Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Geoteknik'

Detta examensarbete är utfört för att få kunskap om hur man kan använda datorbaserade verktyg för att rita upp och analysera data som erhållits i samband med en geoteknisk fältundersökning. Geotekniken syftar till att få förståelse om hur olika jordarter är uppbyggda och hur jorden reagerar då den utsätts för belastningar. Dessa kunskaper är nödvändiga för att utforma grundläggningen för en byggnad. Det datorbaserade verktyg som har använts i denna rapport är programmet Novapoint GeoSuite som är ett vanligt förekommande program inom byggindustrin i Sverige. Programmet används bland annat till att ta fram plan- och sektionsritningar, samt att utföra beräkningar av släntstabilitet och sättningar för byggnader. I rapporten redovisas ett fiktivt exempel på grundläggning av en färjeterminal på ön Blixholmen i Norrköping. Exemplet syftar till att visa hur man arbetar fram geotekniska resultat med hjälp av programmet Novapoint GeoSuite. Det undersökta datorprogrammet är mycket detaljerat och ger realistiska resultat vid jämförelse med manuella beräkningar. Programmet underlättar också för geoteknikern genom att generera ritningarna åt honom eller henne, vilka tidigare ritats för hand.
This thesis has been accomplished to gain knowledge about computer software for applications in soil mechanics, which is being used to create drawings and to analyze data from a field investigation. The purpose of soil mechanics is to learn about the structure of different soils and how soils react when it is being exposed to loads. These facts are necessary when you shall decide how a building should be founded. The computer software that has been analyzed in this thesis is the program Novapoint GeoSuite and is well rooted as calculation software in the construction industry in Sweden. The program is being used to create drawings in plan and sections of a performed soil investigation, and to perform calculations of slope stability and settlements. In the report, there is a fictitious example were a foundation of a dock for passenger traffic, on the island of Blixholmen in Norrköping. The example aims to present how to obtain geotechnical results with help from the program Novapoint GeoSuite. The conclusion that can be said about the computer software is that it is detailed and gives realistic results that can be compared with traditional calculation methods. It also facilitates for the geotechnical, that in regular basis has to draw the drawings by hand, now can make the program do it for him or her instead.

Den första januari 2011 blir den Svenska övergången till Eurocode inom Geoteknik mer definitiv i samband med att Boverket antar det nya regelverket. Geotekniska handläggare och fält-/labtekniker får i och med övergången ett nytt ramverk för rapportering och redovisning att arbeta efter. Den nya standarden kommer leda till en förbättrad kvalité på arbetet då kraven på redovisningens innehåll samt tillgänglighet ökar. Den kommer även befrämja den fria marknaden, både nationellt och internationellt. Det rapporteringssystem som i dagsläget används kommer ersättas av ett nytt som innefattar fem olika dokumenttyper. Dessa dokumenttyper är: Underlagsrapport Försöksrapport Markteknisk undersökningsrapport Projekterings PM Förfrågningsunderlag. Innehållet i de nya rapporttyperna knyter i många avseenden an till innehållet i de som används idag. Den nya rapporteringsmodellen ställer dock ur ett dokumenteringsperspektiv högre krav på handläggare och tekniker. Modellen kommer provocera fram en mer detaljerad och innehållsrik kommunikation mellan fält, laboratorium och kontor. Tanken är att personer som inte varit inblandade i ett projekts tidigare skeden skall kunna ta till sig alla förutsättningar med hjälp av de nya dokumenten. Mer ansvar kommer läggas på lab-/fälttekniker vad avser kvalitet och dokumentation i projektens undersökningsfas. För att man från fält och lab. skall kunna ta fram rätt underlag till fortsatt projektering måste handläggare tydligare precisera vilken typ av information, utöver den traditionella, som måste finnas med i resultatredovisningen. För att övergången inte i för stor utsträckning skall påverka handläggningstid och projekteringskostnad måste företagen anpassa sin verksamhet efter de nya spelregler som Eurocode medför.

Den förste januari 2011 blev det obligatoriskt att i Sverige följa dimensioneringsförskrifterna Eurocode 7 vid dimensionering av geokonstruktioner. Eurocode är ett resultatet av det Europeiska standardiseringsorganet CEN’s arbete med att ta fram gemensamma regler för hela Europa. Eurocode ersatte BKR som tidigare var de normativa föreskrifterna som gällde i Sverige och med detta skifte startades arbetet med att implementera de nya reglerna fullt ut bland de svenska konstruktörerna. På uppdrag av ett lokalt företag har det jämförts och lokaliserat ändringar som gjorts mellan de nya reglerna i bilaga D och de regler som ska appliceras i Sverige. Det har även konstruerats ett beräkningsprogram som dimensionerar grundfundament enligt de nya reglerna som föreskrivs i Eurocode 7, utifrån IEG’s hänvisningar. Resultatet från undersökningen visar att de nya dimensioneringsföreskrifterna från EU inte innebar en så stor skillnad från BKR’s regler som först troddes utan den gav stor frihet till att räkna med de metoder som respektive land själva väljer. Vilket Sverige utnyttjade genom att gå tillbaks till de dimensioneringsmetoder som tidigare räknades utifrån, fast med ändring på hur säkerhetsfaktorerna appliceras.

The use of improved equipment and methodology can result in considerable reductions in the drilling costs for medium- to large sized ground source heat pump system in crystalline bedrock. The main point has been to use special techniques within hydraulic fracturing to create a larger heat exchange area in the bedrock, and thus a greater energy extraction per borehole. The energy extraction is based on circulating groundwater.

Stimulation with hydraulic fracturing is a well known technique in order to improve borehole yields for drinking water-, oil-, and geothermal purposes. A procedure for injection of propping agents in selected borehole sections, and custom-made equipment for hydraulic fracturing in crystalline bedrock, a double packer, have been developed in this study. The propping agents are likely to ensure a permanent improvement of the hydraulic conductivity in a long-run perspective.

