Journal articles on the topic 'Georgian Inscriptions'

AbstractThis paper is an unbiased investigation of two Jewish tomb inscriptions from Mc'xeta, Georgia, claimed to support the legends about the mission of St. Nino, into the broader context of the oldest Armenian and Georgian texts that mention Jews, with the emphasis on Armenian-Georgian ecclesiastical relations. The conclusion of the author is that it is impossible to use the two mentioned inscriptions as an evidence for a Georgian Jewish community in Mc'xeta in the 4th or 5th centuries.

Article was prepared within the scopes of grant funded by Shota Rustaveli National Scientific Fund of Georgia (FR 17-554 Documentary Sources (Deeds, Epigraphic Inscriptions, Colophons) in the First half of 17th c. (1600-1662) about the Kings of Kartli and Kakheti (research and publication of sources). For thorough study of Iran-Georgian relationships in 16th – 17th centuries research of Georgian-Persian historical documents is of particular interest. These historical documents provide valuable data about social, administrative and state institutes in Georgia.Georgian-Persian historical documents describe dynamically the political, social and religious processes that have taken place in Eastern Georgia due to intervention of Safavid Iran in 16th-17th centuries. Studying of the separate segments of diplomatic monuments – interrelations between Georgian and Persian texts provide precise illustration of Georgian reality and specific nature of political, social and religious relations between Iran and Georgia.Research of Georgian-Persian bilingual deeds clearly shows attempts of Iran to intervene into Georgian landholding system and its substitution with Iranian-Moslem one; Invocation of Georgian kings and the legends on their Persian seals clearly demonstrate the political and religious influence to which they were subjected as a result of Safavid censorship. Based on all these, we can imagine specific nature of operation of Georgian secretariat-chancellery, see the movement of the documents from their composition to their entry into legal force and the term of their effectiveness.Studying of the seals on Persian and Georgian texts of diplomatic monuments allowed identification of important chancellery officials participating in issuance of Georgian-Persian documents, as well as in their consideration and approval.Georgian texts of bilingual documents, with their contents and structure, were entirely based on Georgian traditions of paperwork while the Persian texts complied with Iranian requirements. Iranian diplomatic formulas were adapted to Georgian reality.Georgian-Persian historical deeds provide unbiased description of severe reality resulting from religious and political power of Iran in Eastern Georgia; and Georgians had to fight for maintaining their state, national and religious identity.

This paper discusses gravestones with Georgian inscriptions discovered during the archaeological excavations at the cemetery of the medieval city of Dmanisi. Although the tombstones with epitaphs were discovered in the 1970-1980s, this paper is the first typological, paleographical, and art historical study of the material.

Работа выполнена в рамках проекта РФФИ № 20-59-07003 Евгения Георгиевна Пчелина (1895-1972) внесла большой вклад в изучение истории, археологии и этнографии осетинского народа. Большая часть рукописного наследия Пчелиной до сих пор не опубликована, поэтому его тщательное изучение и введение в научный оборот представляет собой весьма актуальную научную задачу. Предлагаемая публикация содержит материалы Пчелиной о двух старинных колоколах из осетинского святилища Дзвгисы-дзуар. Данные предметы имеют дарственные надписи грузинских царей, проливающие свет на историю осетино-грузинских отношений последней трети XVII в. Пчелиной принадлежит и заслуга сохранения этих памятников, и первый опыт их научного изучения. Один из колоколов был пожертвован картлийским царем Георгием XI, о втором же долгое время не было точных сведений. Как следует из публикуемых записей, Пчелиной удалось найти второй колокол и установить, что дарственная надпись на нем принадлежит имеретинскому и кахетинскому царю Арчилу II. Пчелина выявляет отличия между колоколами и делает на этом основании вывод о российском происхождении колокола Арчила II, в то время как колокол Георгия XI, несомненно, произведен в Грузии. Пчелина отмечает необходимость анализа металла, из которого отлиты колокола. Хотя надписи на колоколах уже неоднократно переводились, делалось это по копиям разной степени точности, и еще ни разу перевод не осуществлялся специалистом по грузинской палеографии, видевшим колокола и надписи на них воочию. Поэтому дальнейшее исследование надписей может внести некоторые коррективы, уточняющие наши знания об этих памятниках и связанных с ними исторических реалиях. Eugenia Georgievna Pchelina (1895-1972) made a great contribution to the study of history, archeology and ethnography of the Ossetian people. Most of Pchelina's manuscript heritage is yet to be published, so it is a pressing issue to study it thoroughly and introduce into scientific discussion. The proposed publication contains Pchelina's work on two ancient bells from the Ossetian sanctuary of Dzvgisy-Dzuar. These items have donation inscriptions made by Georgian kings, which sheds some light on the history of Ossetian-Georgian relations in the late 1600s. One of the bells was donated by King George XI of Kartli. As for the other one, there had been no exact information about it for a while. As can be seen from the published records, Pchelina managed to find that bell and established that the donation inscription on was made by King Archil II of Imereti and Kakheti. Pchelina identified the differences between the bells and drew a conclusion about the bell inscribed by Archil II having been made in Russia, while the one donated by George XI was definitely made in Georgia. Pchelina noted the need to analyze the metal the bells were made of. Although the inscriptions on the bells have been translated many times, none of the translators, who were using copies of varying degrees of accuracy, was an expert in Georgian paleography or saw the bells and the inscriptions with their own eyes. Therefore, a further comprehensive study of these inscriptions could provide some new insights into what we already know about the bells and their historic environment.

In 1966, Silagadze, B. placed the death of Tamar in 1207 based on the data of Ibn al-Athir. In the same year, S. Kakabadze agreed with this date. A 1974 article by T. Natroshvili and G. Japaridze put the death of Tamar in 1210. The work of J. Odisheli followed this, also in 1974, which considered all earlier published research and sources, including numismatic material, and put the date as 1207. In 1975 Sh. Darchiashvili agreed with 1210 based on brief Armenian inscriptions, which were outlined in his research published in 2010. Research by G. Otkhmezuri (1981) was published in 1981 in which the scholar, using a different interpretation of the Gunia-Qala inscription, renders groundless the information of the first chronicler of Tamar as if Tamar granted the titles of Atabeg and Amirspasalar to Ivane Mkhargrdzeli simultaneously. Due to this fact, some researchers consider the year of the death of Zakaria Mkhargrdzeli (1212) or the next year (1213) as the date of the death of Tamar.

T’amar Bagrationi, Queen of Georgia (1184–1210). T’amar Bagrationi was the ninth monarch from the royal house of Bagrationis who ruled over the united Georgian Kingdom. She reigned as a co-monarch alongside her father, Giorgi III, from 1178, assuming full authority in 1184. During her reign, dynastic legitimacy necessitated the appearance of the monumental royal portraits displaying the monarch with immediate predecessors and heirs. T’amar’s gender required introduction of meticulous visual language that would re-gender her with all signs of a male ruler and justify her status and sole right to rule. This notion was embodied in her portraits that were carefully incorporated in the overall programmes of the churches. T’amar’s five monumental depictions survive where she is identified in inscriptions; two other monumental images are presumed to depict her. Of all the depictions, only one can be determined to have been commissioned directly by her. T’amar’s imagery relies on Byzantine elements and adheres to established Georgian models for the local royal portraiture; however, it also adopted sophisticated visual means that was aptly used for manifesting royal power and manipulating authority over the nobility.

The ancient Iberian chronicle was found in the valley of Lake Van. The author of the chronicle isn't known. The first copy of the chronicle was obtained during World War I. When Tsarist Russian troops occupied Eastern Anatolia, Caucasian scholars brought many church chronicles from Turkey to Tbilissi including the Ancient Iberian Chronicle. At that period, research on the chronicle began. It was defined that the language of the chronicle was a completely different language from Georgian. Key words: Van inscriptions, Aragez, Barda, Day, Tibet, Kachi fortress

The embellishment of sacred images with precious metal was a widespreadreligious practice throughout the Byzantine world over manycenturies. The cladding of Christian images in precious metal has longbeen an act of piety on the part of the faithful, representing theirgratitude to their heavenly protectors for performed assistance.Georgian medieval icons encased in revetments of precious metal thatcarry their donors’ supplicatory inscriptions, throw additional light onthe ways in which such icons were used and venerated.

