also means indigenous scholars are deprived of critical resources to produce new knowledge based on their intellectual heritage. A Qene teacher commented: our students could not devote their time and energy to produce new knowledges in the same way our ancestors did. We have the tradition of Madeladel, Kimera, Kuteta, Mielad, Qene and tirguamme where students develop their own system of remembering, reinterpreting, practicing, and rewriting previous manuscripts and current ones. Without access to older manuscripts, we increasingly depend on preserving what is being taught orally by elders. (Interview, 4 Sep. 2019)This point is important as it relates to the common myth that indigenous knowledges are artefacts belonging to the past, not the present. There are millions of people who still use these knowledges, but the conditions necessary for their reproduction and improvement is denied through knowledge grabbing. The view of Ge’ez manuscripts as artefacts dismisses the Ethiopian view that Birana manuscripts are living persons. As a scholar told me in Gondar, “they are creations of Egziabher (God), like all of us. Keeping them in institutions is like keeping living bodies in graveyards” (interview, 5 Oct. 2019).Recently, the collection of Ethiopian manuscripts by western institutions has also been conducted digitally. Thousands of manuscripts have been microfilmed or digitised. For example, the EU funded Ethio-SPaRe project resulted in the digital collection of 2000 Ethiopian manuscripts (Nosnitsin). While digitisation promises better access for people who may not be able to visit institutions to see physical copies, online manuscripts are not accessible to indigenous school students in Ethiopia. They simply do not have computer or internet access and the manuscripts are catalogued in European languages. Both physical and digital knowledge grabbing results in the robbing of Ethiopian intellectual heritage, and denies the possibility of such manuscripts being used to inform local scholarship. Epistemic Violence: The European as ExpertWhen considered in relation to stolen or appropriated manuscripts, epistemic violence is the way in which local knowledge is interpreted using a foreign epistemology and gained dominance over indigenous worldviews. European scholars have monopolised the field of Ethiopian Studies by producing books, encyclopaedias and digital archives based on Ethiopian manuscripts, almost exclusively in European languages. The contributions of their work for western scholarship is undeniable. However, Kebede argues that one of the detrimental effects of this orientalist literature is the thesis of Semiticisation, the designation of the origin of Ethiopian civilisation to the arrival of Middle Eastern colonisers rather than indigenous sources.The thesis is invented to make the history of Ethiopia consistent with the Hegelian western view that Africa is a Dark Continent devoid of a civilisation of its own. “In light of the dominant belief that black peoples are incapable of great achievements, the existence of an early and highly advanced civilization constitutes a serious anomaly in the Eurocentric construction of the world” (Kebede 4). To address this anomaly, orientalists like Ludolph attributed the origin of Ethiopia’s writing system, agriculture, literature, and civilisation to the arrival of South Arabian settlers. For example, in his translation of the Kebra Nagast, Budge wrote: “the SEMITES found them [indigenous Ethiopians] negro savages, and taught them civilization and culture and the whole scriptures on which their whole literature is based” (x).In line with the above thesis, Dillman wrote that “the Abyssinians borrowed their Numerical Signs from the Greeks” (33). The views of these orientalist scholars have been challenged. For instance, leading scholar of Semitic languages Professor Ephraim Isaac considers the thesis of the Arabian origin of Ethiopian civilization “a Hegelian Eurocentric philosophical perspective of history” (2). Isaac shows that there is historical, archaeological, and linguistic evidence that suggest Ethiopia to be more advanced than South Arabia from pre-historic times. Various Ethiopian sources including the Kebra Nagast, the works of historian Asres Yenesew, and Ethiopian linguist Girma Demeke provide evidence for the indigenous origin of Ethiopian civilisation and languages.The epistemic violence of the Semeticisation thesis lies in how this Eurocentric ideological construction is the dominant narrative in the field of Ethiopian history and the education system. Unlike the indigenous view, the orientalist view is backed by