In addition to a pre-test, a comprehensive test programme has been performed at each of the two pilot plants at Bryn and at the former property of Energiselskapet Asker og Bærum (EAB) in Bærum municipality outside Oslo, Norway. A total of 125 stimulations with hydraulic fracturing using water-only and hydraulic fracturing with injection of sand have been performed in 9 boreholes. Test pumping and geophysical logging (temperature, electrical conductivity, gamma radiation, optical televiewer and flow measurements) have been carried out in order to document the effect of the hydraulic fracturing.

The pilot plants at Bryn and EAB, where the ground source heat pump systems are based on circulating groundwater, have demonstrated the short-period energy extraction, limitations and opportunities of the concept for hydraulic fracturing and increased energy extraction in different geological and hydrogeological areas. The bedrock at Bryn and EAB is characterized as a low-metamorphic sandstone and a nodular limestone, respectively. At Bryn, the five boreholes were organised with a central borehole encircled by four satellite boreholes 13 metres away from the central borehole. The central borehole at EAB was flanked with two boreholes 16 and 20 metres away. In operation mode, groundwater was pumped from the satellite boreholes, heat exchanged, and re-injected into the groundwater magazine via the central borehole. Routine operation of the plants has not yet been initiated.

The main findings from this study can be summarized as follows:

•Hydraulic fracturing with water-only results in an overall increase in water yield for the hard rock borehole.

•Hydraulic fracturing with injection of sand as propping agent also leads to an increased water yield.

•The use of sand as propping agent seems to be more required in fractures with high counter pressure, in this study higher than approximately 40 bars, compared with fractures with lower counter pressure. The particle size of the sand should also be adjusted to the appearing counter pressure, and injection of coarser sand is recommended in fractures with lower counter pressures.

•Comparing the results from the hydraulic fracturing performed at Bryn and EAB shows that the pressure levels, required to create new fractures, varied considerably. The maximum pressures present at Bryn were higher than the corresponding pressures at EAB. At Bryn 70% (44 out of 63) of the pressure-time curves from the hydraulic fracturing with water-only were interpreted as initiation or reopening of fractures, while the number for EAB was 97% (36 out of 37). The lower degree of fracturing at Bryn is likely to be a result of high rock stresses and high tensile strength of the bedrock, also confirmed by the results from the rock stress measurements performed at Bryn. Considering the bedrock at EAB, characterized as nodular limestone, the tensile strength is assumed to be less than the values for the low-metamorphic sandstone present at Bryn.

•The infiltration rate in the central boreholes is a critical factor for the energy extraction and a successful operation of ground source heat pump systems based on circulating groundwater. Results from the short-period circulation tests accomplished at Bryn and EAB show that the infiltration rate in the central borehole at Bryn (approximately 2500 litres/hour) was too low to obtain a satisfactory operation of the plant, while the infiltration rate at EAB (14000 litres/hour) was sufficient to achieve profitability. Under the actual conditions, a reduction in the construction costs, i.e. the drilling costs, for a conventional ground source heat pump system with single U-collectors in vertical boreholes, of more than 50% were achieved for the pilot plant at EAB when the energy extraction from water is more than 105 MWh. The large difference in the infiltration rate between Bryn and EAB was probably related to: (1) Large initial differences in the borehole yield prior to hydraulic fracturing (<560 litres/hour at Bryn and >6300 litres/hour at EAB). Nodular limestone generally has high permeability, while compact sandstone rocks are expected to have low permeability. (2) Hydraulic fracturing was most successful at EAB. (3) The higher rock stress level present at Bryn compared to EAB will increase the tendency to tighten the opened fractures, even the fractures with injected sand •The FEFLOW-modelling of the pilot plant at Bryn and EAB emphasized the important relation between the available heat exchange area in the bedrock, the thermal conductivity of the bedrock, and the energy potential.

•The increased borehole yields achieved by hydraulic fracturing in this study, and the improved, reliable and cost-effective hydraulic fracturing techniques in crystalline bedrock, will probably increase the interest for groundwater as a domestic water supply for small- to medium sized water works.

Utvecklingen av sonderingsmetoder har pågått sedan cirka 100 år tillbaka med anledning av att det finns flera olika syften med en geoteknisk undersökning. Exempelvis kan det i ett projekt vara relevant att bedöma jordlagrens egenskaper medan det i ett annat handlar om att bestämma djupet till berg. Resultatet från de geotekniska undersökningarna mynnar ut i rekommendationer för till exempel grundläggning och stabilitet för olika typer av konstruktioner. Examensarbetet behandlar en jämförelse av konventionell jord-bergsondering med den alltmer frekvent använda metoden sänkhammarborrning, där båda metoderna framförallt syftar till att bestämma bergöverytans läge vid geotekniska undersökningar. Jord-bergsondering består av fyra olika sonderingsklasser, Jb-1, Jb-2, Jb-3 och Jb-tot som skiljer sig främst med avseende på vilka borrparametrar som registreras vid sondering. Syftet med examensarbetet är att utforma ett underlag för att implementera sänkhammarborrning som en del i denna Jb-familj, då metoden idag saknar en egen sonderingsklass. Standarder och metodbeskrivningar för sonderingsmetoder vid geotekniska fältundersökningar är av stor betydelse för att uppnå kvalitetshöjning vid exempelvis utförandet av den specifika metoden. Den stora skillnaden mellan metoderna är konceptet vid borrning. Vid konventionell Jb-sondering används topphammare där slagdonet sitter ovanpå stångpaketet, medan vid sänkhammarborrning sitter slagdonet precis ovanför borrkronan nere i borrhålet. Topphammaren drivs av hydraultryck medan sänkborrhammaren drivs av högtrycksvatten eller högtrycksluft som tillförs via vattenpump respektive kompressor. Under arbetet har en korrelationsborrning med Jb-2 sondering och vattendriven sänkhammarborrning utförts i projektet TUB-A, Solna. Från denna korrelationsborrning erhölls endast en lyckad sondering, vilket medförde att fokuset med examensarbetet blev att identifiera skillnader mellan metoderna vid borrnings- och etableringsförfarandet. Från resultatet framkom att vid etablering av sänkhammarborrning krävs tillägg med extern vattenpump med arbetstryck upp till 180 bar, högstrycksslangar, extern svivelanordning, speciella borrstål och naturligtvis den vattendrivna sänkborrhammaren. I resultatdelen presenteras även för- och nackdelar mellan de olika borrprinciperna. Sänkborrhammarens fördel är framförallt vid sondering på stort djup där topphammaren förlorar sin funktion i form av förlust i slagenergi vid varje skarvtapp. Topphammaren är å andra sidan en väletablerad metod som till exempel inte kräver någon extern utrustning, vilket också gör metoden fördelaktig ur ett kostnadsperspektiv. För att underlätta vid metodbeskrivning för sänkborrhammaren som en egen sonderingsklass är det gynnsamt att efterlikna de sonderingsklasser som finns. I resultatet framgår att sonderingsklassen Jb-2 kan vara bäst lämpad att efterlikna. I examensarbetets slutsats konstateras att goda förutsättningar finns för implementering av sänkhammarborrning som en egen sonderingsklass inom jord- och bergsondering, men att tillägg i utrustning och anpassningar vid parameterregistrering behöver göras. Vid redovisning kan metoden förslagsvis benämnas Jb-S, där S står för sänkborrhammare.

