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Journal articles on the topic 'Geopolitics'
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1
Prasetya, Dion Maulana. "Geopolitik Bantuan Luar Negeri Dari Perang Dingin sampai Globalisasi." JURNAL SOSIAL POLITIK 2, no. 1 (September 13, 2017): 16. http://dx.doi.org/10.22219/sospol.v2i1.4753.
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AbstrakGeopolitik bantuan luar negeri menyiratkan adanya hubungan tak terpisahkan antara geopolitik dan bantuan luar negeri. Dengan kata lain, preferensi pemberian bantuan luar negeri sangat dipengaruhi oleh faktor-faktor geopolitik. Artikel ini berusaha memaparkan kaitan antara geopolitik dan bantuan luar negeri. Lebih khusus tulisan ini membahas preferensi bantuan luar negeri Amerika Serikat (AS) yang sangat dipengaruhi oleh faktor geopolitik. Tulisan ini terbagi menjadi tiga bagian. Bagian pertama membahas hubungan antara Marshall Plan dengan geopolitik. Bagian kedua dari tulisan ini membahas tentang konflik internal Yunani yang menjadi faktor penentu lahirnya Marshall Plan. Sedangkan bagian ketiga membahas mengenai upaya AS dalam memerangi terorisme melalui bantuan luar negeri. Dari hasil studi terlihat bahwa terjadi perubahan preferensi pemberian bantuan luar negeri berdasarkan faktor-faktor geopolitik.Kata kunci: bantuan luar negeri, geopolitik, Marshall Plan, terorisme AbstractGeopolitics of foreign aids shows a relation of geopolitic can not be separated with foreign aids. In other words, foreign aids preference will be influenced by geopolitics factors. This article tries to explain the correlation between geopolitics and foreign aids. To be more specific, this article talks about the United States foreign aids preference that is influenced by geopolitics factors. This article is divided into three parts. The first part discusses the correlation between Marshall Plan and geopolitics. The second part examines the Greek civil war that became the decisive factor of the Marshall Plan. Whereas the third part discusses about the US efforts on war against terrorism through foreign aids. The study shows that there is a change on the foreign aids preference that is influenced by geopolitics factors.Keywords: foreign aids, geopolitics, Marshall Plan, terrorism
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Pototskaya, Tatyana I., and Anna V. Silnichaya. "Modern geopolitical research in Russia." Baltic Region 11, no. 2 (2019): 112–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.5922/2079-8555-2019-2-7.
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In this article, we present the results of our study into the contribution of geography to modern geopolitics in Russia. We stress the interdisciplinary nature of geopolitical studies and identify ensuing problems. Using content analysis of the eLIBRARY bibliography database and Elsevier’s abstract and citation database Scopus, we conclude that geography has considerably affected the development of modern geopolitics in Russia. The contribution of geographers is rather modest considering the number of PhD theses and research publications. However, it becomes more visible when textbooks only are taken into account. Geographical studies are an indispensable part of geopolitical research, which we identified using the object-subject criteria reflecting the effect that properties of territories have on the policies of states located within them. This relates to marine geopolitics, ethnic geopolitics, geoeconomics, ecopolitics, political geoconflict studies, and mediageopolitics. We consider geopolitics and ethnic geopolitics to be priority areas of geographical and geopolitical studies. Geography plays a major role in the comprehensive geopolitical studies into territories of different size. Geopolitics of post-Soviet space, geopolitics of Russia, domestic geopolitics, and critical geopolitics examine the combined effect of the properties of territories on the policies of states implemented in them. We stress that most geographical and geopolitical works focus on analysing the geopolitical location of territories, the geopolitical interests of states, and the identification of mechanisms behind the geopolitical vision of the population.
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Dnistryanskyy, Myroslav. "Conceptual and methodological problems of geopolitics as scientific discipline." Visnyk of the Lviv University. Series Geography, no. 47 (November 27, 2014): 115–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.30970/vgg.2014.47.875.
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Critical analysis of concepts and terminology of geopolitics was made. Paradigm of scientific analysis of global geopolitical processes was proved. The basic modern global political trends were represented. A regularity formation and change of civilizations-cultures were grounded. Significant relationships and dependencies in the geopolitical system in the world were defined. The regular character of the convergence of the territorial organization of political and ethnic areas of the modern world was exposed. Incorrect methodological approaches to the analysis of the geopolitical situation in Ukraine were allocated. Key words: geopolitics, objective geopolitical analysis, methodology of geopolitics, conceptual foundations of geopolitics, geopolitical trends.
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Fard, Rebin. "Towards a New Concept of Constructivist Geopolitics: Bridging Classical and Critical Geopolitics." Central European Journal of International and Security Studies 15, no. 1 (March 31, 2021): 26–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.51870/cejiss.a150102.
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This essay deals with the question to what extent perspectives of classical and critical geopolitical thought are suitable for analysing geopolitical structures of world politics. The following article discusses the potential that opens up a constructivist perspective for the conceptualisation of space and spatiality in geopolitics. This article is about links between geopolitics and international relations for a theoretical rebuilding of geopolitics. It focuses on the constructivist geopolitics and thus questions of power, space, politics and new political spaces; however, not only in a global and national context but also on a local and regional scale. According to the basic premises of constructivist geopolitics, geopolitical constructions and conceptions of space can be asserted as subjective and objective categories. From this perspective, it also shows that the geopolitical world order can be understood not only objectively but also subjectively in reciprocal interaction. These discussions are seen as an interrelated contribution to combine two different paradigms and to promote the synergy of scientific expertise to understand world politics and for the management of temporary global problems. Constructivist geopolitics attempts to conceptually rethink classical geopolitics and critical geopolitics together in a new way to enrich the subject of geopolitics as a possible approach.
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Paci, Deborah. "The Renaissance of Imperial Geopolitics." Cadernos do Tempo Presente 12, no. 01 (May 21, 2021): 03–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.33662/ctp.v12i01.15713.
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Recebido: 12/02/2021
Aprovado: 29/04/2021
My article aims at focusing on the fascist rhetoric over two territories, Malta and Corsica, the object of the irredentist goals of the fascist government during the twenties. Firstly, I will trace a general outline of the fascist geopolitical vision for the Mediterranean with reference to the Mussolinian policies towards France and Great Britain. Following this, I will examine the imperialist rhetoric promulgated through the magazine “Geopolitica” and the touring guides of Touring Club Italiano.