strong institutional power both in Ethiopia and abroad. The orientalists control the field of Ethiopian studies and have access to Ge’ez manuscripts. Their publications are the only references for Ethiopian students. Due to Native Colonialism, a system of power run by native elites through the use of colonial ideas and practices (Woldeyes), the education system is the imitation of western curricula, including English as a medium of instruction from high school onwards. Students study the west more than Ethiopia. Indigenous sources are generally excluded as unscientific. Only the Eurocentric interpretation of Ethiopian manuscripts is regarded as scientific and objective.ConclusionEthiopia is the only African country never to be colonised. In its history it produced a large quantity of manuscripts in the Ge’ez language through an indigenous education system that involves the study of these manuscripts. Since the 19th century, there has been an ongoing loss of these manuscripts. European travellers who came to Ethiopia as discoverers, missionaries and scholars took a large number of manuscripts. The Battle of Maqdala involved the looting of the intellectual products of Ethiopia that were collected at the capital. With the introduction of western education and use of English as a medium of instruction, the state disregarded indigenous schools whose students have little access to the manuscripts. This article brings the issue of knowledge grapping, a situation whereby European institutions and scholars accumulate Ethiopia manuscripts without providing the students in Ethiopia to have access to those collections.Items such as manuscripts that are held in western institutions are not dead artefacts of the past to be preserved for prosperity. They are living sources of knowledge that should be put to use in their intended contexts. Local Ethiopian scholars cannot study ancient and medieval Ethiopia without travelling and gaining access to western institutions. This lack of access and resources has made European Ethiopianists almost the sole producers of knowledge about Ethiopian history and culture. For example, indigenous sources and critical research that challenge the Semeticisation thesis are rarely available to Ethiopian students. Here we see epistemic violence in action. Western control over knowledge production has the detrimental effect of inventing new identities, subjectivities and histories that translate into material effects in the lives of African people. In this way, Ethiopians and people all over Africa internalise western understandings of themselves and their history as primitive and in need of development or outside intervention. African’s intellectual and cultural heritage, these living bodies locked away in graveyards, must be put back into the hands of Africans.AcknowledgementThe author acknowledges the support of the Australian Academy of the Humanities' 2019 Humanities Travelling Fellowship Award in conducting this research.ReferencesBell, Stephen. “Cultural Treasures Looted from Maqdala: A Summary of Correspondence in British National Newspapers since 1981.” Kasa and Kasa. Eds. Tadesse Beyene, Richard Pankhurst, and Shifereraw Bekele. Addis Ababa: Ababa University Book Centre, 1990. 231-246.Budge, Wallis. A History of Ethiopia, Nubia and Abyssinia. London: Methuen and Co, 1982.Demeke, Girma Awgichew. The Origin of Amharic. Trenton: Red Sea Press, 2013.Diakonoff, Igor M. Afrasian Languages. Moscow: Nauka, 1988.Dillmann, August. Ethiopic Grammar. Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2005.Hegel, Georg W.F. The Philosophy of History. New York: Dover, 1956.Isaac, Ephraim. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church. New Jersey: Red Sea Press, 2013.———. “An Open Letter to an Inquisitive Ethiopian Sister.” The Habesha, 2013. 1 Feb. 2020 <http://www.zehabesha.com/an-open-letter-to-an-inquisitive-young-ethiopian-sister-ethiopian-history-is-not-three-thousand-years/>.Kebra Nagast. "The Queen of Sheba and Her Only Son Menyelik I." Trans. Wallis Budge. London: Oxford UP, 1932.Pankhurst, Richard. "The Napier Expedition and the Loot Form Maqdala." Presence Africaine 133-4 (1985): 233-40.Pankhurst, Rita. "The Maqdala Library of Tewodros." Kasa and Kasa. Eds. Tadesse Beyene, Richard Pankhurst, and Shifereraw Bekele. Addis Ababa: Ababa University Book Centre, 1990. 223-230.Tefera, Amsalu. ነቅዐ መጻህፍት ከ መቶ በላይ በግዕዝ የተጻፉ የእኢትዮጵያ መጻህፍት ዝርዝር ከማብራሪያ ጋር።. Addis Ababa: Jajaw, 2019.Nosnitsin, Denis. "Ethio-Spare Cultural Heritage of Christian Ethiopia: Salvation, Preservation and Research." 2010. 