In 1985, a stone-built tomb of the second or third centuries AD was found in the Samtavro cemetery on the outskirts of Mtskheta, the ancient capital of the Caucasian kingdom of Iberia. Its rich contents included a Mesopotamian cylinder- and an Achaemenid pyramidal stamp-seal, three sardonyx vessels, several pieces of silver plate bearing Greek and Parthian inscriptions, Roman coins and bronze vessels, and distinctive jewellery inlaid with carnelian and turquoise. The Society of Antiquaries is pleased to offer the hospitality of its pages to its Georgian colleagues

Thus, having comprehensively studied the historical process and the current state of the monuments of the Tayk, we came to the following conclusions. The current competent authorities of Turkey, cooperating with their Georgian colleagues with the involvement of relevant specialists, restore several famous Armenian monumental monuments of Tayk in accordance with the Chalcedonian Canon. Under the guise of restoration, by cutting out fragments of inscriptions confirming Armenian authenticity, native Armenian monuments are presented as Georgian heritage. Some monuments have been vandalized and in the absence of proper attention, years later they will not even leave a trace. For a significant part of the Armenians, pilgrimages to Western Armenia are limited only to visiting the central districts, mostly ignoring the Armenian Taуk. Proceeding from the above, we believe that the most important condition for the formation of a patriot citizen continues to be an educated person who knows and appreciates his history and religion, one of the best ways of which is pilgrimage and exploring even the most remote places of the historical homeland from the main routes. Therefore, the problem of pilgrimage, research and constant monitoring of particularly remote, little-known and disputed parts of the lost homeland is now relevant and requires concrete solutions.

AbstractDaniel Chwolson (1819–1911) made a huge impact upon the research of Hebrew epigraphy from the Crimea and Caucasus. Despite that, his role in the more-than-a-century-long controversy regarding Crimean Hebrew tomb inscriptions has not been well studied. Chwolson, at first, adopted Abraham Firkowicz’s forgeries, and then quickly realized his mistake; however, he could not back up. Th e criticism by both Abraham Harkavy and German Hebraists questioned Chwolson’s scholarly qualifications and integrity. Consequently, the interference of political pressure into the academic argument resulted in the prevailing of the scholarly flawed opinion. We revisit the interpretation of these findings by Russian, Jewish, Karaite and Georgian historians in the 19th and 20th centuries. During the Soviet period, Jewish Studies in the USSR were in neglect and nobody seriously studied the whole complex of the inscriptions from the South of Russia / the Soviet Union. The remnants of the scholarly community were hypnotized by Chwolson’s authority, who was the teacher of their teachers’ teachers. At the same time, Western scholars did not have access to these materials and/or lacked the understanding of the broader context, and thus a number of erroneous Chwolson’s conclusion have entered academic literature for decades.

The results of included observation of the features of street meetings in Paris to support Ukraine are submitted in the article. The research has lasted about four months (November 2022 – February 2023). Pro-Ukrainian rallies have taken place twice a week, on Wednesdays and Saturdays. They have the form of a procession: people gather on one of the central squares of Paris and go to another square. On the way they chant anti-war slogans, where they ask to help Ukraine to win victory, and condemn Russian military aggression. Speakers have reports at every rally. The speeches are held in French and Ukrainian. The rallists use posters, banners actively. Short texts are written in French, rarely in English, Ukrainian on them. There are many Ukrainian, as well as French, sometimes Polish, Lithuanian, Georgian and other flags at the rallies. The main purpose of the rallies is to attract attention of Parisians and visitors of the city to the war in Ukraine, to support Ukraine’s struggle for de-occupation, and to make the Ukrainian community in Paris visible. The rally participants use military terminology (front, battalion, counter-propaganda), as well as special chevrons with the inscription Mitynhari (Rallists) for self-presentation of their activity, raising its status. Source material is attached to the study: folklore of the protest (verbal slogans and graphic inscriptions on posters). The deciphered texts of the interviews with the organizers and participants of the rallies are being prepared for publication.

The political landscape of the emergent medieval Georgian nation among the predominant Islamic emirates is a relatively new field for western scholars. The Medieval Georgian polity, led by King Davit IV (Aghmshenebeli), rose to power in the late 11th and early 12th centuries CE. As the crowning jewel of a new architectural scheme, King Davit IV constructed the Gelati Monastery as a symbol of political, social, and religious power in medieval Georgia. King Davit IV’s son, King Demet’re I, finished the monastery in the 12th century and added to its construction with one fundamental piece, the iron gates of Ganja. The gates, taken by King Demetrius I from the Islamic city of Ganja in 1139 CE as a spoil of war, were placed next to the grave of King Davit IV Aghmshenebeli. My paper investigates the symbolic importance of the gates from Ganja in its original context for the local Ganjans and what it later meant to the Georgians. I also address the types of peoples involved with the transformation of the gate’s power as it moved locations. These gates have an Arabic inscription on them that indicates the original purpose of the gates for the Islamic ruler of Ganja. A translation of the Arabic script on the gates is also given in my paper. Finally, I demonstrate how the meanings of the gates of Ganja changed as King Demet’re I moved them from Ganja to their final destination within the Gelati complex and how those meanings related to the political landscape that the Medieval Georgian Kingdom sought to create.

The paper presents the corpus of the Inscriptions of Georgia, a result of a PhD research project at the Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. The database, built using the EpiDoc Front-End Services (EFES) platform, combines the EpiDoc editions of hundreds of inscriptions unearthed in Georgia, and published in print during the 18th-20th centuries. The paper outlines the main issues addressed during the creation of the database and the encoding of the inscriptions. It illustrates the core features of the corpus, with an emphasis on the advantages of the digital edition of the epigraphic monuments with the TEI-EpiDoc standard and the EFES platform.

According to Georgian and foreign sources it is believed that TrebizondEmpire was created by the help of Georgian kingdom. Thispolitical event is revealed not only in the literature sources, but alsoin mural painting of Georgian churches. In particular this refers tothe representations of St. Eugenios of Trebizond: the patron of thenewly created empire. The fact is that St Eugenios was never morethan local saint and his representations are very few outside theTrebizond area. That is the reason why the representations of StEugenios in Georgian churches are so important and could be consideredas the part of contemporary Georgian politics.There is a figure of holy soldier with old Georgian inscription“St. Eugenios of Trebizond” in the mural painting of Timotesubanidated by 1205-1215 years. Another example of declaring the politicalproject that has been prepared by Georgian kingdom a longtime ago, can be seen in Vardzia (1184 -1185), where the royal donators_ King Giorgi III and his daughter Queen Tamar are representedwith St. Eugenios of Trebizond.

The paper deals with ?King?s Painter? Tevdore and his inscriptions preserved in three churches of Upper Svaneti (northwestern highland region of Georgia) dated back to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The textual and visual data allow us to reconstruct the status of the painter and his impact on the embellishment of these churches. The inscriptions are considered from various perspectives, with a special emphasis on their political and social context. Tevdore?s title stressing his ties with monarchic power aimed to extend the ?royal presence? in Svaneti. The spatial constructs, creating semantic focuses for the display of authors? inscriptions, permit an evaluation of his status and place in the given social system.

Споры о содержании и подлинности грузинской надписи, оставленной на стене Нузальской часовни в Алагирском ущелье Северной Осетии и якобы намекавшей на захоронение здесь второго мужа и соправителя царицы Тамары, осетина Давида Сослана, начались с ее первой публикации в 1830 г. членом Азиатского научного общества М.-Ф. Броссе в «Journal Asiatique». Эти споры не прекращаются до настоящего времени; никто из оставивших описания часовни надпись не видел. В публикации Броссе 1830 г. нузальской надписи касался только второй раздел – грузинский текст, перевод на французский и комментарий. Эту надпись Броссе получил от Г.А. Розенкампфа. В публикациях 1830 и затем 1840 г. в «Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale des sciences de St. Pétersbourg» Броссе склоняется к тому, что надпись говорит не о Давиде Сослане, а об Ос-Багатаре, и им мог быть царевич, погибший в 1307 г. Как существование, так и содержание надписи подвергла сомнению Е.Г. Пчелина, что отражают материалы ее личного фонда в Санкт-Петербургском филиале Архива РАН. Несколько вариантов судьбы нузальской надписи приводит археолог В.А. Кузнецов в книге «Реком, Нузал и Царазонта»; высказывалось предположение, что надпись видел, списал и передал Розенкампфу осетинский писатель И.Г. Ялгузидзе. Можно предположить, что текст надписи Розенкампф мог получить от племянника своего шурина И. Бларамберга, а также из восточных материалов, которые в 1820-е гг. готовил к публикации А.Ж. Сен-Мартен. Наконец, истории известны и случаи научного «озорства». Disputes about the content and authenticity of the Georgian inscription left on the wall of the Nuzal Chapel in the Alagir Gorge in North Ossetia and allegedly hinted at the burial here of the second husband and co-ruler of Queen Tamar, Ossetian David Soslan, began with its first publication in 1830 by a member of the Asian Scientific Society M.-F. Brosset in the “Journal Asiatique”. These disputes have not stopped to this day; none of those who left descriptions of the chapel have seen the inscription. In Brosset's publication of 1830, the Nuzal inscription concerned only the second section – the Georgian text, the French translation and the commentary. Brosset received this inscription from G.A. Rosenkampf. In the publications of 1830 and then 1840 in the “Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des sciences de St. Pétersbourg”, Brosset inclines to the fact that the inscription does not speak of David Soslan, but of os-Bagatar, and it could be the prince who died in 1307. Both the existence and the content of the inscription were questioned by E. G. Pchelina, which is reflected in the materials of her personal papers in the St. Petersburg Branch of the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Several variants of the fate of the Nuzal inscription are given by archaeologist V.A. Kuznetsov in the book “Recom, Nuzal and Tsarazonta”; it was suggested that the Ossetian writer I.G. Yalguzidze saw the inscription, copied it and handed it to Rosenkampf. It can be assumed that Rosenkampf could have received the text of the inscription from the nephew of his brother-in-law J. Blaramberg, as well as from oriental materials that A. J. Saint-Martin prepared for publication in the 1820s. Finally, there are also cases of scientific "mischief" known to history.

