Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Genome conformation'

The 3D organization of chromatin within the nucleus is crucial for genome functionality. This is true at multiple levels of resolution: on a large scale, with chromosomes occupying distinct volumes (chromosome territories), at the level of individual chromatin fibers, organized in compartmentalized domains (as the Topologically Associating Domains, TADs), and down to the formation of short range chromatin interactions (as enhancer-promoter loops). The widespread adoption of high-throughput techniques derived from Chromosome Conformation Capture (3C) has been instrumental in advancing the knowledge of chromatin nuclear organization. In particular, Hi-C has the potential to achieve the most comprehensive characterization of chromatin 3D interactions, as in principle it can detect any pair of restriction fragments connected as a result of ligation by proximity. The analysis of the enormous amount of genomic data produced by Hi-C required the development of ad hoc algorithms and computational procedures. Despite the increasing number of available bioinformatics pipelines, no consensus on the optimal approach to analyze Hi-C data has been reached yet. Therefore, we quantitatively compared several Hi-C data analysis methods for the identification of multi-scale chromatin structures to highlight strengths and weaknesses of the various methods and propose application guidelines and good practices. Specifically, we compared different computational approaches (6 for the characterization of chromatin loops and 7 to identify TADs) using publicly available Hi-C datasets, comprising data from different species and cell lines, Hi-C protocol variations and data resolution. Additionally, the algorithms were tested on simulated Hi-C data to assess sensitivity and precision of each method. The tools differed in terms of implemented analysis steps and strategies adopted for alignment, filtering, normalization, and feature identification (global or local looping interactions calling and single-scale or multi-scale TAD discovery). Results of this comparison indicate that performances of the methods considerably vary, both in quantitative and qualitative terms, and that the tools need extensive optimization of the parameters in order to work properly. Despite, in general, TAD callers resulted riper than algorithms to call interactions, still most of them are characterized by crucial limitations, as for instance the inability to investigate how the 3D organization of chromatin structures evolves over time (as e.g., during differentiation). Although the molecular mechanisms underlying TADs formation are still debated, it is evident that distinct interaction patterns can be observed within individual TADs. In particular, some domains appear to have a very compact structure, while others have a less uniform or weaker interaction frequency within the domain, while showing a strong interaction between the borders. To address these limitations, I developed TAD-AH (TADs Advanced Hierarchy), a four-step sequential procedure coded in R, for the characterization of both static and dynamically changing chromatin domains. As a case study, I analyzed Hi-C data generated prior and post human fibroblasts (IMR90) trans-differentiation into skeletal muscle cells (myoblasts, and, when put in differentiation media, myotubes) by overexpression of muscle stem cells master regulator MyoD. I integrated Hi-C with epigenomic and transcriptomic data from the same conditions and confirmed that the identified genomic features are consistent with the biological scenario under scrutiny.<br>L’organizzazione tridimensionale della cromatina all’interno del nucleo è alla base della regolazione funzionale del genoma, sia a livello macroscopico, dove i cromosomi occupano spazi distinti (territori cromosomici), sia a livello di singole fibre, dove la cromatina si organizza in domini compartimentalizzati (Topologically Associating Domains, TADs), dentro i quali avviene la formazione di interazioni a corto raggio (come quelle che sussistono tra promotori e regioni regolatrici). Le tecniche denominate Chromosome Conformation Capture (3C) hanno permesso di investigare e caratterizzare i diversi livelli dell’organizzazione strutturale della cromatina all’interno del nucleo. In particolare, l’Hi-C, attraverso la combinazione del protocollo di 3C e del sequenziamento massivo, è in grado di restituire un’immagine completa dell’architettura della cromatina e dei contatti all’interno del genoma. Nonostante in questi ultimi anni siano stati resi disponibili diversi strumenti computazionali per l’analisi dei dati di Hi-C, non esiste tuttora un consenso su quale sia il metodo ottimale da usare. Una valutazione comparativa dei software per l'analisi dei dati Hi-C è quindi necessaria non solo per evidenziare i punti di forza e le debolezze dei vari metodi, ma anche per proporre linee guida utili all’utente medio. Per questo motivo ho applicato diversi approcci computazionali (6 per la caratterizzazione delle interazioni e 7 per identificare i TAD) a 6 set di dati pubblici di Hi-C, relativi a diverse specie e linee cellulari (H1-hESC, IMR90, linee cellulari linfoblastoidi ed embrioni di D. melanogaster), a differenti metodiche sperimentali (standard Hi-C, simplified Hi-C e In situ Hi-C) e analizzati a diverse risoluzioni. Inoltre, gli algoritmi sono stati applicati a dati simulati per determinare sensibilità e precisione di ogni metodo. I software differiscono sia per le fasi di analisi implementate sia per le strategie adottate in ciascun passaggio: l'allineamento della sequenza completa contro quello della sequenza “spezzata”, i filtri applicati, la normalizzazione implicita contro quella esplicita, l’arricchimento di interazione locale contro quello globale e l’individuazione di TAD ad uno o più livelli. I metodi variano molto a livello di prestazioni sia in termini quantitativi sia qualitativi, e richiedono di ottimizzare un’ampia gamma di parametri per funzionare correttamente. Nonostante, in generale, gli algoritmi per identificare i TAD si siano dimostrati più affidabili di quelli per trovare le interazioni, ci sono ancora dei limiti fondamentali nell’identificazione dei TAD, ad esempio nello studio dell’evoluzione di queste strutture nel tempo. Sebbene i meccanismi alla base della formazione dei TAD siano tuttora dibattuti, è innegabile che questi siano caratterizzati da pattern distintivi di interazione: in alcuni TAD possiamo osservare un segnale di interazione più omogeneo, mentre in altri l’interazione è più che altro evidente tra le regioni che lo delimitano. Per superare questi limiti, ho sviluppato un nuovo metodo per l’analisi dei TAD a partire da dati di Hi-C (TAD-AH), atto ad indagare un aspetto finora inesplorato dell'architettura del genoma: la quarta dimensione, ovvero come la struttura si evolve nel tempo in base a stimoli di varia natura (ad esempio durante il differenziamento). Per testare TAD-AH ho analizzato dati di Hi-C generati prima e dopo il trans-differenziamento di fibroblasti umani (IMR90) in cellule muscolari (mioblasti e miotubi) ad opera del principale regolatore delle cellule staminali muscolari, MYOD. L’integrazione dei dati di Hi-C con altri dati epigenomici e trascrittomici ha confermato che la caratterizzazione delle strutture identificate è coerente con lo scenario biologico in esame.