Keywords: Fascism, Italy, Malta, Corsica, geopolitics
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Henneton, Lauric. "Spiritual Geopolitics." Journal of Early American History 4, no. 3 (November 22, 2014): 212–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18770703-00403001.
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This article is an attempt at reconceptualizing “Anglo-French relations” in seventeenth-century northeastern America by testing the concept of “spiritual geopolitics” (and its limits) in the case of the Anglo-French “interface” in northeastern America. Spiritual geopolitics is defined as the impact of confessional identities on geopolitical thinking and actions. Building on a binary religio-diplomatic context of the 16th and early 17th-century, the article first makes the case for Puritan spiritual geopolitics, consisting in a revision of familiar events through a new geopolitical lens. It then moves on to French anti-Protestant geopolitical thinking applied to North America, in particular in the second half of the century. While the first two sections argue that documentary evidence confirm “spiritual geopolitics” as a legitimate lens, the third section puts forward instances of religious border-crossing that plead in favor of a more nuanced, multilayered, concept of spiritual geopolitics in the period before the beginning of “Imperial Wars”.
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Brudnicka, Jowita. "Geopolitical position of Poland - from time of partitions to the independence." Securitologia 23, no. 1 (June 30, 2016): 87–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0009.2971.
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To understand contemporary geopolitics, especially Polish geopolitics you have to refer to the history. Polish geopolitical philosophy has flourished in a crucial period in the history of the country - the To understand contemporary geopolitics, especially Polish geopolitics you have to refer to the history. Polish geopolitical philosophy has flourished in a crucial period in the history of the country - the time of the fall of the First Republic and partitions. Sketch of Polish geopolitics is well composed into the broader plan of European thought. This is not just a simpple analitycal exercise. Article contains the suggestion, that the events, experiences and geopolitical configurations may exhibit amazing repeatability.
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Toal, Gerard. "Geopolitical discourses: A new geopolitics series." Geopolitics 5, no. 1 (June 2000): 125–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14650040008407670.
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Dnistryanskyy, Myroslav. "Foreign geopolitics of great powers: comparative analysis of interests, vectors and concrete results." Visnyk of the Lviv University. Series Geography, no. 42 (October 15, 2013): 112–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.30970/vgg.2013.42.1776.
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Comparative analysis of objectives and basic directions of geopolitics of the United States, Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia and China are made. A place of Ukraine in geopolitics of great powers is appointed. Contradictions of realization of geopolitical interests by great powers in context of global security and sustainable development are shown. Key words: geopolitics, geopolitical analysis, great powers, foreign policy, geopolitical interests.
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Fartyshev, A. N. "QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN RUSSIAN GEOPOLITICAL RESEARCHES." Political Science (RU), no. 4 (2022): 18–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.31249/poln/2022.04.01.
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The issue of the article is to acquaint researchers with new methods of studying geopolitics on a strict quantitative scientifically grounded basis. The relevance of this topic is confirmed by the general growth of interest in geopolitical topics in scientific publications, but for the most part these publications are characterized by speculative argumentation and a superficial vision of geographic space. The review article intends to systematize modern theoretical knowledge about geopolitics, to present domestic methodological developments in this area. In the 1990 s, there was a search for conceptual schemes for a quantitative or qualitative analysis of geopolitical relations and acquaintance with foreign trends in geopolitics and methods of argumentation. Since the 2000 s in the latest methodology of geopolitics, 4 generalized directions are distinguished: geopolitics in geographical interpretation, which considers geopolitical processes through the prism of objective spatial data, and uses the geographic scientific base and theories of domestic economic and theoretical geography in the argument, the second is the geo-economic branch, which is based on the achievements of economic science in the mathematization of scientific knowledge, the third is critical geopolitics, which implies a quantitative and qualitative analysis of political discourse, geopolitical images and ideas about the place of a country (region) in the world, the fourth is geopolitical mathematical modeling. In general, the identified areas are not opposed to each other, but have pronounced accents and their own pool of studies, recognized as «classical», included in the foundation of scientific constructions, and there is also an interpenetration and unification of methods for quantitative analysis of geopolitical studies. The article is addressed in order to consolidate knowledge about geopolitics, to interpenetrate the developed methods in this area and stimulate interdisciplinary approaches.
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Ye, Zinan. "Research on the Development and Dissemination of Film Based on the Geopolitical Perspective." International Journal of Education and Humanities 10, no. 2 (September 3, 2023): 120–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/ijeh.v10i2.11578.
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With the increasing integration of geopolitics in the film field, the development and dissemination of early films are undergoing new changes. This paper explores this transformation from a geopolitical perspective and delves into the multilayered interactions between geopolitics and film. First of all, geopolitics has brought new opportunities for film creation through innovative content and production and dissemination methods to meet the diverse needs of audiences. Then, this paper reveals the impact of geopolitical intervention in film production, distribution, and dissemination and discusses user portraits, market trends, and changes in the industrial chain, including research and development, live marketing, and digitalization. However, geopolitics has also brought cultural challenges, resulting in an imbalance in the film system, resulting in problems such as homogenization and value conflicts. At the same time, transnational operations in geopolitics have also led to algorithmic decision-making errors, cultural grievances, and security risks. Based on this, the paper proposes countermeasures, including improving film quality, strengthening geopolitical regulation, optimizing collaborative governance, and restoring the cultural value of films. Through these strategies, the film industry can achieve sustainable development and effectively respond to the challenges posed by geopolitics.
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Muhammad, Ajie Mahar. "The Digital Turn in Geopolitics: Gojek’s Strategy of Digital Space and Its Geopolitical Implications." JURNAL ILMU SOSIAL 1, no. 1 (June 20, 2020): 40–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/jis.1.1.2020.40-57.