Abstract The multilayer archaeological site Grakliani hill is located in one of the main contact zones of Transcaucasia. It shows a very intensive level of communication with other cultures from the 2nd millenium BC till the 3rd century BC and a high level of development of Kartli (Iberia Caucasica) society. Two inscriptions made in unknown script (probably a local version of Aramaic script) were discovered in a shrine of the 11th-9th centuries BC. A group of weights and tokens, also of the 11th-9th centuries BC was discovered in the excavations of Grakliani Hill and the satellite site of Tsina Gora. The Achaemenid period remains are also of special interest, including Greek style architecture details.

The article discusses the headdress found during the study of the tower-shaped crypt of the village of Korotakh in the historical-geographical region of Malkhist (Itum-Kalinsky district of the Chechen Republic) and stored since 2016 among the exhibits of the National Museum of the Chechen Republic. The subject was introduced into scientific circulation in 1977 by R. A. Dautova and was repeatedly mentioned in scientific publications later. The fabric from which the cap is sewn was made in Italian weaving centers, and, according to radiocarbon dating, was made between 1430–1480. A certain discussion in the circles of researchers was caused by the origin of the dress and the circumstances under which it ended up at the disposal of the buried. The most plausible was the version of the capture of Italian fabric with Christian symbols as a trophy, followed by a deliberate partial trimming of the halo of Christ and the figures of the archangels. The author of the article for the first time provides a translation of the surviving part and a restored version of the text-embroidery on the headdress, which was identified by an associate professor of Ilia state university Temo Dzhodzhua as an old Georgian text composed in the Asomtavruli script. In the light of these data, the author examines the epigraphic monuments of the Argun Gorge and historical information reflecting close Chechen-Georgian cultural and religious contacts, which, in combination with the translation of the inscription on the headdress and the place of its discovery (on the border with Georgia), rejects, in the opinion of the author of the article, the version about the trophy origin of the headdress, and at the same time, perhaps, the opinion about the deliberate deformation of part of the Christian symbolism when sewing the cap. It is assumed that we can talk about technical reasons or not so reverent attitude of the local population to Christian symbols after the destructive campaigns of Timur.

The forensic thriller has traditionally been constructed as a mainstream American narrative focused on the stereotypical representation of the country as a metropolis with an incredible amount of resources, and the American capitalist dream. The author Patricia Cornwell (Postmortem, first novel in the Kay Scarpetta series, published in 1990) is considered the founding mother of this crime fiction subgenre native to the US, closely followed by Kathy Reichs (Deja Dead, first novel in the Temperance Brennan series, published in 1997) whose series have been successfully adapted to television in the show Bones (2005-2017). But the 21st century has seen the inclusion of more diverse settings for these stories, the South being the most economically successful and dominated by women authors too. Georgian Karin Slaughter is the author of the “Grant County” series, set in the fictional town of Heartsdale, in rural Georgia, and responsible for the inscription of the South in American forensic thrillers thanks to her own experience as a native. Blindsighted (2001) includes elements from both the grotesque southern gothic and the hard boiled tradition. My analysis of the first novel in the series will examine how the southern environment becomes quintessential to the development of the crimes and the characters from a literary, philosophical and feminist point of view. The issues examined will include, but not be limited to crime, morals, religion, professional ambition, infidelity, divorce, sexual desire, infertility, and family relationships.

AbstractThis article unfolds around the controversial case of Georgia’s eleventh-century Bagrati Cathedral, which represents the only site to be removed from the World Heritage List as a result of its full-scale reconstruction. After its destruction in armed conflict by the end of the seventeenth century, the first conservation-restoration works on the monument were carried out in the 1950s. In 1994, partially reconstructed but still without a roof, Bagrati Cathedral had no issues in meeting the conditions of authenticity when the nomination was made for inscription in the World Heritage List. The conflict arose further when the conservation experts did not endorse the state party’s intention to fully rebuild the cathedral, notwithstanding the fact it was stated to be crucial for its functional continuity. The International Council on Monuments and Sites and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization took the view that this scale intervention would compromise the cathedral’s outstanding universal value and authenticity. This article offers a closer look at the decision-making process, from the nomination to the delisting of Bagrati Cathedral, and analyzes the factors contributing to the conflicting interpretations of the monument’s fundamental values among stakeholders. It addresses the issues from a broader perspective to include the historical-cultural background of Georgia and local approaches to preserving the religious sites, which tend to be overlooked in the discourse.

This paper offers a novel interpretation of the luxury golden ring with a carnelian intaglio depicting a woman's profile and an engraved Greek inscription, ΒΑCIΛICCΑ ΟΥΛΠIAΝΑ(Ζ)IA (or AΣIA E.A.), found in cist grave 14, in Mtskheta, Georgia, dated to the Roman period, the 3rd century AD. In consideration of the then contemporary political situation in the Mediterranean and Roman East, through the putting and interpreting sources into broad historical context, the author identifies the female individual as the Roman Empress Ulpia Severina. The very inclusion of royal woman within public propaganda during this period signifies her prominence within, and significance outside of, the imperial metropolis. This deliberate inclusion proved to the public that this empress was not mere figurehead but could have been a very influential person in the Empire.

The “Salzburger Collection” that once belonged to the group of pietist Lutherans who emigrated from Salzburg, Austria to Ebenezer, Georgia in 1734 and is now preserved at the Crumley Archives in Columbia, SC, contains 160 books printed 1615-1824. After a brief history and record of provenance of the collection, this essay focuses on books that demonstrate the connection to the pietist center of Halle (Germany) and devotion to the pietist forerunner Johann Arndt, as well as a prayer book believed to contain the “London Liturgy” passed on to the emigrant community by the Lutheran chaplain of their English patron, King George II. The collection was evaluated in light of reports and letters from earliest members of the community and their supporters as well as inscriptions and other unique identifiers, giving preferences to those volumes in the collection most closely tied to earliest members of the community. In so doing, it becomes clear that while sweeping assumption about a community based upon the presence of a book in such a collection are ill-advised, when proper attention is given to matters of provenance, the contents of a library do reflect the values of a community.

The article is devoted to the study of the institute of mediation as an alternative dispute resolution and a tool for improving legal culture. Mediation, which defines the mechanism of pre-trial dispute settlement, that is, reconciliation of the parties to a dispute with the participation of a mediator, has long been used in the practice of developed foreign countries and has proven to be one of their effective ways of alternative dispute resolution. In this regard, a comparative analysis of the application of this procedure in the practice of foreign countries, such as Singapore, Germany, Belarus, Georgia, and Uzbekistan, as well as their experience in this area and the advantages and disadvantages of mediation is given. The current legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan on mediation, its application and effectiveness, and the current state of the mediation institute have been studied. The problems and ways to solve them related to improving the application of mediation procedures are indicated. For example, the absence of enforcement of a mediation agreement between the parties, proposals are given for the introduction of intra-judicial mediation, which can be carried out by the court with the participation of a mediator judge on a professional basis, as well as when a mediation agreement is reached between the parties during notarial mediation and the right to perform executive inscriptions by a notary for the possibility of its further enforcement.