Le programme de réplication d’environ la moitié du génome des mammifères est caractérisé par des U/N-domaines de réplication de l’ordre du méga-base en taille. Ces domaines sont bordés par des origines de réplication maitresses (MaOris) correspondantes à des régions (~200 kb) de chromatine ouverte favorables à l’initiation précoce de la réplication et de la transcription. Grâce au développement récent de technologies à haut débit de capture de conformations des chromosomes (Hi-C), des matrices de fréquences de co-localisation 3D entre toutes les paires de loci sont désormais déterminées expérimentalement. Il est apparu que les U/N-domaines sont reliés à l’organisation du génome en unités structurelles. Dans cette thèse, nous avons effectué une analyse combinée de données de Hi-C de lignées cellulaires humaines et de profils de temps de réplication pour explorer davantage les relations structure/fonction dans le noyau. Cela nous a conduit à décrire de nouveaux domaines de réplication de grande tailles (&gt;3 Mb) : les split-U-domaines aussi bordés par des MaOris; à démontrer que la vague de réplication initiée aux MaOris ne dépend que du temps pendant la phase S et de montrer que le repliement de la chromatine est compatible avec un modèle d’équilibre 3D pour les régions euchromatiniennes à réplication précoces et un modèle d’équilibre 2D pour les régions heterochromatiniennes à réplication tardives associées à la lamina nucléaire. En représentant les matrices de co-localisation issues du Hi-C en réseaux d’interactions structurelles et en déployant des outils de la théorie des graphes, nous avons aussi démontré que les MaOris sont des hubs interconnectés à longue portée dans le réseau structurel, fondamentaux pour l’organisation 3D du génome et nous avons développé une méthodologie multi-échelle basée sur les ondelettes sur graphes pour délimiter objectivement des unités structurelles à partir des données Hi-C. Ce travail nous permet de discuter de la relation entre les domaines de réplication et les unités structurelles entre les différentes lignées cellulaires humaines<br>The replication program of about one half of mammalian genomes is characterized by megabase-sized replication U/N-domains. These domains are bordered by master replication origins (MaOris) corresponding to ~200 kb regions of open chromatin favorable for early initiation of replication and transcription. Thanks to recent high-throughput chromosome conformation capture technologies (Hi-C), 3D co-localization frequency matrices between all genome loci are now experimentally determined. It appeared that U/N-domains were related to the organization of the genome into structural units. In this thesis, we performed a combined analysis of human Hi-C data and replication timing profiles to further explore the structure/function relationships in the nucleus. This led us to describe novel large (&gt;3 Mb) replication timing split-U domains also bordered by MaOris, to demonstrate that the replication wave initiated at MaOris only depends of the time during S phase and to show that chromatin folding is compatible with a 3D equilibrium in early-replicating euchromatin regions turning to a 2D equilibrium in the late-replicating heterochromatin regions associated to nuclear lamina. Representing Hi-C co-localization matrices as structural networks and deploying graph theoretical tools, we also demonstrated that MaOris are long-range interconnected hubs in the structural network, central to the 3D organization of the genome and we developed a novel multi-scale methodology based on graph wavelets to objectively delineate structural units from Hi-C data. This work allows us to discuss the relationship between replication domains and structural units across different human cell lines

Les approches modernes de séquençage d’adn ne permettent pas la lecture de fragments de plus de quelques kb. De ce fait, ont été développés des méthodes algorithmique permettant de former de plus grandes séquences ˆ partir de ces petits fragments. Nous avons développé une nouvelle méthodologie d’assemblage de génome basée sur le HiC. Le HiC est une procédure biochimique permettant l’inférence de la structure tridimensionelle d’un génome. Basée sur des probabilités bayesienne, notre méthode inverse le flux logique d’analyse de ces données. A partir des données 3D nous pouvons détecter et corriger les erreurs d’assemblages. Après avoir décrit le cadre mathématiques de la méthode, nous décrirons les résultats préliminaires obtenus sur des données simulées ainsi que des données expérimentales. En particulier nous montrerons une application concluante de la méthode sur le génome, encore non assemblé de trichoderma reesei, un champignon utilisé dans l’industrie énergÉtique<br>Computational methods are needed to assemble entire genomes from large numbers of short DNA strands. However, standard algorithms that piece together DNA strands with overlapping sequences face important limitations due, for example, to regions of repeated sequences, thus leaving many genome assemblies incomplete. We set out to develop a new methodology for genome assembly that promises to address some of these limitations. The method is based on Hi-C, a recent biochemical technique initially developed to analyse the 3D architecture of genomes. In standard Hi-C studies, a previously assembled genome is used to identify chimeric sequences among the ligation products, and map them to pairs of chromosomal loci, thereby yielding a genome-wide matrix of contact frequencies. Our method essentially reverses this approach: Hi-C data are used to test for the physical continuity of the chromatin fibre as expected from a set of DNA segments (representing either a complete or incomplete chromosomal set). This procedure improves genome assembly and/or identification of structural variants in re-sequenced genomes. Our approach uses a Bayesian framework that assigns probabilities to different assemblies based on the experimental Hi-C data and on laws describing the physical properties of chromosomes. We will explain the methodology and the developed algorithms and provide results of applications to simulated and real Hi-C data from mutant and natural structural variants of yeast and fungi. We also have developed algorithm that allow us to identify functional sequences in genomes from genome wide contact matrices