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Digital transformation has revolutionized all aspects of life due to its connectivity cap bility. However, the discipline of contemporary Geopolitics has not discussed it in-depth, and is still pinned towards the modern geopolitics discourse focusing merely on regional geopolitical contestations. This article aims to enrich the intellectual discourse on postmodern geopolitics embracing the digital turn in geopolitics. Focusing on non-state actors, this study scrutinizes Gojek, an Indonesian decacorn startup company, by asking how Gojek’s strategization of their digital spaces results in geopolitical implications. Epistemologically, this article utilizes Foucaultian governmentality and the concept of power-knowledge to understand geopolitical power of Gojek and explain how they construct their information power. This study finds that Gojek constructs their power through building digital spaces which connects the customers with Gojek’s partners. The empire of connectivity which Gojek has established does not merely give them power in the digital realm but also in real politics. There exist some geopolitical implications because of Gojek’s strategizing of digital space such as (i) the emergent information power of digital connectivity; (ii) the use of information-based startup as means of Indonesia’s diplomacy; (iii) the emergent power of the person who designs and leads the construction of digital spaces. Further research with a different sample is required to enrich the discourse on digital turn in geopolitics since this research only scrutinizes a case in one of the developing countries.
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Mizan, Md Mizanur Rahman. "Briefing Idea of Geopolitics." International Journal of Sustainable Applied Sciences 2, no. 1 (January 31, 2024): 53–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.59890/ijsas.v2i1.461.
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Geopolitical diversity holds an undeniable allure, leading to the categorization of publications into four 'schools': neo-classical geopolitics, subversive geopolitics, non-geopolitics, and critical geopolitics, each exploring different dimensions of geopolitical dynamics. These schools distinguish themselves based on their proximity to the studied object (practical/applied or academic/reflective) and their stance toward the state system (focusing on states as principal actors or acknowledging other political actors and interests). Despite their differences, these studies collectively demonstrate a growing interest in geo-economics. Various thinkers, including Mackinder, Spykman, Collins, and Ratzel, have formulated these theories using terms like Heartland, Rimland, inland, outerland, enclave, and exclave. Notably, Bangladesh, as a developing country, is geopolitically strengthening its position in world politics.
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Ćosić, Selma, and Fatima Mahmutović. "The Influence of Popular Geopolitics on the Representation of the Culture of (Non)Violence in Post-Yugoslav Cinematography." Društvene i humanističke studije (Online) 9, no. 2(26) (December 31, 2024): 313–32. https://doi.org/10.51558/2490-3647.2024.9.2.313.
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The paper will focus on the discourses contained in the popular geopolitics of post-Yugoslav cinema with a focus on the representation of the culture of (non)violence. Geopolitical discourses are an integral part of contemporary geopolitics, they were created under the influence of geopolitical traditions and imaginations, they intertwine and form the background of all aspects of geopolitics (Zorko 2014). In order to show the influence and connection between popular geopolitics and nonviolence, we will elaborate key concepts such as: popular geopolitics, geopolitics of emotions, violence, culture of nonviolence, culture of memory, collective memory and trauma, post-war narratives presented through popular geopolitics in the countries of the former Yugoslavia, which will be viewed through post-Yugoslav cinematography. The work will focus on post-war narratives related to the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina that took place in the period from 1992 to 1995, through films that were made in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia from the period of the end of the war until today. Our goal is to present post-war narratives through films and documentaries, showing how much they contributed to the culture of violence or non-violence. The aim of the work is also to show how film can influence the creation of post-war narratives, as a form of geopolitical content or (popular) discourse, and given that popular geopolitics, through all its segments and ways of acting, regardless of whether it is through the media, magazines, films, the Internet, affects the consciousness of certain social and cultural categories of countries, societies, and finally individuals.
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Safi, Bayan Al. "Shiite Geopolitics Contemporary Shiite Geopolitical Theories and Terms." International Journal of Scientific Research and Management 8, no. 08 (August 11, 2020): 01–07. http://dx.doi.org/10.18535/ijsrm/v8i08.ps01.
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Ideological doctrinal theories were developed specifically for Shiite geopolitics as the basis for the implementation of the Iranian expansionist strategy and attempts to make the Iranian sectarian project successful by controlling the countries located in its vital area. In the first decade of the Islamic revolution, Shiite geopolitical theories were based on Iran's outing its geographical borders and turning it into the axis of the Islamic world. Thus, Tehran took a liberty of reaching out to social, cultural and sectarian components in other countries with the aim of building Muslim Shiite regimes under the leadership of Iran.
The paper examines the manifestation of the return of geopolitics in the 21st century, in particular, the Iranian Shiite geopolitics. The expansion of Shiite political Islam, especially after the Iranian role demonstrated the terrorist-armed aspect of sectarianism.
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Balakina, J. V., N. N. Morozova, and N. K. Radina. "Media, culture and popular geopolitics: how imagined spaces and identities are forged." Полис. Политические исследования, no. 6 (November 27, 2024): 40–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.17976/jpps/2024.06.04.
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The article discusses the origins, the state-of-the-art and prospects of the new research field within critical geopolitics - popular geopolitics. The article aims to summarize the basic premises of popular geopolitics and demonstrate its relevance for analyzing, predicting and modeling modern geopolitical processes. Popular geopolitics focuses on geopolitical narratives that are translated through mediated images and objectified through mass culture products. It is precisely through popular culture, in particular through pop culture narratives that cross-cultural communication of the globalization era occurs. As part of this process cultural differences are either perceived as markers of otherness or, on the contrary, enable the consumer/spectator to reconsider the “self-other” boundaries and let the culturally attractive “others” in. As for geopolitical narratives, they introduce a clear demarcation between “self” and “others” by assigning to them opposite developmental trajectories that symbolize progress or backwardness, rise or decline, expansion or isolation. The authors of the article argue that a transmedia approach could make a valuable contribution to popular geopolitics. On the one hand, it enables exploring the totality of meanings forged and transmitted over social and online media through visual and virtual communication channels. In addition, the analysis of transmedia storytelling allows us to investigate in depth the role of content creators and content consumers in the production of narratives as well as investigate different ways in which official geopolitical narratives can be perceived by both domestic and external audiences. It is also argued that employing mixed methodology that combines qualitative and automated quantitative methods of textual and audiovisual data collection and analysis can help realize the interdisciplinarity of popular geopolitics. Thus, the authors come to the conclusion that popular geopolitics as a research field is relevant in terms of updating the research agenda of political science as a whole. As for the practical relevance of popular geopolitics, it lies in the active reconstruction of social reality that enables the representatives of Russian practical geopolitics to forge more effectively the national “imagined world” capable of engaging in a dialogue and resisting transnational narratives.