The article is devoted to the problems of the Old Slavonic grivna. The word is present in all Slavonic languages and associates with decoration, weight and monetary unit. Many researchers link word a grivna as derived from animal mane. Study of the Persian, Caucasian and some other East writings and archeological sources of the 1st millennium BC to the 1st millennium AD (T. Nцldeke, H. Hьbscmann, J. Harmatta, A. Manandyan, W. Hinz, A. Bivar, H. Martirosyan and other) has allowed to select many variant off this word, how corn measure and land measure. This measure is fixed in Old Persian, Middle Persian, Armenian, Georgian, Parthian, Arabic and other languages (grb, grbn, grϊβa, griv, grїw, garib, jarib and other). Grb (graβi, basket) is present in Aramaic-Egyptian document and is dated near 310 BC. How corn measure, the word was wide-spread in the Achemenid and Sasanian Empire. Attested as Armenian corn measure in the Anania Sirakaci, 7th century (9.782 kg, 1.5 modius, a unit of measurement), links with garw-o-y, barley. However, in Greek version inscription of Љāpur I (240—271), the word can be correspond to 9.32 litres (A. Bivar). Griv as corn measure is fixed on Caucasus in the end of the 1st millennium — beginning of 2st millennium AD. Special attention is spared to geographical terminology, in East Europe word griva are spread for mountain territory and area of land. Obviously, griv-modius how a corn measure preceded to grivna-decoration, to grivna-weight and to grivna-monetary unit in the Slavonic territories. The Eastern Europe in the end of 1st millennium BC and the 1st millennium AD was a territory of agrarian economy, and corn measure defined all others: capacity, length and square, weight measures and monetary units.

The painted biography of the patron saint of the church of St. Demetrius in the complex of the Patriarchate of Peć is preserved in the middle zone of the nave. Following the northern wall, with episodes inspired by the texts of the Passion of Saint Demetrius, the cycle continues on the south wall, where two of the former four representations remain, namely: The Dormition of Demetrius and Saint Demetrius Saves Thessaloniki from the Enemy. Both scenes have been partially damaged, with the lower parts painted over during the restoration in the second decade of the 17th century. The Dormition of Saint Demetrius. The Dormition of Saint Demetrius is painted in the southeast corner of the nave. The beginning of the legend is legible. Two more compositions with the same iconography have been preserved. One is a miniature in the Menologion in Oxford (MS. Gr. th. f. 1, fol. 55) (c. 1330-35), and the other is a severely damaged fresco in King Marko's Monastery (1376/77, the Republic of North Macedonia). The iconographic scheme of the service over the body of the deceased is well known in medieval art. Since the Passio texts describe Demetrius' martyrdom, scholars have questioned the source and meaning of the scene. At first, they thought that it illustrated Bishop Eusebius praying before the relics of St. Demetriusto save Thessaloniki from the Enemy, according to the description from the 14th homily of the First Book of Miracula. Later, the assumption was made, accepted to this day, that it was the death/entombment of the saint. The textual prototype was found in the sticheron of the patriarch Germanus on the celebration day of Saint Demetrius, from where this theme entered the iconography. Recently, the scene was interpreted as a liturgical ceremony over the saint's tomb in the Thessaloniki church. Knowing the circumstances in which it was created could contribute to a better understanding of the topic. The representation of the dead Demetrius is associated with the reform of the cult after the appearance of the myron, at the beginning of the 11th century at the latest. This is evidenced by reliquaries and enkolpia for myron and/or blood of the saint (11th/12th-14th centuries), which copy the appearance of a myron-gushing tomb. They are characterized by a double lid with superimposed figures of Saint Demetrius. On the outer cover Demetrius is in the orante pose -which has been interpreted as a sarcophagus, while the inside shows a dead saint - that is, a representation ofthe saint's myron-exuding body relic. The myron-gushing tomb received its equivalent in painting, as well, sublimated through the representation of the tomb with the reclining figure of Demetrius in the orante pose. Two paintings are known, both of which are sometimes erroneously cited among scholarsand preserved in Serbian art as the Entombment of Saint Demetrius (in the southern chapel of the Church of Our Lady of Ljeviš, 1309-13, in Kosovo and Metohija, and, as part of the scene The vision of angels of an illustrious and Demetrius' refusal to abandon Thessaloniki, 1335-48 in Dečani, Kosovo and Metohija). Along with this theme, the iconography of the service over Demetrius' relics was also formed. At this time, a legend appeared that, by order of Emperor Maximian, Demetrius' body was thrown into a well under the Thessaloniki Basilica, connected to the crypt or "lower church". Perhaps the changed cult brought more novelties, which could have influenced the appearance of new iconography, yet this question still remains open to debate. The service over the saint's body is officiated by archbishops surrounded by singers, led by a choirmaster and a young kanonarchos, all distinguished by headpieces known as skaranikon. The rest of the entourage were identified as believers or Christians who buried the saint, that is, young noblemen, but in fact they were members of minor order. The building in the background is most often identified as the famous ciborium from the Thessaloniki Basilica, which was a cult centre during the early Christian period. Although the fresco in Peć is unique compared to the other preserved representations, in which the tomb is shown with an open ciborium-baldachin, they are also considered to convey a realistic image of a contemporary tomb. This testifies to the impossibility of reaching a reliable conclusion about the closeness of the painted and real construction, where at the time of the creation of the fresco, the centre of the cult was no longer a ciborium, but a myron-gushing tomb. Saint Demetrius Saves Thessaloniki from the Enemy. The last preserved fresco, from whose inscription the name of Demetrius can be read, illustrates the miracle of the defense of Thessaloniki against the enemy. The event is described in the 14th homily of the First Book of Miracula. The majority of researchers have accepted the opinion that homilies 13-15 describe the attack of the army of Avars and Slavs on Thessaloniki that took place in 586, although a similar event in 597 cannot be ruled out. The iconographic scheme of the fresco in Peć comes right after the text. In the cycles of the Middle Ages, only two more compositions with Demetrius saving Thessaloniki from the enemy have been preserved. In terms of concept, and despite the differences in the processing of details, the fresco in Peć is close to the depiction in Dečani (1335-48). In previous research, the inscription on the fresco in Dečani attracted more attention than the iconography, with the explanation that it was about saving Thessaloniki from the Kumans. This gave scholars a reason for different interpretations of the meaning of the illustration, although it is most likely that it is the very event mentioned in the inscription, for the artistic articulation of which the iconography created according to a much older source was used. The composition on the reliquary in Vatoped, with the enemy's cavalry under the city walls behind which the saint is using the spear to defeat the barbarian, will not be repeated. Searching for the source is made difficult by the fact that no text was written, hence the opinions of scholars about the meaning of the scene are dissonant, although most believe that it is about the defense of Thessaloniki against the siege of the Avars and the Slavs. The walls within which the sacred building is located represent a long-established ideogram for the city, identified as the place of events - Thessaloniki with the Basilica of Saint Demetrius. The hagiography of Saint Demetrius was painted in the nave of the church of the same name in the Patriarchate of Peć, following the practice that prevailed in the 14th century. So far, it has not been a specific research topic, nor has it been discussed in the context of known cycles. About 13 artistic biographies of saints created at the end of the 13th and in the 14th century in the Byzantine, Serbian and Bulgarian art, along with individual representations of certain themes, have been published by scholars, to varying degrees. Despite the fact that the cycles are mostly incompletely preserved, as well as that part of the frescoes in Peć was partially or completely restored in the second decade of the 17th century, which raises the question of the original iconography, certain conclusions can be drawn about its concept and the iconography of individual scenes. Six out of the former eight scenes remain, according to which the Peć cycle belongs to the longer redaction. Being a complex ensemble, it consists of compositions based on the life of the saint, concentrated on the North wall of the nave of the church, and scenes of miracles on the opposite wall, of which only one remains, along with a composition of a special theme with the representation of the Dormition of St. Demetrius. Hagiographic scenes illustrate the most significant events from the texts of the Passion representing an indispensable part of the cycle. Scenes of miracles were painted less often, so the miraculous saving of Thessaloniki from the enemy is preserved in three cycles only. The theme of help in a specific situation has most likely surpassed its source over time, becoming an allusion to the enemies of Christians, and the proof of the miraculous protection of Demetrius as the holy warrior, not only when it comes to Thessaloniki, but war in general. Hence it is not surprising that it was included in the cycle, for now it can be said with confidence, in the 14th century. Since the legend has not been preserved, the question remains whether there was a deeper motive for illustrating this event in the church in Peć. The scene with the representation of the Dormition of St. Demetrius, and the rarely shown one, known from three medieval cycles, remain of unclear origin, but its source should probably be sought in cult practice of the 14th century. This episode, together with the Passion of St. Demetrius, is prominently placed next to the altar partition, which is why the cycle began in the northwest corner of the nave. The general language of Byzantine iconography was used to shape the compositions. Certain frescoes from Peć show similarities with preserved illustrations of the same outline, but they are mostly unique. Iconographically, St. Demetrius blessing St. Nestor and St. Nestor killing Lyus stand out, bearing the caveat in mind that this is a composition that undoubtedly underwent some changes during the copying process. As a whole, the illustrations from Peć represent a unique accomplishment, the closest analogies of which can be found on the monuments of the 14th century created in the Serbian art. Probably at this time there were certain changes in the cycle, primarily following the cult and way of honouring saints, with a greater tendency towards narration as a general trend in the art of this time. Finally, it is necessary to refer to two more cycles. The first one, in poor condition, was created in the church of Saint Demetrius in the village of Leivadi in Crete (1315/16), whose painting is strongly influenced by Western art. The iconography of the scene of the Passion of Saint Demetrius, with the saint with his back turned and falling to his knees receiving a spear blow from a soldier in Western armor, bears no resemblance to the Byzantine tradition. The second cycle was recently discovered in the chapel of the Dodorka monastery in Georgia's Davitgareji Desert (late 12th-early 13th century). Some of the compositions possess the iconography not found anywhere (St. Demetrius drops an honorary regalia before Emperor Maximian and the Martyrdom of St. Demetrius, with the dismembered body of the saint, while his chlamys is in the foreground), i.e., it shows details that do not appear or are rare in Byzantine painting (Saint Demetrius blessing Saint Nestor - both of them standing, and Nestor is unarmed, and Saint Nestor kills Lyus - with a young Christian fighter plunging a spear into the body of a fallen gladiator, in the arena without manganese and without the figure of the emperor in the lodge). The Dodorka cycle has no parallels in Georgian and Byzantine art. Significant iconographic peculiarities, and the fact that the appearance of the frescoes was dictated by a local source (Georgian version of the Passion from the 11th century) and specific needs (the emphasis on the chlamys as a relic of Demetrius), complicate the questions of the model for its iconography and the connection with Byzantine art, but even more so - issues of time and place of origin of the cycle of St. Demetrius.