Dans le secteur de l’élevage porcin, les truies ont été sélectionnées pendant des décennies pour leur prolificité afin de maximiser la production de viande. Cependant, cette sélection a été associée à une mortalité plus élevée des nouveau-nés. Dans ce contexte, le muscle foetal squelettique est essentiel à la survie du porcelet, car il est nécessaire pour les fonctions motrices et la thermorégulation. Par ailleurs, la structure tridimensionnelle du génome s'est avérée jouer un rôle important dans la régulation de l'expression génique. Ainsi, dans ce projet, nous nous sommes intéressés à la conformation 3D du génome et l'expression des gènes dans les noyaux des cellules musculaires porcines à la fin de la gestation. Nous avons initialement développé une approche originale dans laquelle nous avons combiné des données transcriptomiques avec des informations de localisations nucléaires (évaluées par 3D DNA FISH) d'un sous-ensemble de gènes, afin de construire des réseaux de gènes co-exprimés. Cette étude a révélé des associations nucléaires intéressantes impliquant les gènes IGF2, DLK1 et MYH3, et a mis en évidence un réseau de gènes interdépendants spécifiques du muscle impliqués dans le développement et la maturité du muscle foetal. Nous avons ensuite évalué la conformation globale du génome dans les noyaux musculaires à 90 jours et à 110 jours de gestation en utilisant la méthode de capture de conformation de chromatine à haut débit (Hi-C) couplée au séquençage. Cette étude a permis d'identifier des milliers de régions génomiques présentant des différences significatives dans la conformation 3D entre les deux âges gestationnels. Fait intéressant, certaines de ces régions génomiques impliquent les régions télomériques de plusieurs chromosomes qui semblent former des clusters préférentiellement à 90 jours. Plus important, les changements observés dans la structure du génome sont associés de manière significative à des variations d'expression géniques entre le 90ème et le 110ème jour de gestation<br>In swine breeding industry, sows have been selected for decades on their prolificacy in order to maximize meat production. However, this selection is associated with a higher mortality of newborns. In this context, the skeletal fetal muscle is essential for the piglet’s survival, as it is necessary for motor functions and thermoregulation. Besides, the three-dimensional structure of the genome has been proven to play an important role in gene expression regulation. Thus, in this project, we have focused our interest on the 3D genome conformation and gene expression in porcine muscle nuclei at late gestation. We have initially developed an original approach in which we combined transcriptome data with information of nuclear locations (assessed by 3D DNA FISH) of a subset of genes, in order to build gene co expression networks. This study has revealed interesting nuclear associations involving IGF2, DLK1 and MYH3 genes, and highlighted a network of muscle specific interrelated genes involved in the development and maturity of fetal muscle. Then, we assessed the global 3D genome conformation in muscle nuclei at 90 days and 110 days of gestation by using the High-throughput Chromosome Conformation Capture (Hi¬ C) method. This study has allowed identifying thousands of genomic regions showing significant differences in 3D conformation between the two gestational ages. Interestingly, some of these genomic regions involve the telomeric regions of several chromosomes that seem to be preferentially clustered at 90 days. More important, the observed changes in genome structure are significantly associated with variations in gene expression between the 90th and the 110th days of gestation

For proteins the link between their structure and their function is a central tenet of biology. A common approach to understanding protein function is to ‘solve’ its structure and subsequently probe interactions between the protein and its binding partners. The first part of this approach is non-trivial for proteins where localised regions or even their entire structure fail to fold into a three-dimensional structure and yet they possess function. These so called intrinsically or inherently disordered proteins (IDP’s) or intrinsically disordered regions (IDR’s) constitute up to 40% of all expressed proteins. IDPs which have crucial roles in molecular recognition, assembly, protein modification and entropic chain activities, are often dynamic with respect to both conformation and interaction, so in the course of a protein’s ‘lifespan’ it will sample many configurations and bind to several targets. For these proteins, there is a need to develop new methods for structure characterization which exploit their biophysical properties. The solvent free environment of a mass spectrometer is ideally suited to the study of intrinsic interactions and how they contribute to structure. Ion mobility mass spectrometry is uniquely able to observe the range of structures an IDP can occupy, and also the effect of selected binding partners on altering this conformational space. This thesis details the technique of ion mobility mass spectrometry and illustrates its use in assessing the relative disorder of p53 protein. The tumour suppressor p53 is at the hub of a plethora of signalling pathways that maintain the integrity of the human genome and regulate the cell cycle. Deregulation of this protein has a great effect on carcinogenesis as mutated p53 can induce an amplified epigenetic instability of tumour cells, facilitating and accelerating the evolution of the tumour. Herein mass spectrometry provides a compelling, detailed insight into the conformational flexibility of the p53 DNA-binding domain. The plasticity of the p53 DNA-binding domain is reflected in the existence of more than one conformation, independent of any conformational changes prompted by binding. The in vacuo conformational phenotypes exhibited by common cancer-associated mutations are determined and the second-site suppressor mutation from loop L1, H115N, is probed whether it could trigger conformational changes in p53 hotspot cancer mutations. The structural basis of the binding promiscuity of p53 protein is investigated; of particular interest is the molecular interaction of the p53 N-terminus with the oncoprotein murine double minute 2, as well as with the antiapoptotic factor B-cell lymphoma-extralarge.