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Dodds, Klaus-John, and James Derrick Sidaway. "Locating Critical Geopolitics." Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 12, no. 5 (October 1994): 515–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/d120515.
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The authors review and locate the emerging literature of critical geopolitics, They illustrate some of the main lines of development within a rapidly expanding literature. This literature analyses geopolitics as discourse and also deconstructs policy texts to examine the use of geographical reasoning in statecraft. Critical geopolitics also links up with critical work in geopolitical economy and development studies. Areas are identified in which critical geopolitics could engage productively with research and scholarship in related fields.
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Diec, Joachim. "Main Trends in Russian Geopolitics after 1991." Politeja 16, no. 5(62) (December 31, 2019): 141–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.12797/politeja.16.2019.62.08.
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Russian geopolitical thought after the collapse of the USSR can be classified in different ways. However, it always remains under the influence of the same conditions (the trauma of a historical downfall) and proposes clear indications for the foreign policy of the state. The article presents a preliminary view of some directions in Russian geopolitical thought from the point of view of their origin. The study focuses on seven trends: the visions of Great Russia in a multipolar world order, Neo-Eurasianism, the insular theory, military geopolitics, the thought of political geographers, the geopolitics of the Russian World doctrine with its varieties in the form of information geopolitics and cyber- geopolitics, and, last but not least, geoeconomics. A typological study of contemporary Russian geopolitical thought reveals two developmental tendencies: one aiming at radical and ideological concepts and the other proposing a semi-scientific approach.
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Stougaard-Nielsen, Jakob. "Wallander's Dark Geopolitics." Nordicom Review 41, s1 (September 10, 2020): 29–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/nor-2020-0014.
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AbstractA current fault line in the study of crime fiction as a transnational genre is to what extent crime novels offer readers genuine cosmopolitan windows onto other worlds and cultures or whether it simply is bound to reproduce trite imagologies and national stereotypes. The overarching premise for this article is to explore the extent to which Henning Mankell's crime novels and their adaptations engage the character Wallander's own and “other” worlds with a cosmopolitan perspective, by considering the mutations of Wallander's fictional local world as intricately tied to discursive geopolitical realities of the post–Cold War world. More specifically, I consider what may be gained from exploring the Wallander series within two distinct – yet, I shall argue, related – perspectives on geopolitics and crime fiction: on the one hand, the geopolitics of the translation, adaptation, and reception networks that have “worlded” the Wallander series (what I call Wallander's geopolitical adaptation networks), and on the other, the fictional geopolitical networks that weave the Global North and the Global South together in several of Mankell's intricate crime plots (Wallander's dark geopolitics).
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Bhatta, Chandra Dev. "Development for Geopolitics and Geopolitics Through Development Perspectives from Nepal." Journal of Political Science 25 (February 19, 2025): 117–34. https://doi.org/10.3126/jps.v25i1.75777.
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This article examines the connection between development and geopolitics in Nepal. The primary assertion made here is that development cannot be viewed solely through its principles, as commonly perceived, but is also significantly shaped by geopolitical motivations. It investigates the interactions among geopolitics, non-state entities, and foreign aid, offering a systematic qualitative evaluation. It also explores the relationship between development and geopolitics, indicating that development frequently hinges more on geopolitical factors than on the process of development itself. This might clarify why, despite continuous external assistance and internal initiatives, development has not advanced to a stage that can offer economic opportunities for all individuals. Support and initiatives for development from the outside often reflect an external perspective on Nepal's progress. Furthermore, development in Nepal has become highly (geo)politicized and the country struggles to determine which projects to undertake and which to avoid this trend will continue in the coming days as well. It contends that Nepal must take a proactive approach to tackling existing geopolitical issues while furthering its development goals.
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Korac, Srdjan. "Feminist geopolitics: A contested and rebellious offspring of geopolitical knowledge." Medjunarodni problemi 72, no. 1 (2020): 179–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/medjp2001179k.
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The paper discusses the general features of the theoretical, epistemological, and methodological framework of a feminist approach in the early 21st-century Geopolitics with the aim to discover how its proponents challenge the established ?truths? of (neo)classical geopolitics and make innovative interventions to ?repair? and improve the knowledge produced in critical geopolitics. Being the most recent offspring of geopolitical knowledge that emerged only three decades ago, feminist geopolitics provoked an immediate backlash from the colleagues from the mainstream political geography in terms of recognising its disciplinary position. The author gives an overview of the body of a significant feminist geopolitical work drawn up based on a selected batch of most important international journals and edited volumes published since 2001. The author argues that the contribution of theoretical, epistemological and methodological insights of feminist geopolitics should be located in counterbalancing of the rigidity of the discipline mainstream, and in insisting on the analysis of the intersections of the public (state, global) and the private/intimate (body, home), interrelatedness of embodied life practices and abstract/bureaucratic geopolitical projects, as well as on the introduction of post-positivist methodological approaches and techniques. The paper systemises the most important feminist research questions, and particularly legitimate topics of the day, which were ignored or missed by the mainstream geopolitical research. The author concludes that the feminist approach still remains a dissident body of knowledge within the geopolitical thought, but with an emancipatory potential in creating theoretical and political space in which to articulate a more responsive notion of geopolitics - taken both as knowledge and practice - that might address victimisation of marginalised population entangled in imperial projects.
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Kim, Yongsin. "The Need and Meaning of Global Geopolitical Education in Elementary Social Studies." Association of Global Studies Education 16, no. 4 (December 31, 2024): 121–38. https://doi.org/10.19037/agse.16.4.05.