In co-operation with the Geological Survey of Norway, 395 samples of topsoil, 44 bedrock samples and 24 samples of sand from sandboxes at kindergartens taken in Oslo, the capital city of Norway, were analysed for a wide range of elements. To get a measure on the bio-availability of arsenic, a five stage sequential extraction procedure was accomplished on a subset of 98 topsoil samples and on all 24 samples of sand from sandboxes. These fractions (i.e. “Exchangeable”, “Carbonate”, “Reducible substrate”, “Organic” and “Residual”) were analysed for arsenic. Bulk concentrations in a representative subset of 10 bedrock samples were determined by XRF analysis.

For the concentrations of the elements As, B, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, P, Pb and Zn in soil, geologic sources are important, but human activity has had a large effect on concentrations in topsoil, especially in the central districts. At least 81% of the samples contain more arsenic than the Norm value for polluted soil used by the Norwegian authorities. For chromium, zinc and lead, the percentages are 65, 74 and 25 respectively. In topsoil, up to 50% of the arsenic is extractable in the exchangeable, the carbonate and the reducible substrate fractions, but only 2% of the samples exceeded the Norm value after the three extraction stages. After four stages of extraction, 69% of the samples exceeded the Norm value.

At 24 kindergartens in the central districts of Oslo, concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in topsoil samples are higher than in samples of sand from sandpits, but differences in arsenic are low. All topsoil samples and 63% of the sandbox samples exceed the arsenic Norm value for polluted soil used by the Norwegian authorities. Concentrations of at least one of the elements Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn exceed the Norm value in the topsoil. At two kindergartens all elements, except Cd, exceed the Norm value in the topsoil.

In the samples from the sandboxes, arsenic concentrations in the exchangeable, the carbonate and the reducible substrate fractions, lie at a higher level than in topsoil samples. Leakage of arsenic compounds from impregnated and painted wood have probably caused elevated concentrations of this element in the sand. At two kindergartens the cumulative arsenic content in samples from the sandboxes exceeds the Norm value of 2 mg/kg As for polluted soil already after two fractions (i.e. the “Exchangeable” and the “Carbonate” fraction). After three fractions, the arsenic content in sand at 5 kindergartens exceeds this value. After four fractions this number was still 5. Regarding soil, no kindergartens had a cumulative arsenic content after three stages of the extraction procedure. After four stages 16 kindergartens contained more arsenic than the Norwegian Norm value of 2 mg/kg As.

Bulk concentrations of metals, in the bedrock samples, are generally higher than the acid soluble concentrations. Differences are small for copper and zinc, somewhat higher for lead and nickel and considerably different for chromium. Acid soluble chromium concentrations in soil differ little when compared with acid soluble concentrations in bedrock, but are in general much lower than bulk concentrations in rock. Chromium is probably strongly incorporated in the mineral structure of rock samples and concentrated HNO3 cannot solubilize all chromium molecules. For copper, lead and zinc, the acid soluble concentrations in soil are higher than the bulk concentrations in bedrock. The parent rock material cannot be the only source for these elements in soils and various anthropogenic sources dispersed by air or water probably have major influence.

The enrichment of nickel in topsoil near highways in Oslo might be due to the bitumen content of road dust. The enrichment of chromium and copper might be due to wear and tear of cars and engine parts. There is no enrichment of cadmium and zinc in topsoil near highways. Concentrations of zinc in topsoil in Oslo are generally high, most probably because of industry. The possible addition of zinc from traffic to the topsoil is not observed, in this study.

Large areas prone to clay slides are present in Canada, Sweden and Norway. Traditionally, mainly geotechnical approaches have been used to solve clay-slide issues. However, there is great potential to utilise interdisciplinary studies in order to prevent or reduce possible slide damage. The present study combines geology, morphology and geophysical investigations, with geotechnical data. The purpose is to better understand landscape development, formation of quick clay and sliding in clay.

Thick, marine clay deposits in valleys along the Norwegian coast are occasionally subjected to large landslides involving quick clay. The development of quick clay is closely related to the deglaciation history of the coastal parts of Norway. During and after the last ice age, up to several hundred metres of glaciomarine and marine deposits accumulated in Norwegian fjords. These sediments were subsequently exposed on land due to glacioisostatic rebound. Leaching of salt from the marine clay by groundwater resulted in the development of quick-clay layers or pockets, which completely liquefy when remoulded.