Nei nuclei delle cellule eucarioti, l'informazione genetica codificata nel DNA è concentrata nel microscopico volume nucleare in forma di cromatina, un complesso di DNA e proteine. I meccanismi molecolari che gestiscono la compattazione e il ripiegamento della cromatina e che consentono l'espressione mirata delle porzioni di genoma necessarie alle attività della cellula sono noti come ‘epigenoma’. L’azione dell’epigenoma determina un avvolgimento e un posizionamento nucleare della cromatina specifico per ogni tipo cellulare, con aree dense e trascrizionalmente inattive (eterocromatina) ed aree meno dense, ricche di geni e trascrizionalmente attive (eucromatina). In questo nostro lavoro descriviamo l'organizzazione della cromatina nel nucleo di diverse popolazioni cellulari e ne analizziamo alcuni aspetti fisiologici e patologici. Innanzitutto, studiando le cellule staminali muscolari di topi privi della proteina strutturale nucleare lamina-A/C, descriviamo un irregolare processo di differenziamento dovuto alla redistribuzione dei repressori trascrizionali del gruppo Polycomb (PcG proteins), che dai i loro geni target si diffondono verso regioni cromatiniche fiancheggianti. La conseguente alterazione nell’espressione genica causa l’esaurimento prematuro della riserva di cellule staminali quiescenti e l’accumulo di grasso intramuscolare, portando a una senescenza accelerata e alla distrofia muscolare. D’altro canto, anche il progressivo accumulo di una forma aberrante di lamina-A, la progerina, caratteristica della sindrome di Hutchinson-Gilford (HGPS), causa gravi alterazioni nella struttura della cromatina. In particolare, la progerina interferisce con le strutture eterocromatiniche periferiche associate alla lamina nucleare, i Lamina Associated Domains (LADs). Per il nostro secondo progetto abbiamo sviluppato un nuovo metodo, SAMMY-seq, basato sull’high-throughput sequencing di frazioni di cromatina con diversa solubilità. Tramite questa tecnologia, individuiamo alterazioni nella solubilità dell’eterocromatina in fibroblasti primari derivanti da pazienti progerici in uno stadio precoce di malattia. I cambiamenti strutturali osservati a questo stadio non alterano la deposizione del marcatore eterocromatinico H3K9me3, ma sono associati a variazioni sito-specifiche nella regolazione trascrizionale di geni target delle PcG proteins. Infine, ottimizzando ulteriormente il protocollo di SAMMY-seq, nel nostro terzo progetto mostriamo un’organizzazione non convenzionale della cromatina nei linfociti T CD4+ quiescenti derivanti da sangue periferico di donatori. In queste cellule, l’eterocromatina risulta sensibile alla digestione enzimatica operata dalla DNAsi, mentre l’eucromatina si rivela resistente a diversi processi di estrazione. Un’analisi preliminare del contenuto di questi compartimenti indica la presenza, nell’eucromatina, dei geni specifici per l’attivazione linfocitaria, oltre che dei geni attivi. Ulteriori studi chiariranno il ruolo di questa organizzazione non convenzionale della cromatina nella funzione cellulare linfocitaria.<br>In every eukaryotic cell, the genomic information coded in the DNA is packed into the small nuclear volume as chromatin, a complex of DNA and proteins. The ensemble of molecular mechanisms that organize chromatin compaction and allow the specific expression of the portions of genome useful for cell’s biological functions is known as the epigenome. As a result of epigenome activity, chromatin is folded and positioned in the nucleus in a cell-specific manner, generating areas of highly compacted, repressed, heterochromatin and areas of decondensed, gene-rich and transcriptionally active, euchromatin. In our work, we describe chromatin organization in different cell populations and analyse some of its implications in the physiological functions and pathological dysfunctions of the cell. In the first project, we focus on murine muscle stem cells lacking the nuclear structural protein Lamin A/C. We show their irregular differentiation program, due to a spreading of Polycomb group (PcG) of proteins repressors from their target genes over the flanking regions. The consequent alteration in gene expression cause premature exhaustion of quiescent stem cells and accumulation of intramuscular fat, resulting in accelerated senescence and muscular dystrophy progression. On the other hand, the progressive accumulation of a Lamin A aberrant form, Progerin, in Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS) also leads to chromatin structure disruption. In particular, it interferes with Lamina Associated Domains (LADs), the peripheral heterochromatin structures associated to the nuclear lamina. For our second project, we develop a new method, SAMMY-seq, based on high-throughput sequencing of chromatin fractions of different solubility. Thanks to this technology, we highlight early changes in heterochromatin accessibility in human HGPS primary fibroblasts. This early structural changes do not alter the deposition of the H3K9me3 heterochromatin mark but are associated with site-specific variations in the PcG-dependent transcriptional regulation. Finally, further improving SAMMY-seq technology, in our third project we describe an unconventional genome organization in resting human CD4+ T lymphocytes extracted from the peripheral blood of healthy donors. In these cells, heterochromatin is sensitive to DNAse digestion while euchromatin is resistant to serial processes of extraction. Preliminary analysis of the content of these compartments suggests that euchromatin contains, beside the actively transcribed genes, also inactive genes specific for lymphocyte activation. Further studies will elucidate the role of this unconventional chromatin organization in lymphocytes functions.

Des décennies d'études ont montré que la structure de la chromatine est étroitement liée aux processus métaboliques de l'ADN. Une bonne organisation des chromosomes tout au long du cycle cellulaire est particulièrement importante pour assurer le maintien de l'intégrité de l'ADN. Le but de mon projet de doctorat était de caractériser dans quelle mesure la réorganisation de la chromatine pendant le cycle cellulaire pourrait influencer la stabilité des chromosomes. Pour ce faire, nous avons d'abord effectué une étude complète de la réorganisation des chromosomes de la levure modèle Saccharomyces cerevisiae pendant tout un cycle cellulaire. Ce travail, en plus de récapituler les caractéristiques chromosomiques attendues, a conduit à la caractérisation de structures chromosomiques particulières, telle qu'une boucle d'ADN reliant l'ADNr et les centromères. Le rôle des complexes SMC et des microtubules a été étudié en profondeur. Une deuxième partie de mon travail a porté sur la description de l'organisation de la chromatine de cellules qui ont quitté le cycle cellulaire prolifératif et sont entrées en quiescence. Nous avons ainsi caractérisé le statut dense de l'hétérochromatine silencieuse dans des loci spécifiques tels que les télomères. Enfin, nous avons essayé de mieux comprendre l'interaction fonctionnelle entre la stabilité chromosomique et l'architecture 3D du génome durant la réplication en étudiant la stabilité génomique à des sites de pause de réplication. Nos résultats indiquent une adaptabilité frappante des structures de réplication sous différentes contraintes. Le travail futur vise à cartographier les réarrangements chromosomiques dépendants de la réplication<br>Decades of studies showed that chromatin structure is tightly linked to DNA related metabolic processes, through the dynamic regulation of a myriad of molecular factors. The proper organization of chromosomes is notably important to ensure the maintenance of DNA integrity during cell cycle progression. Using the model S. cerevisiae, the aim of my PhD project was to characterize to which extent chromatin reorganization during the cell cycle may influence chromosome stability. To do so, we first generated a comprehensive genome-wide study of the reorganization of yeast’s chromosomes during an entire cell cycle. This work, besides recapitulating expected chromosomal features of the replication and mitotic stages, led to the characterization of peculiar chromosome structures such as a DNA loop bridging the rDNA and the centromeres. The role of structural maintenance of chromosomes (SMC) complexes and of microtubules were thoroughly investigated. A second part of my work focused on describing features of the chromatin organization of cells that exited the proliferative cell cycle and entered into quiescence. We characterized the dense status of silenced heterochromatin at specific loci, such as telomeres, in relation to the silent information regulators (SIRs). Finally, we tried to achieve a better understanding of the functional interplay between chromosome stability and the 3D genome architecture during replication, by investigating the genomic stability at replication pausing sites. Overall, our results point at a striking plasticity of replication structures to different stresses. Future work aims to map replication-dependent chromosomal rearrangements on the genomic maps