The Marʿashī Library of Qum owns an unstudied manuscript containing official documents from the Rum Saljuq dynasty. The manuscript includes an Arabic text for the foundation of a ribāṭ. Its patron was unmistakably the Georgian wife of Ghiyāth al-Dīn Kay-Khusraw II (d. 644/1246), the unfortunate sultan beaten by the Mongols at Kösedağ. The building was a caravanserai, most probably located at the stage of Düden, immediately northeast of Antalya. Its construction can be dated to around 636/1238. It was part of a cluster of buildings erected with sultanic patronage on the road from Antalya to Konya. Gurjī Khātūn’s aim in founding the ribāṭ was to establish her son, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Kay-Qubād II, as indisputable heir apparent over the other (and older) offspring of the sultan. Beyond the light it casts on her long-term strategy to become wālida (Tk.valide, queen mother), the text allows us to refine our knowledge of women patrons, a subject that had been tackled so far mostly through the case of Māhparī Khātūn. Finally, the source in which this text was found proves that inscriptions (at least this one) were authored by personnel of the chancery, as supposed by van Berchem and by Redford after him.

Статья посвящена переводческой и литературной деятельности лиц, внесших вклад в развитие осетинской письменности и грузино-осетинских культурных связей. Некоторые памятники древней грузинской литературы, кроме грузин, переписывались также осетинскими книжниками. Словарь Сулхан-Саба Орбелиани, являющийся результатом глубокого анализа и энциклопедических наблюдений-разъяснений, с самого начала превратился в предмет общественного интереса: Вахтанг VI определил его как «Ситквис кона» («Букет слов»). Те, кто занимался описанием и составлением списков книг, делали на них приписки, содержавшие информацию о переписчиках. С течением времени, а также по другим причинам, множество имен затерялось, но некоторые сохранились в истории именно благодаря этим припискам и надписям. В статье на основе лингвистического анализа, устанавливается, что первым переписчиком Словаря Сулхан-Саба Орбелиани был осетин по происхождению Гуриев. Автор статьи отмечает, что осетинские переписчики грузинских книг, в частности Иоанн Ялгузидзе, занимались еще и переводами с грузинского на осетинский язык, чем вносили свой посильный вклад в развитие осетинского языка и культуры. Рассмотренная в статье деятельность осетинских переписчиков грузинских книг вносит существенный вклад в проблему младописьменных народов, которая значительно актуализирована современными научными исследованиями и широким общественным дискурсом. Поскольку к младописьменным принято относить народы, получившие письменность после установления советской власти, выявленный материал является серьезным аргументом для подтверждения неприемлемости этого «политического» определения для осетинского языка. В совокупности с другими выявленными памятниками письменности, труды осетинских переписчиков являются основанием для пересмотра устоявшихся, но не соответствующих современным представлениям постулатов. Проведенное исследование позволяет рассматривать деятельность осетинских переписчиков книг как фактор укрепления культурных связей между соседствующими народами. The article is devoted to the translation and literary activity of those who contributed to the development of Ossetian writing and Georgian-Ossetian cultural ties. Some works of ancient Georgian literature, alongside with Georgian scribes, were also copied by Ossetian scribes. The dictionary Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani, which is the result of deep analysis and encyclopaedic observationexplanations, from the very beginning turned into a subject of public interest: Vakhtang VI defined it as «Sitkvis kona» («Bouquet of words»). Those who were engaged in the description and compilation of lists of books, made on their margins notes containing information about the census-takers. Over time, as well as for other reasons, many names were lost, but some have been preserved in history precisely thanks to these postscripts and inscriptions. In the article on the basis of linguistic analysis, it is established that the first scribe of the Dictionary Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani was an Ossetian by birth Guriev. The author of the article notes that Ossetian copyists of Georgian books, in particular John Yalguzidze, were also engaged in translations from Georgian into Ossetian, that they made their own contribution to the development of the Ossetian language and culture. The activity of Ossetian census takers of Georgian books, considered in the article, makes a significant contribution to the problem of the peoples with recent record of literacy, which is significantly updated by modern scientific research and wide public discourse. Since it is customary to refer in this way to such peoples after the establishment of Soviet power, the material revealed a serious argument for confirming the unacceptability of this «political» definition for the Ossetian language. Together with other identified literary monuments, the works of Ossetian scribes are the basis for revising established, but not corresponding to modern concepts, postulates. The carried out research allows to consider activity of Ossetian copyists of books as the factor of strengthening of cultural communications between neighboring people.

THE NEWFOUND CHAPEL OF THE LATE MEDIEVAL PERIOD IN TEGHUT (The Results of the Excavations in 2010) In 2010 in the results of the excavations carried out at the site of "Lands of Gharakotuk" in Teghut a cemetery chapel with almost a square floorplan (8.7x7.7 m2) was uncovered. The chapel has a rectangular apse highlighted from both inside and outside which is not common in Armenian architecture. The architectural plan of the chapel was distorted in the result of multiple and often incorrect reconstructions. The excavations revealed a variety of tombstones of the 14th17th centuries, including two grave markers with Georgian inscriptions (deciphering and commentaries by Temo Jojua), two complete and two dozen fragmentary khachkars (two of them dated 1513 and 1604), ceramic and metal artifacts. Based on the analysis of the found materials and the architectural structure, the chapel dates to the 16th-17th centuries. According to the environment ‒ sacred trees (Celtis caucasica) growing around the chapel and the cemetery, as well as a collection of specially hidden metal objects (human figurines, animal shoes, lock etc.) which had protective significance from the evil eye or various diseases, the chapel served also as a place for pilgrimage.