The study area of this thesis is the small valley Buvika, located in the Trondheimsfjorden area, Mid Norway. Buvika is characterised by its undulating terrain with numerous slide scars and ravines. There are thick occurrences of quick clay in the subsurface.

The existing geotechnical and geophysical data, combined with sedimentology, structural geology, morphology, geophysical results, and 14C-datings, have given input to the understanding of the landscape development of the study area. From this, a deglaciation history has been deduced, indicating at least one, and possibly two, minor glacier re-advances in Late Allerød/Early Younger Dryas time. This implies that there have been more and larger ice-front oscillations in the study area than earlier documented.

The lowered relative sea level led to incision by rivers accompanied by numerous slides involving quick clay. The erosion pattern of a valley filled with glaciomarine and marine deposits can be quite complex, but careful analyses have helped outlining the interplay between river and ravine incision, groundwater erosion and sliding. The study of sediments and structures in large excavated sections have resulted in the detection of slide material from old flake-type slides, where only a thin layer of quick clay acted as a slide plane. Younger slide scars cutting into theses older slide deposits show further quick-clay development. Mapping of the morphology in Buvika has identified numerous slide scars and ravines. A relative chronology of slide events has been established based upon the slide scars’ position in the terrain and/or results from 14C-datings of terrestrial organic material. Most of the historical slide scars are located in the northern part of the valley.

Detailed mapping of the quick-clay extent is of great interest for planning and protection purposes, as the position of quick clay within slopes has a major impact on the landslide risk. In this study, the resistivity method is found to be potentially well suited for outlining quick-clay occurrences since quick clay has a slightly higher electrical resistivity (10-80 Ωm) than intact unleached clay (1-10 Ωm). This is due to a higher salt content in the latter. These relationships are supported by pore water salt content measurements. The resistivity profiles that were acquired show good correlation with other geophysical data and geotechnical drillings. However, the resistivity method must be combined with other investigations, since both leached, non-quick clay and silty, non-sensitive material may give resistivity values of the same range as quick clay.

The stratigraphy of an area strongly influences the landscape development. It determines the morphology, such as ravine development, and size, shape and distribution of slides. To the east of Buvika, thick and frequent layers of sand and gravel in the dominant clay deposits drain the slopes, leading to development of deeply incising ravines. To the south and north, thinner layers of coarse material in the clay lead to pore-pressure build-ups and quick-clay development, resulting in numerous slide scars.

The Kristianstad plain contains one of the most interesting and exciting groundwater of Sweden. It is also one of Northern Europe´s largest groundwater resources. The layers of gravel, limestone, sand, and sandstone is prime location. The amount of available water is veryhigh. The groundwater is consumed by four municipalities; Kristianstad, Eastern Goinge, Bromölla, and Hässleholm, including several industrial zones. Large quantities of groundwater have been used for agricultural irrigation. Groundwater resource carrying capacity refers to the maximum ability of groundwater system for supply industrial production, people’s lives and protection of the eco-environment under certain technical level and social condition in different periods of the future. Groundwater is a part of this cycle, which eventually flows into rivers, different types of wetlands, lakes or directly into the Baltic Sea. Withdrawal of groundwater is also part of the cycle. A waterbed, also known as an aquifer, is a geological formation containing groundwater and it is so permeable that groundwater may be extracted in larger quantity. Aquifers are filled with water by infiltrating precipitation, leakage from other aquifers or through infiltration from rivers. The extraction of groundwater may not exceed the inflow for a long time. If this occurs it is a risk of progressive lowering of the water quality or its deterioration. Area of reservoir, groundwater Färlöv– Vinnö is I think a good limit of economic water.

This licentiate thesis presents results of laboratory experiments regarding the effectiveness of adding small amounts of binders in order to modify and improve the mechanical performance of low organic clayey silt soil. Two types of binders have been used i.e. cement and an industrial by-product named Petrit T. The study covered both the immediate and longterm effects on the soil material. Binder content was added by soil dry weight, Petrit T at 2, 4 and 7% and cement at 1, 2, 4 and 7%. An experimental program has been carried out, including tests of consistency limits, unconfined compressive strength, density, solidification, grain size distribution (by laser particle size analyzer) and pH. The tests were conducted on the treated soil with varying binder contents and after different curing periods, i.e. after 7, 14, 28, 60 and 90 days. Results show that cement is more effective in improving the physical and engineering properties than Petrit T. Plasticity index decreases after treatment and leads to an immediate increase in workability. This is found directly after treatment and it increases with time. Soil density increased, whilst water content decreased, with increasing binder content and curing time. Particle size distribution of soil is changed toward the granular side by the reduction of the particles in clay size fraction and increasing silt size particles after 28 days of treatment. Both binder types resulted in an immediate effect on the soil pH value. This value increased to 12.3 after adding 7% of the binder and then it gradually decreased as curing time increased. The cement treated soil exhibits a more brittle failure behavior than the soil treated with Petrit T. In this case a more ductile behavior was observed. The findings confirmed that adding small binder contents of cement and by-product Petrit T significantly improved the physical and mechanical properties of soil, which can contribute to reduce the environmental threats and costs that are associated with using high binder contents in various construction projects.