Over the last decade, development and application of a set of molecular genomic approaches based on the chromosome conformation capture method (3C), combined with increasingly powerful imaging approaches have enabled high resolution and genome-wide analysis of the spatial organization of chromosomes. The aim of this thesis is two-fold; 1), to provide guidelines for analyzing and interpreting data obtained from genome-wide 3C methods such as Hi-C and 3C-seq and 2), to leverage the 3C technology to solve genome function, structure, assembly, development and dosage problems across a broad range of organisms and disease models. First, through the introduction of cWorld, a toolkit for manipulating genome structure data, I accelerate the pace at which *C experiments can be performed, analyzed and biological insights inferred. Next I discuss a set of practical guidelines one should consider while planning an experiment to study the structure of the genome, a simple workflow for data processing unique to *C data and a set of considerations one should be aware of while attempting to gain insights from the data. Next, I apply these guidelines and leverage the cWorld toolkit in the context of two dosage compensation systems. The first is a worm condensin mutant which shows a reduction in dosage compensation in the hermaphrodite X chromosomes. The second is an allele-specific study consisting of genome wide Hi-C, RNA-Seq and ATAC-Seq which can measure the state of the active (Xa) and inactive (Xi) X chromosome. Finally I turn to studying specific gene – enhancer looping interactions across a panel of ENCODE cell-lines. These studies, when taken together, further our understanding of how genome structure relates to genome function.

The transcription in the eukaryotic cells involves epigenetic regulatory mechanisms that control local and higher-order chromatin remodelling. In the skin, keratinocyte-specific genes are organized into distinct loci including Epidermal Differentiation Complex (EDC) and Keratin type I/II loci. This thesis introduces bioinformatics approaches to analyze multi-level regulatory mechanisms that control skin development and keratinocyte-specific differentiation. Firstly, integration of gene expression data with analyses of linear genome organization showed dramatic downregulation of the genes that comprise large genomic domains in the sweat glands including EDC locus, compared to ii hair follicles, suggesting substantial differences in global genome rearrangement during development of these two distinct skin appendages. Secondly, comparative analysis of the genetic programmes regulated in keratinocytes by Lhx2 transcription factor and chromatin remodeler Satb1 revealed that significant number of their target genes is clustered in the genome. Furthermore, it was shown in this study that Satb1 target genes are lineage-specific. Thirdly, analysis of the topological interactomes of Loricrin and Keratin 5 in hair follicle steam cells revealed presence of the cis- and trans-interactions and lineage specific genes (Wnt, TGF-beta/activin, Notch, etc.). Expression levels of the genes that comprise interactomes show correlation with their histone modification status. This study demonstrates the crucial role for integration of transcription factormediated and epigenetic regulatory mechanisms in establishing a proper balance of gene expression in keratinocytes during development and differentiation into distinct cell lineages and provides an integrated bioinformatics platform for further analyses of the changes in global organization of keratinocyte-specific genomic loci in normal and diseased skin.

L'organisation de la chromatine a une importance fonctionnelle pour contrôler le programme d'expression des gènes. Par contre, les liens qui l'unissent au déroulement de la réplication de l'ADN sont beaucoup moins connus. Grâce à des approches basées sur la capture d'interactions chromosomiques et sur l'imagerie cellulaire, nous avons étudié les liens entre le repliement à grande échelle de la chromatine et le timing de réplication. Cette analyse, effectuée dans des cellules humaines lymphoblastoïdes, des cellules mononucléées du sang (PBMC) et des cellules issues d'une leucémie myéloïde à caractère érythrocytaire, a permis l'identification de domaines structuraux du noyau. Ces domaines sont relativement isolés les uns des autres et leurs frontières coïncident avec les zones d'initiation précoce. De plus, notre étude montre que ces zones d'initiation précoce interagissent préférentiellement, aussi bien entre voisins immédiats (séparation génomique de l'ordre de la mégabase) que le long du chromosome entier. Les loci répliqués tardivement interagissent eux-aussi avec leurs homologues, conduisant, dans l'espace nucléaire, à une ségrégation des loci en fonction de leur timing de réplication. Ces résultats sont soutenus par des mesures de distances sur des hybridations in-situ qui montrent que les loci répliqués en début de phase S sont plus proches qu'attendus. Nos travaux révèlent enfin que l'organisation de la chromatine est similaire dans des cellules en phase G0 (PBMC dormantes), démontrant qu'elle n'est pas spécifique des cellules en phase S. Pris ensemble, ces résultats apportent des preuves directes d'une organisation robuste de la chromatine, partagée par les cellules en cycle et dormantes, et corrélée au timing de réplication à différentes échelles.

The three dimensional structure of the human genome is known to play a critical role in gene function and expression. I used chromosome conformation capture (3C) and 3C-carbon copy (5C) techniques to investigate the three-dimensional structure of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) locus. This is an important disease gene that, when mutated, causes cystic fibrosis. 3C experiments identified four distinct looping elements that contact the CFTR gene promoter only in CFTR-expressing cells. Using 5C, I expanded the region of study to a 2.8 Mb region surrounding the CFTR gene. The 5C study shows 7 clear topologically associating domains (TADs) present at the locus, identical in all five cell lines tested, regardless of gene expression status. CFTR and all its known regulatory elements are contained within one TAD, suggesting TADs play a role in constraining promoters to a local search space. The four looping elements identified in the 3C experiment and confirmed in the 5C experiment were then tested for enhancer activity using a luciferase assay, which showed that elements III and IV could act as enhancers. These elements were tested against a library of human transcription factors in a yeast one-hybrid assay to identify potential binding proteins. Element III gave two strong candidates, TCF4 and LEF1. A literature search supported these transcription factors as playing a role in CFTR gene expression. Overall, this work represents a model locus that can be used to test important questions regarding the role of three dimensional looping on gene expression.