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The space in planet is limited but aspiration for good place is limitless. Conflicts among nations always exist and power games occur at all global scales. This is represented a geopolitics of war in real world. Traditionally military power centered geopolitics of concentration faces inhuman and immoral disastrous incidents of war and it is a very foolish thing. The nature of geopolitics is based on pursuing to plenteous space in human life. If expansion of space is possible peacefully, military power is not needed. The border crossed geopolitics of diffusion has been formed by globalization in ordinary life and global scale. This means a possibility to geopolitics of peace. Korean peninsula is unstable area because of collision and intervention by powers. Recently North Korea dispatches troops to Russia-Ukraine war occurred 2022 and this military action makes a geopolitical instability real. The need and meaning of geopolitical social recognition becomes important in dimension of global civic education actually. Elementary social studies can be defined as a subject for social efficacy and literacy. Global geopolitical education must be created and practiced intentionally for peace of Korean peninsula at this point.
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Świder, Konrad. "Russian Neo-Eurasian Geopolitics as a Total Ideology on the Example of Aleksandr Dugin’s Concept." Civitas. Studia z filozofii polityki 25 (December 30, 2019): 61–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.35757/civ.2019.25.04.
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The purpose of this article is to outline the geopolitical concepts of Aleksandr Dugin, the guru of Russian Eurasian geopolitics as a total ideology. After the collapse of the USSR, there was a rapid renaissance of geopolitics in Russia, which was an ideological attempt to rationalise the role and place of the post-Soviet Russian state in the post-Cold War international system. The dynamic development of geopolitics in Russia was also a way for the Russians to overcome the post-imperial trauma and the post-Soviet identity crisis. Geopolitics was to define the global aspirations and goals of the Russian Federation, being the quintessence of postmodern Russian messianism and setting a new historical mission for this state. One of several geopolitical trends in Russia was neo-Eurasianism, whose main ideologist was Aleksandr Dugin. The Russian geopolitician has proceeded to formulate a total ideology based on geopolitics for Russia, which is to constitute an intellectually and conceptually attractive synthesis of all the universalist ideologies practised in this country throughout history. Dugin tries to integrate geopolitics with the metaphysics and philosophy of being, transforming it into a kind of ideocratic sacrum and ideological signpost for the contemporary Russian state.
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Kotovchevska, Blagica, and Blagoj Conev. "FROM TRADITIONAL TOWARDS CRITICAL GEOPOLITICS." Knowledge International Journal 28, no. 6 (December 10, 2018): 1827–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.35120/kij28061827b.
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Critical geopolitics examines geopolitical practices in order to understand geographical and political thinking and how the global policy practices are affected. It examines the geopolitical tradition, referring to the historical and geographical context of ideas about geography and politics. In a wider sense, it aims to critically examine everything related to geography and politics. It gives us an idea how the practice of world politics is implemented through different geopolitical arrangements and how our worldview is based on these premises. The analyzes presented through the research of critical geopolitics aimed to create a complex and accurate geopolitical picture, that is, a geopolitical mirror in the function of an essential deconstruction of the geopolitical discourses that create stereotypes for the actors involved in a certain conflict, for the states and the regions where the conflict takes place, that is, a creation of afalse geopolitical picture or a geopolitical mosaic.
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Klin, Tomasz. "Conducting the Study of Geopolitics: Three Approaches." Political Studies Review 16, no. 2 (March 29, 2016): 92–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1478929915611906.
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In the past several decades, the study of geopolitics has experienced a true renaissance, which is reflected in the three works reviewed in this article. All of the reviewed books embrace the geopolitical domain in completely different ways, and each varies in its purpose, method, and structure of reasoning. The paper critically evaluates the methodologies and merits of these works and proposes ways to creatively use some of the concepts for further geopolitical analysis. The books serve as a preface to an in-depth discussion on the state of contemporary geopolitics and the reception of classical geopolitics.
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Omelchenko, Oksana A., Oleksandr V. Kononenko, Victor M. Livinsky, Sergey V. Evminov, Iryna A. Olendiy, and Mikhail A. Ovramets. "Тhe nature and characteristics of the evolution of the phenomenon of geopolitics." Revista Amazonia Investiga 11, no. 51 (April 20, 2022): 140–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.34069/ai/2022.51.03.13.
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The article has revealed the nature of the phenomenon of geopolitics as being the basis of the international relations and serving both as a scientific methodology to explain the behavior and relationships of a state with other countries in accordance with the geographical location and the interests. The concept of modern geopolitics is multifaceted, and scientists disagree regarding the definition of geopolitics as an independent science. Geopolitics is a methodology of international relations and foreign policy. Ultimately, the key to modern understanding of geopolitics is the policy and the image of a state within its geographical location, which can impact other subjects / objects of international life to ensure their national interests and national security. A number of conceptual approaches have been formed in the scientific discourse aiming to ensure the geopolitical advantage of a state. New processes and conflicts have been associated with the expansion of the Internet space and information technology. Recently, geopolitical theories have taken into account the latest tools and capabilities to influence used by leading states, including use of information, "hybrid" and "semantic" warfares. One of most urgent problems of the modern world is information warfare targeting creation of favorable conditions to gain geopolitical and geo-economic priority.
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Bennett, Mia M. "Hong Kong as special cultural zone: Confucian geopolitics in practice." Dialogues in Human Geography 11, no. 2 (July 2021): 236–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/20438206211017740.
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Responding to An, Sharp, and Shaw’s article, ‘Towards Confucian Geopolitics’, I consider how strategies and interpretations of Chinese geopolitics are playing out in Hong Kong with attention to their cultural dimensions. First, I reflect upon the reactions of individuals and the media in the West—specifically Britain—to the protests and street violence that rocked its former colony in the summer of 2019. Second, to reckon with An, Sharp, and Shaw’s contention that the hybridized nature of Chinese geopolitics emerges from its ‘strategic adaptability’, thereby enabling the integration of foreign ideas into Chinese cultural traditions, I offer a brief critique of cultural and infrastructural developments in Hong Kong relating to the West Kowloon Cultural District. Initially intended to showcase local culture and link it into the art world’s global circuits, the megaproject is increasingly being made in China’s image. Third, as a counterpoint to the supposed flexibility of the Chinese geopolitical imagination, I address the ossification of Western geopolitical thought and practice. In order for geographers to build more pluralistic critical geopolitics, engaging with a diversity of geopolitical approaches and their cultural underpinnings is key. For Western nation-states, failing to practice a more hybridized geopolitics may represent a more existential risk.