5 Jan. 2019 <https://www.aai.uni-hamburg.de/en/ethiostudies/research/ethiospare/missions/pdf/report2010-1.pdf>. Ullendorff, Edward. "James Bruce of Kinnaird." The Scottish Historical Review 32.114, part 2 (1953): 128-43.Wion, Anaïs. "Collecting Manuscripts and Scrolls in Ethiopia: The Missions of Johannes Flemming (1905) and Enno Littmann (1906)." 2012. 5 Jan. 2019 <https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00524382/document>. Woldeyes, Yirga Gelaw. Native Colonialism: Education and the Economy of Violence against Traditions in Ethiopia. Trenton: Red Sea Press, 2017.———. “Reflections on Ethiopia’s Stolen Treasures on Display in a London Museum.” The Conversation. 2018. 5 June 2018 <https://theconversation.com/reflections-on-ethiopias-stolen-treasures-on-display-in-a-london-museum-97346>.Yenesew, Asres. ትቤ፡አክሱም፡መኑ፡ አንተ? Addis Ababa: Nigid Printing House, 1959 [1951 EC].

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Haile, Gezae. "Bridging the Digital Divide: Developing Local Digital Heritage Content and Investigating Localized Digital Solutions." Libri, June 13, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/libri-2023-0109.

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Abstract The digital divide, in my view, is not only created due to the lack of local contents but also due to the fact that few digital contents from local sources are found in the digital libraries of higher education in Ethiopia. Likewise, the creation and dissemination of local contents could be facilitated not only by the presence of local digital contents but also by the presence of usable digital technology at a local level. This article aims to give a practical solution to bridging the digital divide by unlocking local heritage knowledge through creating digital contents from locally grown literary heritage as well as by developing a localised digital library system. Therefore, this article presents the research processes and results that were undertaken to unlock local heritage knowledge and developed the localised digital library system: customising a free and open-source software; digitising and translating the local literary heritage contents; and building the digitised and translated literary heritage contents into the localised digital libraries, which Greenstone digital library software was used to customise into local use. The English version of the Greenstone user interface (macro files) was translated into the Tigrinya language, one of the locally spoken languages in Ethiopia. For translation purposes, a list of suitable and compatible Tigrinya words and phrases that basically fit with the meaning of the English version of the Greenstone spreadsheet was developed. As a result of this translation work, the Tigrinya language interface has become one of the languages that are included in Greenstone digital library software version 2.83 for the first time (Language short name=ti “long name=ትግርኛ (Tigrinya)” default encoding=utf-8). To unlock the heritage knowledge and build the localised digital library with local digital collections, a sample of Ethiopia’s ancient Ge’ez parchment manuscripts were digitised and translated into Tigrinya and English languages. To facilitate the retrieval of information and to be easily recognised by internet search engines in the Tigrinya language, a local specific metadata standard for Ethiopia’s ancient Ge’ez parchment manuscripts was developed at three hierarchical levels, at manuscript level, at chapter level and at page level, with each translated page tagged using HTML. To facilitate the link between the translated text and the corresponding digital image, an “item” file was created using a WordPad. As a result, three collections were built into the customised digital library: the digitised image of the Abushakir manuscript as well as the Tigrinya and English translated texts of the same manuscripts. The functionality and usability of the localised digital system was tested by searching keywords and browsing titles from the built collection of the Tigrinya text and the original digital image of the manuscript. The result of this test shows that the localised digital library system is capable of allowing end-users to discover the information they want at the granular level from digital content of the local literary heritage. Therefore, further manuscript collection through digitisation, translating into local language and building the digitised collection into this localised digital library system is necessary for wider access to the local literary heritage digital content and for bridging the digital divide in the long-term.

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