Synthese d'une copie complete d'adn complementaire qui est ensuite clone dans un vecteur d'expression pgemi. La comparaison de la sequence des cdna avec celle de l'arn 3 met en evidence une duplication dans la region 5' non codante, d'une sequence de 56 nucleotides qui constitue la difference majeure entre ces 2 sequences. La structure primaire de la region 5' non codante a ete examinee dans l'arn 3 de 3 souches du virus. Cette etude est completee par une analyse conformationnelle, en utilisant des sondes chimiques (dms) et enzymatique (v1 et s1)

The three dimensional structure of the human genome is known to play a critical role in gene function and expression. I used chromosome conformation capture (3C) and 3C-carbon copy (5C) techniques to investigate the three-dimensional structure of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) locus. This is an important disease gene that, when mutated, causes cystic fibrosis. 3C experiments identified four distinct looping elements that contact the CFTR gene promoter only in CFTR-expressing cells. Using 5C, I expanded the region of study to a 2.8 Mb region surrounding the CFTR gene. The 5C study shows 7 clear topologically associating domains (TADs) present at the locus, identical in all five cell lines tested, regardless of gene expression status. CFTR and all its known regulatory elements are contained within one TAD, suggesting TADs play a role in constraining promoters to a local search space. The four looping elements identified in the 3C experiment and confirmed in the 5C experiment were then tested for enhancer activity using a luciferase assay, which showed that elements III and IV could act as enhancers. These elements were tested against a library of human transcription factors in a yeast one-hybrid assay to identify potential binding proteins. Element III gave two strong candidates, TCF4 and LEF1. A literature search supported these transcription factors as playing a role in CFTR gene expression. Overall, this work represents a model locus that can be used to test important questions regarding the role of three dimensional looping on gene expression.

The intimate relationship between the higher-order chromatin organisation and the regulation of gene expression is increasingly attracting attention in the scientific community. Thanks to high-resolution microscopy, genome-wide molecular biology tools (3C, ChIP-on-chip), and bioinformatics, detailed structures of chromatin loops, territories, and nuclear domains are gradually emerging. However, to fully reveal a comprehensive map of nuclear organisation, some fundamental questions remain to be answered in order to fit all the pieces of the jigsaw together. The underlying mechanisms, precisely organising the interaction of the different parts of chromatin need to be understood. Previous work in our lab hypothesised and verified the “transcription factory” model for the organisation of mammalian genomes. It is widely assumed that active polymerases track along their templates as they make RNA. However, after allowing engaged polymerases to extend their transcripts in tagged precursors (e.g., Br-U or Br-UTP), and immunolabelling the now-tagged nascent RNA, active transcription units are found to be clustered in nuclei, in small and numerous sites we call “transcription factories”. Previous work suggested the transcription machinery acts both as an enzyme as well as a molecular tie that maintains chromatin loops, and the different classes of polymerases are concentrated in their own dedicated factories. This thesis aims to further characterise transcription factories. Different genes are transcribed by different classes of RNA polymerase (i.e., I, II, or III), and the resulting transcripts are processed differently (e.g., some are capped, others spliced). Do factories specialise in transcribing particular subsets of genes? This thesis developed a method using replicating minichromosomes as probes to examine whether transcription occurs in factories, and whether factories specialise in transcribing particular sets of genes. Plasmids encoding the SV40 origin of replication are transfected into COS-7 cells, where they are assembled into minichromosomes. Using RNA fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH), sites where minichromosomes are transcribed are visualised as discrete foci, which specialise in transcribing different groups of genes. Polymerases I, II, and III units have their own dedicated factories, and different polymerase II promoters and the presence of an intron determine the nuclear location of transcription. Using chromosome conformation capture (3C), minichromosomes with similar promoters are found in close proximity. They are also found close to similar endogenous promoters and so are likely to share factories with them. In the second part of this thesis, I used RNA FISH to confirm results obtained by tiling microarrays. Addition of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) to human umbilical vein endothelial cells induces an inflammatory response and the transcription of a selected sub-set of genes. My collaborators used tiling arrays to demonstrate a wave of transcription that swept along selected long genes on stimulation. RNA FISH confirmed these results, and that long introns are co-transcriptionally spliced. Results are consistent with one polymerase being engaged on an allele at any time, and with a major checkpoint that regulates polymerase escape from the first few thousand nucleotides into the long gene.

The genetic information encoded by the DNA sequence, can be expressed in different ways. Genomic imprinting is an epigenetic phenomenon that results in monoallelic expression of imprinted genes in a parent of origin-dependent manner. Imprinted genes are frequently found in clusters and can share common regulatory elements. Most of the imprinted genes are regulated by Imprinting Control Regions (ICRs). H19/Igf2 region is a well known imprinted cluster, which is regulated by insulator function of ICR located upstream of the H19 gene. It has been proposed that the epigenetic control of the insulator function of H19 ICR involves organization of higher order chromatin interactions. In this study we have investigated the role of post-translational modification in regulating insulator protein CTCF (CCCTC-binding factor). The results indicated novel links between poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation and CTCF, which are essential for regulating insulators function. We also studied the higher order chromatin conformation of Igf2/H19 region. The results indicated there are different chromatin structures on the parental alleles. We identified CTCF-dependent loop on the maternal allele which is different from the paternal chromatin and is essential for proper imprinting of Igf2 and H19 genes. The interaction of H19 ICR with Differentially Methylated Regions (DMRs) of Igf2 in a parent-specific manner maintains differential epigenetic marks on maternal and paternal alleles. The results indicate that CTCF occupies specific sites on highly condensed mitotic chromosomes. CTCF-dependent long-range key interaction on the maternal allele is maintained during mitosis, suggesting the possible epigenetic memory of dividing cells. In this study, we developed a new method called Circular Chromosome Conformation Capture (4C) to screen genome-wide interactions with H19 ICR. The results indicated there are wide intra- and inter-chromosomal interactions which are mostly dependent on CTCF-binding site at H19 ICR. These observations suggest new aspects of epigenetic regulation of the H19/Igf2 imprinted region and higher order chromatin structure.

Thesis (M.S.)--Kent State University, 2010.<br>Title from PDF t.p. (viewed Apr. 28, 2010). Advisor: Helen Piontkivska. Keywords: Conformational Epitopes; Linear Epitopes; HIV; Selective Forces; synonymous changes; nonsynonymous changes; Radical changes; Conservative changes. Includes bibliographical references (p. 81-96).