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Ciută, Felix. "Déjà vu Geopolitics: Marxism and the Geopolitical Undead." Geopolitics 16, no. 1 (January 31, 2011): 221–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2010.493994.
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Cowen, Deborah, and Neil Smith. "After Geopolitics? From the Geopolitical Social to Geoeconomics." Antipode 41, no. 1 (January 2009): 22–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.2008.00654.x.
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Woodyer, Tara, and Sean Carter. "Domesticating the Geopolitical: Rethinking Popular Geopolitics through Play." Geopolitics 25, no. 5 (October 30, 2018): 1050–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2018.1527769.
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Proedrou, Filippos. "Anthropocene Geopolitics and Foreign Policy: Exploring the Link in the EU Case." Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 45, no. 2 (May 2020): 83–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0304375420931706.
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Scholarly literature has recently developed the notions of Anthropocene geopolitics and planetary security. How these relate to and whether they inform states’ foreign policy, however, remains a largely underdeveloped issue. This article goes some way toward addressing this gap both theoretically and empirically. Theoretically, it unpacks how traditional and Anthropocene geopolitics diverge in their approach toward the security repercussions of climate change and teases out the emanating foreign policy implications. These revolve around different levels of climate ambition, divergent approaches to fossil energy geopolitics, and differing weighting of planetary security versus mainstream geopolitical threats. Against this theoretical background, this article empirically zooms in on the EU case to explore which geopolitical mindset guides EU’s pursuit of climate change concerns and their incorporation in the EU foreign policy design. The analysis finds that, despite its comprehensive foreign climate policy initiatives, the EU remains fixed to a traditional geopolitical mindset and a foreign policy that underappreciates planetary security threats. This article subsequently operationalizes a foreign policy design informed by the Anthropocene geopolitics approach and sketches what it would entail.
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Ekici, Nilüfer, and Ali Ekber Gülersoy. "Geopolıtıcal lıteracy." lnternational Journal of Geography and Geography Education, no. 54 (January 31, 2025): 263–77. https://doi.org/10.32003/igge.1557807.
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The aim of this study is twofold: first, to introduce the concept of ‘geopolitical literacy’ to the national literature, and second, to reveal to reveal the geopolitics and geopolitical literacy perceptions of prospective geography and social studies teachers. This study adopted a qualitative approach using phenomenological methods to elucidate pre-service teachers’ perceptions and document analysis to provide a basis for geopolitical literacy. The data were obtained through interviews and document analysis to reveal the perceptions, experiences, and inferences of 18 pre-service social studies and geography teachers about the concept of geopolitics and geopolitical literacy. As a result of the interviews, it was concluded that most pre-service teachers tried to convey the concept of geopolitics in the context of location, politics, and Turkey. On the other hand, the concept of geopolitical literacy was expressed using map knowledge, countries and a series of inferences. At this point, it was seen that the explanations put forward by prospective teachers were mainly based on map knowledge and location.
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Tunander, Ola. "Geopolitics of the North: Geopolitik of the Weak." Cooperation and Conflict 43, no. 2 (June 2008): 164–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010836708089081.
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Aslam, Mohd Mizan Mohammad, Syed Razak Syed Mahadi, and Muhd Nabhan Mizan. "Geopolitical Challenges in Public Governance." International Journal of Strategic Studies 1, no. 2 (November 19, 2024): 17–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.59921/icestra.v1i2.52.
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Geopolitics is the study of how Earth's geography both physical and human, affects politics and international relations. The Ancient Greek terms γῆ (gê), which means "earth, land," and πoλιτική (politikḗ), which means "politics," are the source of the term "geopolitics.". It is an academic discipline that studies how a nation's size, location, climate, terrain, population, and natural resources affect its politics, particularly its foreign policy. Geopolitics has a significant bearing on public governance. A framework for comprehending the power relationships that shape our world is provided by geopolitics. It aids in the analysis of how geopolitical forces affect human rights, cultural heritage, and the development of public opinion around the world. Insights into societal divides, migration trends, and the emergence of nationalism are also provided by it. Other than that, geopolitical factors can impact governance strategies in the context of governance. For instance, decision-making procedures within public governance, strategic planning, and policy-making may be impacted by the geopolitical backdrop of a given area. It may also have an impact on how various countries relate to one another, which could have an impact on international accords and policies. Additionally, geopolitics can be understood as a process that makes it easy to comprehend conflicts and tensions at several levels, including local, regional, national, and worldwide. It can also disclose power struggles between actors. This knowledge can help public governance manage these tensions and conflicts in an efficient manner. In essence, geopolitics is a major factor in determining the tactics and laws used in public government. It offers a prism through which we can view the intricate relationships that are necessary for efficient public governance, including those involving geography, power, politics, and international relations. Thus, a better understanding of geopolitics can support more intelligent, astute, and successful public governance.
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Pradhan, Swapan-Kumar, Viktors Stebunovs, Előd Takáts, and Judit Temesvary. "Geopolitics Meets Monetary Policy: Decoding Their Impact on Cross-Border Bank Lending." International Finance Discussion Paper, no. 2025 (February 2025): 1. https://doi.org/10.17016/ifdp.2025.1403.
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We use bilateral cross-border bank claims by nationality to assess the effects of geopolitics on cross-border bank flows. We show that a rise in geopolitical tensions between countries â disagreements in UN voting, broad sanctions, or sentiments captured by geopolitical risk indices â significantly dampens cross-border bank lending. Elevated geopolitical tensions also amplify the international transmission of monetary policies of major central banks, especially when geopolitical tensions coincide with monetary policy tightening. Overall, our results suggest that geopolitics is roughly as important as monetary policy in driving cross-border lending.
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Ramadhan, Iqbal. "The Implication of Cyberspace Towards State Geopolitics." Politicon : Jurnal Ilmu Politik 3, no. 2 (September 3, 2021): 161–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.15575/politicon.v3i2.12660.