Upstream tailings dams may experience slope stability problems when the rate of raising is too fast. Tailings consolidate slowly due to low hydraulic conductivity. The excess pore pressures can build up due to accelerated rate of raising. The cumulative increase in excess pore pressures due to successive raisings can endanger slope stability of a tailings dam. The stability of a tailings dam is closely related to the consolidation process. The consolidation process and associated stability of an upstream tailings dam during staged construction was modelled with the finite element program PLAXIS. The analysis indicated that the stability of the dam reduced during raising due to increase of excess pore pressures. The safety of the dam was improved by adding rockfill banks on the downstream side. The volume of the rockfill banks was minimized with an optimization technique. This technique involves (i) construction of a rockfill bank on the downstream side when the factor of safety is less than a permissible limit, (ii) utilization of a minimum volume of the rockfill that is necessary to stabilize the slope. This technique can be practicable when the rate of raising is moderate, and partial consolidation occurs between consecutive raisings. Numerical analysis was also performed on a curved embankment of an upstream tailings dam in order to investigate the possible risk of hydraulic fracturing and internal erosion in a corner of the dam. The analysis showed that low compressive stresses occurred above the phreatic level, near the zones of filter and rockfill banks. These zones contain coarse material, and are, therefore, not susceptible to hydraulic fracturing and internal erosion. An increase in the radius of the corner is suggested in order to prevent large reductions in compressive stresses that may occur due to future raisings. Presently the curved dam section is stable. However, an additional rockfill bank on the downstream side will be required for future raisings. Static liquefaction is considered as a common cause of disastrous flow failures of tailings dams. These flow failures can be predicted with numerical modelling using suitable constitutive models. In this context, some constitutive models capable of simulating static liquefaction behaviour of loose saturated sands are reviewed. It is generally concluded that the finite element method can be a helpful tool for modelling stability of tailings dams.

Godkänd; 2011; 20110404 (muhauc); LICENTIATSEMINARIUM Ämnesområde: Geoteknik/Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Examinator: Professor Sven Knutsson, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, Luleå tekniska universitet Diskutant: Professor Anders Sellgren, Luleå tekniska universitet Tid: Fredag den 6 maj 2011 kl 10.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

End-of-life tyres are a disposal problem regarding the large volumes produced every year. Tyre shreds are primarily produced to reduce the transportation volumes of end-of-life tyres after collection. Within the European Union, there is a ban for landfilling tyre material in order to reduce the total landfilling volumes and to encourage recycling measures. Until recently the main disposal option has been energy recovery in industrial processes. However, legislation acts has recently been taken in the European Union to encourage recycling and recovery of end-of-life-tyres and re-use of tyre materials in construction works is listed as one disposal option.Tyre shreds possess interesting technical properties that could be beneficially used in civil engineering applications. Some characteristic properties of tyre shred materials are the low density, high elasticity, low stiffness, high drainage capacity and high thermal insulation capacity. These properties open up possibilities for utilisation of the material in an innovative manner.The overall aim of this thesis work has been to describe and evaluate tyre shreds as a civil engineering construction material from environmental and technical point of view. The thesis work has included laboratory tests and full scale field tests to investigate technical and environmental properties of tyre shreds and to investigate the tyre shred material behaviour in a real road construction. Furthermore, the state-of-the-art knowledge in the area has also been analysed and presented.In the laboratory studies technical properties focused on compaction and compression behaviour of tyre shreds have been investigated. In a field study of a built road, tyre shreds has been tested and evaluated, during four years, as lightweight fill and frost insulation material. Environmental properties of tyre shreds, mainly leaching characteristics, have been studied in laboratory tests and monitored in two full scale field tests.Based on the results in the laboratory studies a model is proposed for evaluation of stressstrain properties and prediction of compression behaviour. Recommendations for construction works and pavement design are suggested based on the road construction field study results.Conclusions regarding the studied leaching properties of tyre shreds, based on the laboratory tests and the field monitoring, are that zinc and iron are the metals mainly released and that the release of the studied organic compounds, i.e. PAH and phenols, are low. From an environmental point-of-view focus should be moved from PAH-compounds towards other compounds that are more interesting from mobility perspective and lack of knowledge. It is concluded from this thesis work that PAH is not a pollution problem in the area of use of tyre material covered by this work.Applications where tyre shreds have been successfully utilised as construction material, are e.g. as draining layers in landfills and as material in trotting tracks and paddocks. The utilisation of the material in trotting tracks and paddocks is especially interesting since the unique elasticity of the material is utilised. The potential of utilising tyre shreds in civil engineering construction is big. Since the available amounts of material is limited there is a possibility to direct the use of tyre shreds to the most favourable applications of tyre shreds and still solve the disposal problem of end-of-life tyres.
Uttjänta däck är ett avsättningsproblem avseende de stora volymerna som produceras varje år. Däckklipp produceras främst med avseende på att reducera transportvolymen av insamlade däck. Inom EU har det införts ett förbud mot att deponera däck och däckklipp för att dels reducera den totala volymen avfall som deponeras och dels för att uppmuntra återvinning av däckmaterial. Den huvudsakliga avsättningen för uttjänta däck har fram tills nu varit energiåtervinning, främst inom cementindustrin.Däckklipp har intressanta tekniska egenskaper som fördelaktigt kan utnyttjas i anläggningstekniska tillämpningar. Karakteristiska egenskaper för däckklipp är låg densitet, hög elasticitet, låg styvhet, hög dränerande och hög värmeisolerande förmåga. Kombinationen av dessa egenskaper möjliggör tekniskt innovativa lösningar inom anläggningsbyggande.Det övergripande syftet med avhandlingen har varit att beskriva och utvärdera däckklipp som ett anläggningsmaterial ur både teknisk och miljömässig synvinkel. Arbetet har inkluderat både laboratorie- och fullskaleförsök för att utreda tekniska, miljö- och anläggningstekniska egenskaper. Vidare har det aktuella kunskapsläget om däckklipp som anläggningsmaterial utvärderats och presenterats.I laboratorieförsök har tekniska egenskaper med fokus mot packnings- och kompressionsegenskaper för däckklipp undersökts. I ett fältförsök har en vägkonstruktion med däckklipp som lättfyllnads- och tjälisoleringsmaterial byggts och utvärderats under fyra år. I laboratorieförsök har lakningsegenskaper för däckmaterial och miljöövervakningsprogram för tre olika konstruktioner utvärderats.Baserat på laboratoriestudier har en utvärderingsmodell för spännings-töjningsegenskaper och beräkning av kompression föreslagits. Rekommendationer för anläggningsteknik och vägdimensionering presenteras baserat på utvärderingen av vägkonstruktionen.Slutsatser baserat på lakningsstudierna i laboratoriemiljö och utvärderingen av miljöövervakningsprogrammen för fältkonstruktionerna är att de metaller som främst lakar ut är zink och järn och att lakningen av de studerade organiska föreningarna, d.v.s. PAH och fenoler, är låg. Från ett miljöperspektiv bör fokus flyttas från PAH mot organiska föreningar som har hög mobilitet och där kunskapsläget är lågt. Slutsatsen i detta arbete är att PAH-föreningar inte utgör ett föroreningsspridningsproblem för konstruktioner med däckklipp.Tillämpningar där däckklipp framgångsrikt har använts som konstruktionsmaterial är t.ex. i dräneringslager i deponier, i travbanor, och i paddockar. Användningen av däckklipp i travbanor och paddockar är särskilt intressant eftersom belastningen på hästarnas ligament kan minskas.Potentialen att använda däckklipp som ett anläggningsmaterial är stor. Eftersom tillgången är begränsad finns det en möjlighet att styra användningen till de lösningar där materialet används optimalt, både tekniskt och miljömässigt, och ändå avsätta all tillgänglig volym uttjänta däck.
Godkänd; 2006; 20070108 (mlk)