THE NEWFOUND CHAPEL OF THE LATE MEDIEVAL PERIOD IN TEGHUT (The Results of the Excavations in 2010) In 2010 in the results of the excavations carried out at the site of "Lands of Gharakotuk" in Teghut a cemetery chapel with almost a square floorplan (8.7x7.7 m2) was uncovered. The chapel has a rectangular apse highlighted from both inside and outside which is not common in Armenian architecture. The architectural plan of the chapel was distorted in the result of multiple and often incorrect reconstructions. The excavations revealed a variety of tombstones of the 14th17th centuries, including two grave markers with Georgian inscriptions (deciphering and commentaries by Temo Jojua), two complete and two dozen fragmentary khachkars (two of them dated 1513 and 1604), ceramic and metal artifacts. Based on the analysis of the found materials and the architectural structure, the chapel dates to the 16th-17th centuries. According to the environment ‒ sacred trees (Celtis caucasica) growing around the chapel and the cemetery, as well as a collection of specially hidden metal objects (human figurines, animal shoes, lock etc.) which had protective significance from the evil eye or various diseases, the chapel served also as a place for pilgrimage.

The objective of the present article is to study the inscription of the milestone of the 1st century of Hegira, discovered in Seid-abadi.Our research is based on the materials available in the archives of Prof. Tsisia Kakhiani and analysis of other milestones found in the Near East.It is noteworthy that this monument is one of the most ancient of the Arabic inscriptions of Georgia. The archives of Prof. TsisiaKakhiani contain several notes regarding the milestone. As is known, erection of milestones and construction of roads were related to the organized planning of the postal service, whichserved the interests of the Caliphate rule.According to V. Krachkovskaya, on the basis of the handwriting and content of the milestone found in Tbilisi, it can be dated to100/718-719, maybe, to the 80s, and this inscription is undoubtedly one of the oldest in the South Caucasus that has reached us.Discovery of a milestone in the given period near Tbilisi must indicate that the capital of Kartli was included in the trade network ofthe Caliphate and was situated on a significant arterial road.

The inscription of a cultural asset on the World Heritage List entails increasing tourist flow as the first and direct effect. The advantages and criticalities of these processes have been investigated for some decades. On the contrary, what and how the UNESCO aegis acts regarding concrete interventions on cultural heritage are less studied. There is no specific reference in the Convention, and the methods and the interventions are under the responsibility of the individual countries. However, understanding “what restoration” is essential for the survival of heritage authenticity and for the inclusion and maintenance of the inscription in the List. Without claiming to be exhaustive, the paper wants to try to outline some initial considerations on the “UNESCO effect” in the practice of conservation of built heritage. Through the analysis of the conservation state of some sites in Emerging Countries (Armenia, Egypt, Georgia, Vietnam) after the realization of works, the contribution reflects on the implications of a “World Heritage site”.

CONTENTS: FOREWORD PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR • Ere Sleep Comes Down to Soothe the Weary Eyes • Death Song • Life • After the Quarrel • Ships that Pass in the Night • We Wear the Mask • Sympathy • The Debt JOSEPH S. COTTER, SR • The Tragedy of Pete • The Way-side Well JAMES WELDON JOHNSON • From the German of Uhland • The Glory of the Day Was in Her Face • The Creation • The White Witch • My City WILLIAM EDWARD BURGHARDT Du BOIS • A Litany of Atlanta WILLIAM STANLEY BRAITHWAITE • Scintilla • Rye Bread • October XXIX, 1795 • Del Cascar JAMES EDWARD MCCALL • The New Negro ANGELINA WELD GRIMKE • Hushed by the Hands of Sleep • Greenness • • The Eyes of My Regret • Grass Fingers • Surrender • The Ways o' Men • Tenebris • When the Green Lies Over the Earth • A Mona Lisa • Paradox • Your Hands • I Weep • For the Candle Light • Dusk. • The Puppet Player • A Winter Twilight ANNE SPENCER • Neighbors • I Have a Friend • Substitution • Questing • Life-long, Poor Browning • Dunbar • Innocence • Creed • Lines to a Nasturtium • At the Carnival MARY EFFIE LEE NEWSOME • Morning Light • Pansy • Sassafras Tea • Sky Pictures • The Quilt • The Baker's Boy • Wild Roses • Quoits JOHN FREDERICK MATHEUS • Requiem FENTON JOHNSON • When I Die • Puck Goes to Court • The Marathon Runner • JESSIE FAUSET • Words! Words! • Touche • Noblesse Oblige • La Vie C'est la Vie • The Return • Rencontre • Fragment ALICE DUNBAR NELSON • Snow in October • Sonnet • I Sit and Sew GEORGIA DOUGLAS JOHNSON • Service • Hope • The Suppliant • Little Son • Old Black Men • Lethe • Proving • I Want to Die While You Love Me • Recessional • My Little Dreams • What Need Have I for Memory? • When I Am Dead • The Dreams of the Dreamer • The Heart of a Woman CLAUDE McKAy • America • Exhortation: Summer, 1919 • Flame-heart • The Wild Goat • Russian Cathedral • Desolate • Absence • My House JEAN TOOMER • Reapers • Evening Song • Georgia Dusk • Song of the Son • Cotton Song • Face • November Cotton Flower JOSEPH S. COTTER, JR • Rain Music • Supplication • An April Day • The Deserter • And What Shall You Say? • The Band of Gideon BLANCHE TAYLOR DICKINSON • The Walls of Jericho • Poem • Revelation • That Hill • To an Icicle • Four Walls FRANK HORNE • On Seeing Two Brown Boys in a Catholic Church • To a Persistent Phantom • Letters Found Near a Suicide • Nigger LEWIS ALEXANDER • Negro Woman • Africa • Transformation • The Dark Brother • Tanka I-VIII • Japanese Hokku • Day and Night STERLING A. BROWN • Odyssey of Big Boy • Maumee Ruth • Long Gone • To a Certain Lady, in Her Garden • Salutamus • Challenge • Return CLARISSA SCOTT DELANY • Joy • Solace • Interim • The Mask LANGSTON HUGHES • I, Too • Prayer • Song for a Dark Girl • Homesick Blues • Fantasy in Purple • Dream Variation • The Negro Speaks of Rivers • Poem • Suicide's Note • Mother to Son • A House in Taos GWENDOLYN B. BENNETT • Quatrains • Secret • Advice • To a Dark Girl • Your Songs • Fantasy • Lines Written at the Grave of Alexander Dumas • Hatred • Sonnet—l • Sonnet—2 AnNA BONTEMPS • The Return • A Black Man Talks of Reaping • To a Young Girl Leaving the Hill Country • Nocturne at Bethesda • Length of Moon • Lancelot • Gethsemane • A Tree Design • Blight • The Day-breakers • Close Your Eyes! • God Give to Men • Homing • Golgotha Is a Mountain ALBERT RICE • The Black Madonna • To a Certain Woman COUNTEE CULLEN • I Have a Rendezvous with Life • Protest • Yet Do I Marvel • To Lovers of Earth: Fair Warning • From the Dark Tower • To John Keats, Poet, at Springtime • Four Epitaphs • Incident DONALD JEFFREY HAYES • Inscription • Auf Wiedersehen • Night • Confession • Nocturne • After All • JONATHAN HENDERSON BROOKS • The Resurrection • The Last Quarter Moon of the Dying Year • Paean GLADYS MAY CASELY HAYFORD • Nativity • Rainy Season Love Song • The Serving Girl • Baby Cobina LuCY ARIEL WILLIAMS • Northboun' GEORGE LEONARD ALLEN • To Melody • Portrait RICHARD BRUCE • Shadow • Cavalier WARING CUNEY • The Death Bed • A Triviality • I Think I See Him There • Dust • No Images • The Radical • True Love EDWARD S. SILVERA • South Street • Jungle Taste HELENE JOHNSON • What Do I Care for Morning • Sonnet to a Negro in Harlem • Summer Matures • Poem • Fulfillment • The Road • Bottled • Magalu WESLEY CURTWRIGHT • The Close of Day LULA LOWE WEEDEN • Me Alone • Have You Seen It • Robin Red Breast 228 • The Stream • The Little Dandelion • Dance