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Massive technological advancements have influenced many dynamics of the nation's social, political, and economic changes. Geopolitical studies, as one of the studies that investigate the interaction between political dynamics and geography, are exposed to the implications of these technological developments. At the outset of its development, geopolitical studies discussed the state's strategies and policies for gaining influence in specific areas. Geopolitics is the study of a country's boundaries. The emergence of cyberspace, along with the advancement of technology, has implications for a country's geopolitical development. Geopolitical competition takes place not only in the physical realm, but also in cyberspace. The purpose of this article is to examine the shift in the geopolitical paradigm from physical to cyberspace. The authors examine how the existence of cyberspace can have a political impact, particularly geopolitical rivalries between countries, using geopolitics and cyberspace concepts. This scientific article investigates cyberspace phenomena and geopolitical studies using qualitative methods, particularly case study writing techniques. The author contends that geopolitics in cyberspace has no borders, based on the findings of this article's analysis. To avoid cyber conflicts, states must make cyberspace their political domain. Geopolitical rivalries between states in cyberspace can have real-world consequences. One of them is the use of technology to suppress other states' geopolitical policies. Because cyberspace is infinite, the state must develop governance so that the potential for cyber conflicts does not have physical consequences for the country's geopolitics. Given that almost all dynamics of state life have been integrated into information technology, the author concludes that cyberspace should be considered one of a state's geopolitical areas.
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Hnízdo, Bořek. "Basic Theories of Geopolitics." Czech Journal of International Relations 29, no. 4 (April 1, 1994): 72–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.32422/cjir.1387.
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To some, the question mark associated with the title of this chapter may seem unnecessary. After all, the very concept of geopolitics clearly and comprehensibly expresses the relationship between political phenomena and processes on the one hand and geographical space on the other. Still, there is a question mark here. Perhaps no other term in political science has become as discussed as "geopolitics". It wasn't always like that. At the time when the term "geopolitics" was first used by a Swedish researcher R. Kjellen in 1899, the scientific field of political geography was already taking shape, under whose founder the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel, who wrote the work Politische 1 in 1897, is considered Geography. Both terms are then used together, and above all the important personalities of political geography of the first half of the 20th century were also considered significant theorists in geopolitics. A very important theoretical geopolitical school arose in the interwar period in Germany. And it was precisely this fact that caused the very term "geopolitics" to be condemned after the Second World War and even used as a label for "non-scientific" political geography. The German geopolitical school was accused of theoretically preparing the territorial conquests of Nazi Germany.
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Morgado, Nuno. "Modelling neoclassical geopolitics: An alternative theoretical tradition for geopolitical culture and literacy." European Journal of Geography 14, no. 4 (October 24, 2023): 13–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.48088/ejg.n.mor.14.4.013.021.
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This paper offers a conceptual and theoretical alternative to geopolitical reasoning. It accepts certain concepts, factors, and variables from classical geopolitics with tested scientific validity and adds to them the awareness and focus on agents contributed, to some extent, by critical geopolitics. Without leaving a soft positivist sphere in which the procedures of the scientific method prevail, the innovative model of neoclassical geopolitics presented here constitutes a two-level approach in which the structural variable of systemic stimuli runs through the dual intervening variable of the geopolitical agent’s perceptions and capacities, shaping the state’s behavior as the dependent variable. In other words, it is innovatively claimed that examining geopolitical agents’ perceptions and capacities often provides valuable input for explaining political out-comes as an object of study in geopolitical research. Through both systemic stimuli and geopolitical agents’ perceptions and capacities, geography remains omnipresent with its concepts and approaches. Hence, one of the main objectives of the article is to contribute to the thriving of geopolitical culture and the literacy of decision-makers and the general public.
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Kydyrov, Zh S., K. G. Darkenov, and A. M. Janyssova. "Foundations of classical geopolitics: evolution of the German school." BULLETIN of the L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University.Political Science. Regional Studies. Oriental Studies. Turkology Series. 142, no. 1 (2023): 174–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.32523/2616-6887/2023-142-1-174-180.
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The relevance of the research topic is characterized by the importance of studying the foundations of classical geopolitics. In the article, the authors reveal the meaning of geopolitics and its importance. The main goal of the article is to consider the main theories and views that form the theoretical basis of geopolitics as a science. The territory occupied by the state, its size, composition, and configuration is the main geopolitical factor. Thus, geopolitics, from a theoretical point of view, is primarily a science of the territorial interests of the state. In the context of recent events, the geopolitical interests of peoples must be realized in a democratic and civilized way, through peaceful coexistence and unity in the commonwealth on the basis of new forms of state structure and state unions. Initially, geopolitics as a science was formed by ideas about the possibility of neutralizing and compensating for the unfavorable moments of the spatial situation through external economic and political activity. There were attempts to theoretically justify military aggression against other states, for example, such a period occurred in Germany, and it was characterized by the beginning of the First World War. This fact determined a negative attitude toward geopolitics. Today, many experts agree that geopolitics is the foundation of politics, historically confirmed when large organized groups of people in primitive societies determined their location, activities, and relationships with other primitive social communities. In this article, the authors review the foundations of classical geopolitics, and the meaning of the term, and explore the evolution of the views of Western scholars. To achieve this goal, the authors use methods and analyze various works of Western researchers.
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Despotović, Ljubiša, and Vanja Glišin. "SRPSKA DRŽAVNOST NA POČETKU 20. VEKA KROZ VIZURU ISTORIJSKE GEOPOLITIKE." Leskovački zbornik 63 (October 2023): 91–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/lz-lxiii.091d.
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During the centuries-long Ottoman occupation, the Serbian people faced the discontinuity of statehood, living in the Balkans without their own state and ruler. The aforementioned was reflected in the modernization processes of Serbian society, which, in relation to the countries of Western Europe, began with a significant delay in the 19th century. The struggle for Serbian statehood during the 19th century was very complex and difficult, both because of the position of the Serbian people in the geopolitical knot between the conflicting interests of the great powers, and because of internal political relations and the slow consolidation of institutional and social capacities. The process of Serbia’s political independence continued until 1878, when it gained independence at the Berlin Congress. Although it won its independence, Serbia did not enter a period of peace but faced complex foreign and domestic political processes, which marked the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. Bearing this in mind, the general hypothesis is that the political processes in Serbia at that time were decisively influenced by external geopolitical actors. Therefore, in our work, we start from geopolitics as a synthetic science within which we define a new sub-discipline, historical geopolitics, which deals with the research, analysis and synthesis of geopolitical motivations, doctrines, plans and interests of historical actors, decoding at the deepest level from their geopolitical behavior the hidden reasons for determining the historical actions, processes or events. In the first part of the paper, we will define historical geopolitics as a sub-discipline of geopolitics, so that in the second and third part of the paper, through the lens of historical geopolitics, we will clearly decode the processes of the birth of the modern Serbian state and the struggle for the survival of Serbian statehood. Using the method of analysis and synthesis, the method of deduction and the geopolitical method, we seek to lay the foundation for further research advances in the context of historical geopolitics
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Liu, Hong, and Chunzi Miao. "Digital geopolitics in a VUCA world: China encounters a new global order." Global Policy 15, S6 (September 2024): 67–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.13435.