The 23 pairs of chromosomes comprising the human genome are intricately folded within the nucleus of each cell in a manner that promotes efficient gene regulation and cell function. Consequently, active gene rich regions are compartmentally segregated from inactive gene poor regions of the genome. To better understand the mechanisms driving compartmentalization we investigated what would occur if this system was disrupted. By digesting the genome to varying sizes and analyzing the fragmented 3D structure over time, our work revealed essential laws governing nuclear compartmentalization. At a finer resolution within compartments, chromatin forms loop structures capable of regulating gene expression. Genome wide association studies have identified numerous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with the neuropsychiatric disease schizophrenia. When these SNPs are not located within a gene it is difficult to gain insight into disease pathology; however, in some cases chromatin loops may link these noncoding schizophrenia risk variants to their pathological gene targets. By generating 3D genome maps, we identified and analyzed loops of glial cells, neural progenitor cells, and neurons thereby expanding the set of genes conferring schizophrenia risk. The binding of T-cell receptors (TCRs) to foreign peptides on the surface of diseased cells triggers an immune response against the foreign invader. Utilizing available structural information of the TCR antigen interface, we developed computational methods for successful prediction of TCR-antigen binding. As this binding is a prerequisite for immune response, such improvements in binding prediction could lead to important advancements in the fields of autoimmunity and TCR design for cancer therapeutics.

Epigenetic states constitute heritable features of the chromatin to regulate when, where and how genes are expressed in the developing conceptus. A special case of epigenetic regulation, genomic imprinting, is defined as parent of origin-dependent monoallelic expression. The Igf2-H19 locus is considered as paradigm of genomic imprinting with a growth-promoting gene, Igf2, expressed paternally and a growth antagonist, H19 encoding a non-coding transcript, expressed only from the maternal allele. The monoallelic expression patterns are regulated by the epigenetic status at an imprinting control region (ICR) in the 5´-flank of the H19 gene. The chromatin insulator protein CTCF interacts with only the maternal H19 ICR allele to prevent downstream enhancers to communicate with the Igf2 promoters. Mutations of these CTCF binding sites lead to biallelic Igf2 expression, increased size of the conceptus and predisposition for cancer. Reasoning that these effects cannot be explained by the regulation of Igf2 expression alone, a technique was invented to examine long-range chromatin interactions without prior knowledge of the interacting partners. Applying the circular chromosomal conformation capture (4C) technique to mouse neonatal liver cells, it was observed that 114 unique sequences interacted with the H19 ICR. A majority of these interactors was in complex with only the maternal H19 ICR allele and depended on the presence of functional CTCF binding sites. The functional consequence of chromosomal networks was demonstrated by the observation that the maternal H19 ICR allele regulated the transcription of two genes on another chromosome. As the chromosomal networks underwent reprogramming during the maturation of embryonic stem cells, attention was turned to human cancer cells, displaying features common with mouse embryonic stem cells. Subsequently, chromatin folding at the human H19 ICR suggested that stable chromatin loops were organized by synergistic interactions within and between baits and interactors. The presence of these interactions was linked to DNA methylation patterns involving repeat elements. A "flower" model of chromatin networks was formulated to explain these observations. This thesis has unravealed a novel feature of the epigenome and its functions to regulate gene expression in trans. The identified roles for CTCF as an architectural factor in the organization of higher order chromatin conformations may be of importance in understanding development and disease ontogeny from novel perspectives.

Normal DNA replication is blocked by DNA damage in the template strand. Translesion synthesis is a major pathway for overcoming these replication blocks. In this process, multiple non-classical DNA polymerases form a complex at the stalled replication fork called the mutasome. This complex is structurally organized by the replication accessory factor PCNA and the non-classical DNA polymerase Rev1. One of the non-classical DNA polymerases within the mutasome then catalyzes replication through the damage. Each non-classical DNA polymerase has one or more cognate lesions, which the enzyme bypasses with high accuracy and efficiency. Thus, the accuracy and efficiency of translesion synthesis depends on which non-classical DNA polymerase within the mutasome is chosen to bypass the damage. In this thesis, I discuss how the most appropriate polymerase is chosen. In so doing, I examine the components of the mutasome; the structural motifs that mediate the protein interactions in the mutasome; the methods used to study translesion synthesis; the definition of a cognate lesion; the intrinsically disordered regions that tether the polymerases to PCNA and to one another; the multiple architectures that the mutasome can adopt, such as PCNA tool belts and Rev1 bridges; and the kinetic selection model in which the most appropriate polymerase is chosen via a competition among the multiple polymerases within the mutasome. Taken together, this thesis provides and inclusive review of the current state of what is known about translesion synthesis with conclusions at its end suggesting what major questions remain and ideas of how to answer them.

Malgré les vastes études démontrant le rôle de la conformation génomique dans le contrôle transcriptionnel, de nombreuses questions restent en suspens, et en particulier, comment ces structures chromatiniennes sont formées et maintenues. Pour mieux comprendre les liens entre l’état de la chromatine au niveau des éléments régulateurs, la topologie de la chromatine et la régulation de la transcription, nous utilisons la technique CHi-C basée sur la technologie de capture de la conformation chromosomique (3C). En utilisant deux stratégies de capture ciblant deux différentes structure chromatiniennes (les boucles chromatiniennes et les domaines topologiques), nous avons pu décrypter la structure chromatinienne associée à la différenciation des thymocytes et mettre en évidence des mécanismes de contrôle transcriptionnel de certains gènes. Les expériences futures de l’équipe vont consister à examiner les facteurs (hors transcription) qui peuvent influencer l'architecture de la chromatine, comme la liaison différentielle des CTCF, et comment ces facteurs peuvent être coordonnés par le contrôle de transcription<br>Chromosome folding takes place at different hierarchical levels, with various topologies correlated with control of gene expression. Despite the large number of recent studies describing chromatin topologies and their correlations with gene activity, many questions remain, in particular how these topologies are formed and maintained. To understand better the link between epigenetic marks, chromatin topology and transcriptional control, we use CHi-C technique based on the chromosome conformation capture (3C) method. By using two capture strategies targeting two different chromatin structures (chromatin loops and topological domains), we have been able to decipher the chromatin structure associated with thymocyte differentiation and to highlight mechanisms for the transcriptional control of certain genes. Future experiments of the lab will examine mechanisms other than transcription which may influence chromatin architecture, such as differential binding of CTCF, and how these may interplay with transcriptional control and chromatin architecture