Introduction: Google Autocomplete Algorithms Despite recent attention to the impact of social media platforms on political discourse and public opinion, most people locate their news on search engines (Robertson et al.). When a user conducts a search, millions of outputs, in the form of videos, images, articles, and Websites are sorted to present the most relevant search predictions. Google, the most dominant search engine in the world, expanded its search index in 2009 to include the autocomplete function, which provides suggestions for query inputs (Dörr and Stephan). Google’s autocomplete function also allows users to “search smarter” by reducing typing time by 25 percent (Baker and Potts 189). Google’s complex algorithm is impacted upon by factors like search history, location, and keyword searches (Karapapa and Borghi), and there are policies to ensure the autocomplete function does not contain harmful content. In 2017, Google implemented a feedback tool to allow human evaluators to assess the quality of search results; however, the algorithm still provides misleading results that frame far-right actors as neutral. In this article, we use reverse engineering to understand the nature of these algorithms in relation to the descriptive outcome, to illustrate how autocomplete subtitles label conspiracists in three countries. According to Google, these “subtitles are generated automatically”, further stating that the “systems might determine that someone could be called an actor, director, or writer. Only one of these can appear as the subtitle” and that Google “cannot accept or create custom subtitles” (Google). We focused our attention on well-known conspiracy theorists because of their influence and audience outreach. In this article we argue that these subtitles are problematic because they can mislead the public and amplify extremist views. Google’s autocomplete feature is misleading because it does not highlight what is publicly known about these actors. The labels are neutral or positive but never negative, reflecting primary jobs and/or the actor’s preferred descriptions. This is harmful to the public because Google’s search rankings can influence a user’s knowledge and information preferences through the search engine manipulation effect (Epstein and Robertson). Users’ preferences and understanding of information can be manipulated based upon their trust in Google search results, thus allowing these labels to be widely accepted instead of providing a full picture of the harm their ideologies and belief cause. Algorithms That Mainstream Conspiracies Search engines establish order and visibility to Web pages that operationalise and stabilise meaning to particular queries (Gillespie). Google’s subtitles and blackbox operate as a complex algorithm for its search index and offer a mediated visibility to aspects of social and political life (Gillespie). Algorithms are designed to perform computational tasks through an operational sequence that computer systems must follow (Broussard), but they are also “invisible infrastructures” that Internet users consciously or unconsciously follow (Gran et al. 1779). The way algorithms rank, classify, sort, predict, and process data is political because it presents the world through a predetermined lens (Bucher 3) decided by proprietary knowledge – a “secret sauce” (O’Neil 29) – that is not disclosed to the general public (Christin). Technology titans, like Google, Facebook, and Amazon (Webb), rigorously protect and defend intellectual property for these algorithms, which are worth billions of dollars (O’Neil). As a result, algorithms are commonly defined as opaque, secret “black boxes” that conceal the decisions that are already made “behind corporate walls and layers of code” (Pasquale 899). The opacity of algorithms is related to layers of intentional secrecy, technical illiteracy, the size of algorithmic systems, and the ability of machine learning algorithms to evolve and become unintelligible to humans, even to those trained in programming languages (Christin 898-899). The opaque nature of algorithms alongside the perceived neutrality of algorithmic systems is problematic. Search engines are increasingly normalised and this leads to a socialisation where suppositions are made that “these artifacts are credible and provide accurate information that is fundamentally depoliticized and neutral” (Noble 25). Google’s autocomplete and PageRank algorithms exist outside of the veil of neutrality. In 2015, Google’s photos app, which uses machine learning techniques to help users collect, search, and categorise images, labelled two black people as ‘gorillas’ (O’Neil). Safiya Noble illustrates how media and technology are rooted in systems of white supremacy, and how these long-standing social biases surface in algorithms, illustrating how racial and gendered inequities embed into algorithmic systems. Google actively fixes algorithmic biases with band-aid-like solutions, which means the errors remain inevitable constituents within the algorithms. Rising levels of automation correspond to a rising level of errors, which can lead to confusion and misdirection of the algorithms that people use to manage their lives (O’Neil). As a result, software, code, machine learning algorithms, and facial/voice recognition technologies are scrutinised for producing and reproducing prejudices (Gray) and promoting conspiracies – often described as algorithmic bias (Bucher). Algorithmic bias occurs because algorithms are trained by historical data already embedded with social biases (O’Neil), and if that is not problematic enough, algorithms like Google’s search engine also learn and replicate the behaviours of Internet users (Benjamin 93), including conspiracy theorists and their followers. Technological errors, algorithmic bias, and increasing automation are further complicated by the fact that Google’s Internet service uses “2 billion lines of code” – a magnitude that is difficult to keep track of, including for “the programmers who designed the algorithm” (Christin 899). Understanding this level of code is not critical to understanding algorithmic logics, but we must be aware of the inscriptions such algorithms afford (Krasmann). As algorithms become more ubiquitous it is urgent to “demand that systems that hold algorithms accountable become ubiquitous as well” (O’Neil 231). This is particularly important because algorithms play a critical role in “providing the conditions for participation in public life”; however, the majority of the public has a modest to nonexistent awareness of algorithms (Gran et al. 1791). Given the heavy reliance of Internet users on Google’s search engine, it is necessary for research to provide a glimpse into the black boxes that people use to extract information especially when it comes to searching for information about conspiracy theorists. Our study fills a major gap in research as it examines a sub-category of Google’s autocomplete algorithm that has not been empirically explored before. Unlike the standard autocomplete feature that is primarily programmed according to popular searches, we examine the subtitle feature that operates as a fixed label for popular conspiracists within Google’s algorithm. Our initial foray into our research revealed that this is not only an issue with conspiracists, but also occurs with terrorists, extremists, and mass murderers. Method Using a reverse engineering approach (Bucher) from September to October 2021, we explored how Google’s autocomplete feature assigns subtitles to widely known conspiracists. The conspiracists were not geographically limited, and we searched for those who reside in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, and various countries in Europe. Reverse engineering stems from Ashby’s canonical text on cybernetics, in which he argues that black boxes are not a problem; the problem or challenge is related to the way one can discern their contents. As Google’s algorithms are not disclosed to the general public (Christin), we use this method as an extraction tool to understand the nature of how these algorithms (Eilam) apply subtitles. To systematically document the search results, we took screenshots for every conspiracist we searched in an attempt to archive the Google autocomplete algorithm. By relying on previous literature, reports, and the figures’ public statements, we identified and searched Google for 37 Western-based and influencial conspiracy theorists. We initially experimented with other problematic figures, including terrorists, extremists, and mass murderers to see whether Google applied a subtitle or not. Additionally, we examined whether subtitles were positive, neutral, or negative, and compared this valence to personality descriptions for each figure. Using the standard procedures of content analysis (Krippendorff), we focus on the manifest or explicit meaning of text to inform subtitle valence in terms of their positive, negative, or neutral connotations. These manifest features refer to the “elements that are physically present and countable” (Gray and Densten 420) or what is known as the dictionary definitions of items. Using a manual query, we searched Google for subtitles ascribed to conspiracy theorists, and found the results were consistent across different countries. Searches were conducted on Firefox and Chrome and tested on an Android phone. Regardless of language input or the country location established by a Virtual Private Network (VPN), the search terms remained stable, regardless of who conducted the search. The conspiracy theorists in our dataset cover a wide range of conspiracies, including historical figures like Nesta Webster and John Robison, who were foundational in Illuminati lore, as well as contemporary conspiracists such as Marjorie Taylor Greene and Alex Jones. Each individual’s name was searched on Google with a VPN set to three countries. Results and Discussion This study examines Google’s autocomplete feature associated with subtitles of conspiratorial actors. We first tested Google’s subtitling system with known terrorists, convicted mass shooters, and controversial cult leaders like David Koresh. Garry et al. (154) argue that “while conspiracy theories may not have mass radicalising effects, they are extremely effective at leading to increased polarization within societies”. We believe that the impact of neutral subtitling of conspiracists reflects the integral role conspiracies plays in contemporary politics and right-wing extremism. The sample includes contemporary and historical conspiracists to establish consistency in labelling. For historical figures, the labels are less consequential and simply reflect the reality that Google’s subtitles are primarily neutral. Of the 37 conspiracy theorists we searched (see Table 1 in the Appendix), seven (18.9%) do not have an associated subtitle, and the other 30 (81%) have distinctive subtitles, but none of them reflects the public knowledge of the individuals’ harmful role in