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AbstractThis article examines the evolving landscape of digital geopolitics, with a focus on the intensifying technological rivalry between the United States and China. It discusses how digital transformation is reshaping global power structures, influenced by and contributing to the bifurcation of the world through strategic initiatives and differing digital ecosystems. The article distinguishes digital geopolitics from conventional geopolitics and techno‐nationalism on several fronts: the shift from hard power centred on territorial control to digital dominance; the transcendence of geographical boundaries that have conventionally defined geopolitical conflicts; the evolution from traditional political alliances to strategic technological partnerships; and the competition over setting international standards. Additionally, it addresses how corporate power plays a pivotal role in this new era, contributing to the shaping of the digital geopolitical landscape. Through case studies of Huawei and TikTok, this article demonstrates the influence of digital geopolitics on international business (and vice versa) as well as the intensified bifurcation of the digital ecosystems. The article concludes by arguing that digital geopolitics serves as both the by‐product of and contributor to the volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA) world in which China is encountering a new global order.
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Budd, A. J., and Patrick O'Sullivan. "Geopolitics." Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 12, no. 2 (1987): 251. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/622537.
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O'Loughlin, John, and Patrick O'Sullivan. "Geopolitics." Economic Geography 63, no. 1 (January 1987): 90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/143860.
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White, Brian. "Geopolitics." International Affairs 63, no. 4 (1987): 634. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2619646.
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Anderson, Thomas D., and Patrick O'Sullivan. "Geopolitics." Geographical Review 77, no. 4 (October 1987): 484. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/214290.
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Teschke, Benno. "Geopolitics." Historical Materialism 14, no. 1 (2006): 327–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156920606776690947.
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Chubb, Basil. "Geopolitics." Irish Geography 3, no. 1 (January 6, 2017): 15–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.55650/igj.1954.1145.
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Lévy, Jacques. "Geopolitics after geopolitics: A French experience." Geopolitics 5, no. 3 (December 2000): 99–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14650040008407693.
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Li, Fen, Cunyi Yang, Zhenghui Li, and Pierre Failler. "Does Geopolitics Have an Impact on Energy Trade? Empirical Research on Emerging Countries." Sustainability 13, no. 9 (May 6, 2021): 5199. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13095199.
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The energy trade is an important pillar of each country’s development, making up for the imbalance in the production and consumption of fossil fuels. Geopolitical risks affect the energy trade of various countries to a certain extent, but the causes of geopolitical risks are complex, and energy trade also involves many aspects, so the impact of geopolitics on energy trade is also complex. Based on the monthly data from 2000 to 2020 of 17 emerging economies, this paper employs the fixed-effect model and the regression-discontinuity (RD) model to verify the negative impact of geopolitics on energy trade first and then analyze the mechanism and heterogeneity of the impact. The following conclusions are drawn: First, geopolitics has a significant negative impact on the import and export of the energy trade, and the inhibition on the export is greater than that on the import. Second, the impact mechanism of geopolitics on the energy trade is reflected in the lagging effect and mediating effect on the imports and exports; that is, the negative impact of geopolitics on energy trade continued to be significant 10 months later. Coal and crude oil prices, as mediating variables, decreased to reduce the imports and exports, whereas natural gas prices showed an increase. Third, the impact of geopolitics on energy trade is heterogeneous in terms of national attribute characteristics and geo-event types.
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Rogulis, Dovydas. "Nato Military Interventions In Kosovo, Libya, Afghanistan, And Their Impact On Relations With Russia After The Cold War." Lithuanian Foreign Policy Review 36, no. 1 (December 20, 2017): 57–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/lfpr-2017-0001.
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Abstract Abstract This thesis seeks to find out how NATO military interventions in Kosovo, Libya and Afghanistan have affected relations with Russia. In order to achieve the aim and hypothesis of the study, the critical geopolitical approach is chosen as a theoretical framework. A schematic critical geopolitics conceptualization of Gearóid Ó. Tuathail is used as the method of research. This thesis mostly pays attention to three essential parts of the critical geopolitics: “formal geopolitics” (analyses of think tanks, specialists, etc.), “practical geopolitics” (the decisions of policy makers, official statements, documents, strategies and speeches) and “popular geopolitics” (the discourse of the media and surveys). The combination of these three elements allows determining the certain NATO’s and Russian geopolitical discourses towards crises in Kosovo, Libya and Afghanistan. With regard to evidences of crises, NATO’s and Russian geopolitical discourses are assessed from very positive, positive, neutral, to negative and very negative. It provides an opportunity to see how both sides have acknowledged these crises and how in long terms NATO’s military interventions in Kosovo, Libya and Afghanistan have influenced relations with Russia in international order. Moreover, descriptive method, discourse analysis and a comparative approach are used to scrutinize Russian and NATO’s geopolitical discourses towards crises. The analyses of NATO’s and Russian geopolitical discourses show that the hypothesis different NATO and Russian geopolitical discourses towards crises in Kosovo, Libya and Afghanistan have affected reciprocal relations is correct. The crisis of Kosovo in 2008 marks the end of the Russian flexible policy towards NATO and marks a new beginning of a permanently hostile geopolitical discourse against NATO in Europe. NATO military interventions in Kosovo, Libya and Afghanistan have negatively affected relations with Russia mostly in Europe. Mutual cooperation and diplomatic disputes towards crises in Libya and Afghanistan are minor in comparison with the NATO-Russian relations in the European continent. Consequently, Russia concentrates most of its attention to the geopolitical tradition towards Europe.