Au cours des dernières années, de nouvelles évidences semblent indiquer que, tout autant que sa séquence, l’organisation d’un génome dans l’espace et le temps est importante pour comprendre la fonction de celui-ci. Une des avancées fonda- mentales sur le sujet a été de présenter à l’échelle du génome la carte des inter- actions ADN-ADN. Ces interactions sont essentiellement de 2 types, soit entre chromosomes ou entre régions du même chromosome. Par la suite, la modélisa- tion a permis de visualiser et appréhender la structure tridimensionnelle (3D) du génome à partir des données 3C, ou d’une modélisation purement théorique. Une question importante et centrale demeure, soit de résoudre les mécanismes res- ponsables de l’organisation spatiale et fonctionnelle du génome. Notamment, une question est de savoir comment des processus nucléaires tels que la transcription affectent la structure du génome. Cependant, l’idée selon laquelle les données de types 3C capturent cette information dans la levure est remise en question par le fait que les modèles théoriques du génome récapitulent les caractéristiques mar- quantes soulignées par 3C. Pour répondre à cette question, nous avons conçu une approche qui, pour évaluer l’importance d’une interaction, se base sur la distri- bution d’interactions entre les 2 régions d’ADN mises en contacts. Nos résultats supportent l’hypothèse selon laquelle les éléments fonctionnels et propres aux données expérimentales de la structure 3D du génome se forment d’une manière spécifique à l’échelle de l’interaction et au type d’interactions. Par ailleurs, nos résultats indiquent qu’un grand nombre de facteurs de transcription induisent la proximité spatiale des gènes dont ils régulent l’expression.<br>Over the last decade, accumulating empirical evidence suggest that, as much as its sequence, a genome spatiotemporal organization is essential to understand it’s biological function. One of the major breakthroughs has been chromosome conformation capture (3C) experiments presenting DNA-DNA contact for whole genomes at unprecedented resolution (5-10kb). Along with genome-wide maps of DNA contacts came genome 3D modelling from experimental 3C data, and even from purely theoretical and biophysical basis. However, the mechanisms underlying the regulation of the genome spatial functional organization are still not well understood. Among other questions, how the regulation and event of nuclear processes such as transcription modulate genome structure or how genome structure affect these in turn is still not fully resolved. Moreover, computational models of S.cerevisae genome have recapitulated the hallmarks at larger scale of its 3D features. In order to contrast genome structural features arising from the event of biochemical and molecular activity, we have develop a method assessing the significance of structural features. The underlying principle is to consider for a given interaction, the two DNA regions put in contact and the distribution of existing interactions between these before assigning significance to the selected interaction. Using this method, we demonstrate that structural features resulting from potential biochemically active processes occur at precise scale on the genome. Our results also highlight that exact nature of the interaction (between vs across chromosomes) is crucial to such events. Finally, we have also found that a large portion of transcription factors have their targeted genes in spatial proximity.

abstract: Proteins are essential for most biological processes that constitute life. The function of a protein is encoded within its 3D folded structure, which is determined by its sequence of amino acids. A variation of a single nucleotide in the DNA during transcription (nSNV) can alter the amino acid sequence (i.e., a mutation in the protein sequence), which can adversely impact protein function and sometimes cause disease. These mutations are the most prevalent form of variations in humans, and each individual genome harbors tens of thousands of nSNVs that can be benign (neutral) or lead to disease. The primary way to assess the impact of nSNVs on function is through evolutionary approaches based on positional amino acid conservation. These approaches are largely inadequate in the regime where positions evolve at a fast rate. We developed a method called dynamic flexibility index (DFI) that measures site-specific conformational dynamics of a protein, which is paramount in exploring mechanisms of the impact of nSNVs on function. In this thesis, we demonstrate that DFI can distinguish the disease-associated and neutral nSNVs, particularly for fast evolving positions where evolutionary approaches lack predictive power. We also describe an additional dynamics-based metric, dynamic coupling index (DCI), which measures the dynamic allosteric residue coupling of distal sites on the protein with the functionally critical (i.e., active) sites. Through DCI, we analyzed 200 disease mutations of a specific enzyme called GCase, and a proteome-wide analysis of 75 human enzymes containing 323 neutral and 362 disease mutations. In both cases we observed that sites with high dynamic allosteric residue coupling with the functional sites (i.e., DARC spots) have an increased susceptibility to harboring disease nSNVs. Overall, our comprehensive proteome-wide analysis suggests that incorporating these novel position-specific conformational dynamics based metrics into genomics can complement current approaches to increase the accuracy of diagnosing disease nSNVs. Furthermore, they provide mechanistic insights about disease development. Lastly, we introduce a new, purely sequence-based model that can estimate the dynamics profile of a protein by only utilizing coevolution information, eliminating the requirement of the 3D structure for determining dynamics.<br>Dissertation/Thesis<br>Doctoral Dissertation Physics 2016

Bordetella pertussis is a strictly human pathogen and causative agent of infectious respiratory disease called whooping cough. In order to establish successful infection and colonization of the host, B. pertussis uses a broad spectrum of virulence factors such as adhesins (filamentous hemagglutinin, pertactin, and fimbriae) and toxins (adenylate cyclase and pertussis toxins). In addition, the type 3 secretion system (T3SS) was also found in the genus Bordetella. In connection to our previous characterisation of B. pertussis strain lacking the gene encoding RNA chaperone Hfq (Δhfq), which proved that Hfq is required for T3SS functionality, the recombinant T3SS proteins BopB, BopD, BopC and BopN were purified to homogeneity. Next, the specific antibodies were obtained using purified recombinant proteins in order to study the production of the T3SS components in B. pertussis. Using refined anti- BopC antibodies it was for the first time shown that laboratory-adapted B. pertussis strain secretes BopC protein into medium. The recombinant translocators BopB and BopD were also used to examine their pore-forming activity using planar black lipid membranes. Based on the characterisation of hfq deletion mutant, having impaired production of membrane proteins when compared to the wild type, mass spectrometry...