disseminating conspiracy theories. In the list, 16 (43.2%) are noted for their contribution to the arts, 4 are labelled as activists, 7 are associated with their professional affiliation or original jobs, 2 to the journalism industry, one is linked to his sports career, another one as a researcher, and 7 have no subtitle. The problem here is that when white nationalists or conspiracy theorists are not acknowledged as such in their subtitles, search engine users could possibly encounter content that may sway their understanding of society, politics, and culture. For example, a conspiracist like Alex Jones is labeled as an “American Radio Host” (see Figure 1), despite losing two defamation lawsuits for declaring that the shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut, was a ‘false flag’ event. Jones’s actions on his InfoWars media platforms led to parents of shooting victims being stalked and threatened. Another conspiracy theorist, Gavin McInnes, the creator of the far-right, neo-fascist Proud Boys organisation, a known terrorist entity in Canada and hate group in the United States, is listed simply as a “Canadian writer” (see Figure 1). Fig. 1: Screenshots of Google’s subtitles for Alex Jones and Gavin McInnes. Although subtitles under an individual’s name are not audio, video, or image content, the algorithms that create these subtitles are an invisible infrastructure that could cause harm through their uninterrogated status and pervasive presence. This could then be a potential conduit to media which could cause harm and develop distrust in electoral and civic processes, or all institutions. Examples from our list include Brittany Pettibone, whose subtitle states that she is an “American writer” despite being one of the main propagators of the Pizzagate conspiracy which led to Edgar Maddison Welch (whose subtitle is “Screenwriter”) travelling from North Carolina to Washington D.C. to violently threaten and confront those who worked at Comet Ping Pong Pizzeria. The same misleading label can be found via searching for James O’Keefe of Project Veritas, who is positively labelled as “American activist”. Veritas is known for releasing audio and video recordings that contain false information designed to discredit academic, political, and service organisations. In one instance, a 2020 video released by O’Keefe accused Democrat Ilhan Omar’s campaign of illegally collecting ballots. The same dissembling of distrust applies to Mike Lindell, whose Google subtitle is “CEO of My Pillow”, as well as Sidney Powell, who is listed as an “American lawyer”; both are propagators of conspiracy theories relating to the 2020 presidential election. The subtitles attributed to conspiracists on Google do not acknowledge the widescale public awareness of the negative role these individuals play in spreading conspiracy theories or causing harm to others. Some of the selected conspiracists are well known white nationalists, including Stefan Molyneux who has been banned from social media platforms like Twitter, Twitch, Facebook, and YouTube for the promotion of scientific racism and eugenics; however, he is neutrally listed on Google as a “Canadian podcaster”. In addition, Laura Loomer, who describes herself as a “proud Islamophobe,” is listed by Google as an “Author”. These subtitles can pose a threat by normalising individuals who spread conspiracy theories, sow dissension and distrust in institutions, and cause harm to minority groups and vulnerable individuals. Once clicking on the selected person, the results, although influenced by the algorithm, did not provide information that aligned with the associated subtitle. The search results are skewed to the actual conspiratorial nature of the individuals and associated news articles. In essence, the subtitles do not reflect the subsequent search results, and provide a counter-labelling to the reality of the resulting information provided to the user. Another significant example is Jerad Miller, who is listed as “American performer”, despite the fact that he is the Las Vegas shooter who posted anti-government and white nationalist 3 Percenters memes on his social media (SunStaff), even though the majority of search results connect him to the mass shooting he orchestrated in 2014. The subtitle “performer” is certainly not the common characteristic that should be associated with Jerad Miller. Table 1 in the Appendix shows that individuals who are not within the contemporary milieux of conspiracists, but have had a significant impact, such as Nesta Webster, Robert Welch Junior, and John Robison, were listed by their original profession or sometimes without a subtitle. David Icke, infamous for his lizard people conspiracies, has a subtitle reflecting his past football career. In all cases, Google’s subtitle was never consistent with the actor’s conspiratorial behaviour. Indeed, the neutral subtitles applied to conspiracists in our research may reflect some aspect of the individuals’ previous careers but are not an accurate reflection of the individuals’ publicly known role in propagating hate, which we argue is misleading to the public. For example, David Icke may be a former footballer, but the 4.7 million search results predominantly focus on his conspiracies, his public fora, and his status of being deplatformed by mainstream social media sites. The subtitles are not only neutral, but they are not based on the actual search results, and so are misleading in what the searcher will discover; most importantly, they do not provide a warning about the misinformation contained in the autocomplete subtitle. To conclude, algorithms automate the search engines that people use in the functions of everyday life, but are also entangled in technological errors, algorithmic bias, and have the capacity to mislead the public. Through a process of reverse engineering (Ashby; Bucher), we searched 37 conspiracy theorists to decode the Google autocomplete algorithms. We identified how the subtitles attributed to conspiracy theorists are neutral, positive, but never negative, which does not accurately reflect the widely known public conspiratorial discourse these individuals propagate on the Web. This is problematic because the algorithms that determine these subtitles are invisible infrastructures acting to misinform the public and to mainstream conspiracies within larger social, cultural, and political structures. This study highlights the urgent need for Google to review the subtitles attributed to conspiracy theorists, terrorists, and mass murderers, to better inform the public about the negative nature of these actors, rather than always labelling them in neutral or positive ways. Funding Acknowledgement This project has been made possible in part by the Canadian Department of Heritage – the Digital Citizen Contribution program – under grant no. R529384. 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Barry Zwicker Canadian journalist Filmmaker who made a documentary that claimed fear was used to control the public after 9/11. Bart Sibrel American producer Writer, producer, and director of work to falsely claim the Apollo moon landings between 1969 and 1972 were staged by NASA. Ben Garrison American cartoonist Alt-right and QAnon political cartoonist Brittany Pettibone American writer Far-right, political vlogger on YouTube and propagator of #pizzagate. Cathy O’Brien American author Cathy O’Brien claims she was a victim of a government mind control project called Project Monarch. Dan Bongino American radio host Stakeholder in Parler, Radio Host, Ex-Spy, Conspiracist (Spygate, MAGA election fraud, etc.). David Icke Former footballer Reptilian humanoid conspiracist. David Wynn Miller (No subtitle) Conspiracist, far-right tax protester, and founder of the Sovereign Citizens Movement. Jack Posobiec American activist Alt-right, alt-lite political activist, conspiracy theorist, and Internet troll. Editor of Human Events Daily. James O’Keefe American activist Founder of Project Veritas, a far-right company that propagates disinformation and conspiracy theories. John Robison Foundational Illuminati conspiracist. Kevin Annett Canadian writer Former minister and writer, who wrote a book exposing the atrocities to Indigenous Communities, and now is a conspiracist and vlogger. Laura Loomer Author Far-right, anti-Muslim, conspiracy theorist, and Internet personality. Republican nominee in Florida's 21st congressional district in 2020. Marjorie Taylor Greene United States Representative Conspiracist, QAnon adherent, and U.S. representative for Georgia's 14th congressional district. Mark Dice American YouTuber Right-wing conservative pundit and conspiracy theorist. Mark Taylor (No subtitle) QAnon minister and self-proclaimed prophet of Donald Trump, the 45th U.S. President. Michael Chossudovsky Canadian economist Professor emeritus at the University of Ottawa, founder of the Centre for Research on Globalization, and conspiracist. Michael Cremo(Drutakarmā dāsa) American researcher Self-described Vedic creationist whose book, Forbidden Archeology, argues humans have lived on earth for millions of years. Mike Lindell CEO of My Pillow Business owner and conspiracist. Neil Patel English entrepreneur Founded The Daily Caller with Tucker Carlson. Nesta Helen Webster English author Foundational Illuminati conspiracist. Naomi Wolf American author Feminist turned conspiracist (ISIS, COVID-19, etc.). Owen Benjamin American comedian Former actor/comedian now conspiracist (Beartopia), who is banned from mainstream social media for using hate speech. Pamela Geller American activist Conspiracist, Anti-Islam, Blogger, Host. Paul Joseph Watson British YouTuber InfoWars co-host and host of the YouTube show PrisonPlanetLive. QAnon Shaman (Jake Angeli) American activist Conspiracy theorist who participated in the 2021 attack on Capitol Hil. Richard B. Spencer (No subtitle) American neo-Nazi, antisemitic conspiracy theorist, and white supremacist. Rick Wiles (No subtitle) Minister, Founded conspiracy site, TruNews. Robert W. Welch Jr. American businessman Founded the John Birch Society. Ronald Watkins (No subtitle) Founder of 8kun. Serge Monast Journalist Creator of Project Blue Beam conspiracy. Sidney Powell (No subtitle) One of former President Trump’s Lawyers, and renowned conspiracist regarding the 2020 Presidential election. Stanton T. Friedman Nuclear physicist Original civilian researcher of the 1947 Roswell UFO incident. Stefan Molyneux Canadian podcaster Irish-born, Canadian far-right white nationalist, podcaster, blogger, and banned YouTuber, who promotes conspiracy theories, scientific racism, eugenics, and racist views Tim LaHaye American author Founded the Council for National Policy, leader in the Moral Majority movement, and co-author of the Left Behind book series. Viva Frei (No subtitle) YouTuber/ Canadian Influencer, on the Far-Right and Covid conspiracy proponent. William Guy Carr Canadian author Illuminati/III World War Conspiracist Google searches conducted as of 9 October 2021.