Snow has been a subject of research since the mid-20th century. Research on mechanical properties of snow started as an off-shoot of soil mechanics, where methods, tools and instruments used often are the same. However, during the last decades the winter business industry has been growing requiring a number of new fields of research. The aim with this PhD thesis is to investigate and contribute to solutions of some of the new research problems appearing in this area. Machine-made snow is commonly used for buildings and artwork of snow. Only minor scientific studies of machine-made snow and its properties have been published. Therefore, mechanical properties of machine-made snow were investigated. Strength and deformation properties were evaluated through uniaxial compressive tests where cylindrical test specimens were subjected to different constant deformation rates. Creep deformation, bending strength and ultimate load were also evaluated through beam tests. The results showed that the deformation rate is crucial if the snow will deform plastically or if brittle failure will occur. The grain size and structure of the snow had a strong influence on the strength properties. Snow is a constantly changing material with a large variety of grain sizes and shapes. Therefore it is of importance to classify snow. Classication of snow can be done using different methods depending on the property that is to be investigated. Several non-contact detection methods to evaluate snow properties exist. In this thesis, spectral reflectance measurements were performed to investigate liquid water content in snow using two different systems, a spectrometer and an optical sensor called Road Eye. The Road Eye sensor was also used to classify snow in cross-country ski tracks. This method enables a fast classication of a complete track where different types of snow can be distinguished. The properties of a ski track and the characteristics of the snow determine the type of skis that should be selected for optimum sliding properties. Cross-country skis have different mechanical properties, which to a large extent can be evaluated from the span curve of the ski. Depending on the skiing style, the skier's skills, terrain and track conditions different ski properties are required, which is particularly important for competitive skiing. Span curves of cross-country skis were measured using a digital instrument called Skiselector. Results from the investigations showed that skis within the same pair may have signicantly different properties. Moreover, temperature influences the span curve and thus the mechanical properties of the skis. Therefore, skis should be measured at a temperature close to where they are aimed to be used. Field tests of skis with similar span curves but different ski base topography were tested during wet and cold snow conditions. The results indicate that different topographies are preferable during different snow conditions. Due to the climate change, winters have become shorter and warmer with less natural snow. To compensate for the lack of natural snow, ski resorts and other stakeholders produce machinemade snow in order to run their business. Storing snow in insulated piles is an alternative and sometimes a complement to snow production. Studies on stored snow show that the surface area of the pile should be minimized in order to reduce the melt rate. Furthermore, the pileshould be covered with a suciently thick insulating layer, preferably with good evaporation properties. Theoretical calculations can be used to estimate the amount of snow that melts and to predict the efficiency of different materials as thermal insulation on snow. These calculations coincide well with experiments performed in northern Sweden where snow melt was measured. This PhD thesis consists of five publications and an introduction to this area which in particular puts these publications into a more general frame.

The dust generated from mining activities in the mining area is an important environmental issue for modern mining industries with many environmental problems involved. Number of researcher worked on small dust particle transport, but few work related to the coarser dust particles with 10 to 100 micro meters diameters had been made despite the fact that coarser dust transport have significant influence on the human lives (e.g. dust deposit on the residential area nearby, and mining facilities which may bring commercial and safety problem to the people living close by and the mine operators). More complaints from the residents and the workers deserve such research work.The research on dust transport is aiming to track how dust transport and deposit around the mining area and its interrelationship with local climate and topographic conditions. The modeling work is based on some fluid sediment transport dynamic models, with 1D, 2D and 3D when the research steps go further on. The models illustrate the transport progress and the amount transported by the wind. A case study from Malmberget mine in northern Sweden has been made in 2010.The dust characteristic information was obtained from laboratory work in LTU, and local climate information was supplied by the SMHI (Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute). Two transport models were developed and applied here: One is the computational model based upon the classical Bagnold’s (1941) equation; and the other one is the simulation model based upon the sedimentation engineering work from Al-Ansari (1976). The computational model calculates dust retention time for estimating the amount of dust transport in certain time period with provided wind and dust characteristic information. The simulation model used simple sediment transport model to simulate the dust grain movement in air flow, and conclude the transport amount of dust. Both models were enhanced by Matlab GUI to simplify the calculation procedure. The comparison of the results from the two models gave the similar variations and estimation of the transport amount for the given data. With more modification methods the models are expected to be more accurate. The application of the model is aiming to be enlarged to snow particles with changed criteria, 2D and 3D models would be designed in the future work to obtain the better results.

Godkänd; 2012; 20120927 (yiyhua); LICENTIATSEMINARIUM Ämne: Geoteknik/Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Examinator: Professor Sven Knutsson, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, Luleå tekniska universitet Diskutant: Professor John McManus, St. Andrews University, UK Tid: Onsdag den 31 oktober 2012 kl 10.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

The peoples demand of functions and services in cities is the driver for energy and material flows. Most people in the world are now living in urban areas. In order to achieve a sustainable development of cities, both resource use and environmental impact have to be reduced. For construction activities, an important aspect is to increase the reuse of construction materials. From a resource perspective, the urban demand for construction of buildings, infrastructure and other facilities results in materials accumulated in constructions but also in other applications and in landfills. The materials can be described as the urban material stock where some materials are used and others are not used, i.e. wasted. There are many cases where material stocks are used for construction purposes. For example, used concrete and bricks, excavated soil and rock from construction projects and other wasted materials such as rubber from tires can be crushed, shredded and sorted to granules and used in many different construction applications. Different perspectives can be applied when assessing the environmental impacts of using stocked material in construction. The overall aim of this thesis is to study the environmental impacts of using granular soil, rock and rubber in construction. For soil and rock, the aim is to study the environmental impact of material management in urban areas. For granular rubber, the aim is to study the environmental impact of artificial turf from a life cycle perspective and from different infill materials of recycled and new rubber and plastics.  The literature of excavated soil and rock was reviewed in order to identify and quantify the material flows and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the management of soil and rock materials. For artificial turf and the different infill materials, a life cycle approach was used to quantify the energy use and GHG emissions. A chemical analysis of potential chemical leaching from the different infill materials to water was conducted in order to compare potential local emissions to water.  Based on the results, it was concluded that the knowledge about the urban flows of excavated soil and rock is lacking in terms of patterns, quantities, qualities and its environmental performance. A resource perspective is missing in the literature. However, the recycling of soil and rock can reduce resource use and GHG emissions. It was suggested that models are developed that take into account future material demand and availability to soils and rock. From such information it would be able to assess sustainable management practices and the possibilities of sharing materials between urban construction projects in order to reduce resource use and environmental impact.  It was concluded that for the life cycle of artificial turf, the production of construction materials contributes largely to energy use and GHG emissions. Differences in terms of energy use and GHG emissions for the production of infill materials are large. The production of new material required more energy and resulted in more GHG emissions than using recycled rubber. The potential release of substances from infill materials to water were shown to be possible for all infill materials analyzed. Previous assessments of local environmental impacts of using infills generally concludes that the impacts are small. These assessments are primarily focused on infill of recycled tires. It is therefore concluded that environmental assessments of local impact should include all infill types.  Environmental assessments of using stocked materials in construction should take into consideration the material applications´ significance for the environmental impacts at a higher system level. Broader system boundaries in environmental assessments will reduce the risk for sub-optimizations when taking decisions on how materials should be used in construction.

tabilization and solidification (S/S) technique have been the most frequently used method for dredgedsediment improvement in Sweden and worldwide. As dredging activities are essential for safe navigationof ships and vessels that may processes harmful substances or organic pollutants to causecontamination of the surrounding environment. Stabilization/solidification technology has beenidentified as the most beneficial handling strategy for contaminated dredged sediments and treatedstabilized materials can be used in civil engineering applications (e.g. backfill or embankment). This (S/S)technique is the easiest way of improving high water content dredged sediments using different types ofbinders. During the stabilization process, dredged sediments are mixed with commonly used binders,such as Portland cement, fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (Merit 5000). Nowadays,supplementary cementitous materials such as (fly ash and blast furnace slag) are being used increasinglyconsidering long term strength development of stabilized dredged materials instead of using morecement. Generally, cement hydration is a complex chemical-reactions. By addition of supplementarycementitious materials, it becomes more complex because of cement hydration and pozzolanicreactions. The overall objective of this thesis work is to improve the understanding of compressibilityand strength behavior of stabilized dredged materials. To achieve these objectives, a series ofunconfined compressive strength tests and consolidation tests were performed on stabilized dredgedmaterials (SDM) with different types and mixing ratios of binders. These lab tests have been focused onthe compressibility and strength properties of stabilized materials. The UCS test determines the amountof binders and curing time needed to achieve the required shear strength of SDM. The outcomes of thisthesis work show that the stabilized dredged sediments constitute of binder mixing ratio (Cement:Flyash:Merit 5000 as a proportion of 10:10:5) which is 25% of the total fresh dredged sediments can’tsustain any superstructure or surcharge load but it can only be used as backfill materials on site.Whereas, stabilized dredged material with binder mixing ratio (Cement:Fly ash:Merit 5000 as aproportion of 20:20:10) which is 50% of the total fresh dredged Sediment becomes stiff after 28 dayscuring and becomes very stiff after 91 days curing. It becomes obvious that the unconfined compressivestrength of SDM increases with higher amount of binders and longer curing time. The pozzolanicreaction continues after 28 days curing period. The presence of supplementary cementitous materials(fly ash, blast furnace slag and merit 5000) can improve the ductility of stabilized dredged materials(SDM) in the post-peak strength degradation zone without changing the unconfined compressivestrength. It is also obvious from the test results that the UCS values of stabilized dredged materialsincrease with decreasing moisture content/increasing bulk density. The consolidation properties of SDMare greatly influenced by the binder mixing ratio, curing time and preloading weight. Due to preloadingweight, the deformation in stabilized dredge sediments is irreversible because of cementation andpozzolanic effects. Considering both curing time and binder ratio, compression index (Cc) and swellingindex (Cs) values for SDM with binder ratio (20:20:10) have been lowered approximately by 75% and67%, respectively than SDM with binder ratio (10:10:5). After 91 days curing of SDM with binder ratio(20:20:10), the maximum value of tangent modulus is estimated about 9624 kPa which indicates thatthe superstructure can be erected on stabilized dredged materials. It is also concluded that physicochemicalvariables control the consolidation behavior of stabilized dredge materials (SDM) as thecoefficient of consolidation (Cv) value decreases with increasing consolidation pressure.

Due to the significant influence of the grout penetrability properties on spread of grout in rock fractures, this study aimed to investigate the grout penetrability from four different aspects. In Part (a), after review of all the existing methodologies developed to measure the grout penetrability, Filter-pump and Penetrability-meter were examined against Short-slot to figure out which one is more reliable. The study decisively considered Short-slot more reliable. In part (b), the so-called varying aperture long slot (VALS), an artificial fracture with apertures of 230-10 μm, was developed to study the gout penetrability more realistically. In part (c), a low-frequency rectangular pressure impulse was introduced to improve the grout spread by successive erosion of the produced filter cakes in consecutive cycles. The results showed considerable improvement in experiments using Short-slot. The dissipation of the pressure impulses was then investigated using VALS with noticeable remaining amplitudes after 2.0-2.7 m. In part (d), VALS was once more introduced to examine RTGC theory in a fracture with variable aperture. The study showed a relatively satisfactory agreement between the experimental results and the predictions of the grout propagation using the hydraulic aperture, whereas the predictions using the mean physical aperture showed considerably faster spread.
För att uppnå den täthet som krävs i undermarkskonstruktioner är det nödvändigt att uppnå tillräcklig spridning av bruket vid injekteringen. Cementbaserade injekteringsmedel är vanligast inom injekteringsindustrin, eftersom det har flera fördelar, särskilt från ekonomisk och miljömässig synvinkel. Eftersom inträngningsförmågan kan påverkas betydligt hos injekteringsmedel beroende på vilket bruk man använder, är syftet med denna avhandling att studera: a) Vilka av de befintliga metoder som har utvecklats för att mäta inträngningsförmågan hos injekteringsmedel är tillförlitliga? b) Hur kan man mäta inträngningsförmågan hos injekteringsmedel mer realistiskt? c) Hur kan man förbättra spridningen hos injekteringsmedel med hjälp av dynamiska tryckimpulser? och d) Kan Real Time Grouting Control (RTGC)-teorin användas för att förutse spridningen hos injekteringsmedel i en artificiell spricka med varierande vidd? I del a) av studien genomfördes en undersökning av alla befintliga metoder som har utvecklats för att mäta inträngningsförmågan hos injekteringsmedel. Därefter genomfördes en jämförelse mellan Filterpumpen, Filterpressen (d.v.s. två av de vanligaste metoderna i svensk injekteringsindustri) och metoden Kort spalt under så lika provförhållanden som möjligt. Studien visade att Kort spalt är tillförlitligare på grund av dess mer realistiska provförhållanden (d.v.s. geometrin, trycket och injekteringsvolymen) och är därmed en bättre utvärderingsmetod. I del b) utvecklades en så kallad Varying Aperture Long Slot (VALS), en fyra meter lång artificiell spricka med minskande spaltvidder (från 230 till 10 μm), som är en mer realistisk metod för att studera inträngningsförmågan hos injekteringsmedel under statiska/dynamiska tryckförhållanden upp till 20 bar. I del c) användes en lågfrekvent rektangulär tryckimpuls för att förbättra spridningen hos injekteringsmedlet genom successiv erosion av filterkakor som har byggts vid förträngningar i konsekutiva cykler. Resultaten visade en förbättring på upp till 11 gånger mer volym i mätningar med Kort spalt med 30-43 μm breda spaltvidder. Sedan, spridningen av tryckimpulserna undersöktes längs VALS. Resultaten visade att de återstående amplituderna av tryckimpulser kan vara så stora som 46% respektive 25% av den applicerade amplituden 2,0 m respektive 2,7 m in i sprickan. I del d) användes VALS igen för att undersöka om RTGC-teorin kan användas för att bedöma spridningen av injekteringsmedel i en konstgjord spricka med variabel spaltvidd. Studien visade en förhållandevis tillfredsställande överensstämmelse mellan försöksresultaten och förutsägelserna av spridningen hos injekteringsmedel när man tog hänsyn till den hydrauliska öppningen. Som jämföreslse gav förutsägelserna baserade på den genomsnittliga fysiska öppningen (felaktigt) en betydligt snabbare spridning. Detta visar att användning av den genomsnittliga fysiska öppningen inte alltid är lämpligt vid tillämpning av RTGC-teori. Beroende på de geometriska förhållandena kan den hydrauliska öppningen ge en mer realistisk förutsägelse av spridningen hos injekteringsmedlet.

QC 20171121

Rainwater harvesting is one of the methods that can ensure availability of water for winter crop in Iraq. Using this technique the excess rainwater (runoff) is stored in reservoirs of dams of different sizes. The water from these reservoirs can be used later when required to satisfy the crops requirements. It is believed that rainwater harvesting will be one of the solutions to overcome water shortages problem in Iraq.This work includes four parts dealing with macro rainwater harvesting modeling. The study area includes selected sites at three Governorates located north of Iraq (Erbil, Sulaymaniyah, and Nineveh). In part one of the work, three selected sites at south, north and east of Sinjar district (Nineveh Governorate) were used. The slope of the study area at Sinjar district is less than 5%. The technique was first applied on southern Sinjar Mountain. Linear programming technique was adopted to optimize the irrigated area of barley crop for irrigation scenario of supplemental irrigation (SI) 100% of full irrigation requirements. Two scenarios of reservoir operation were considered for each main basin. In the first, each reservoir was operated as a separate unit while in the second all reservoirs in main basin were operated as one system. Both scenarios gave encouraging results. Scenario two however, was relatively better. The technique was applied again on the northern and eastern Sinjar Mountain area but with different catchments area and scenarios of irrigation (supplemental irrigation (SI) 100%, deficit irrigation (DI) 50%, and deficit irrigation (DI) 25% of full irrigation requirements). Wheat crop was considered as the main crop grown in the area. A linear programming technique was adopted to optimize the irrigated area for the above three scenarios of irrigation. The results of the three scenarios used indicated that, using deficit irrigation (DI) of 50% can be more beneficial than SI of 100% and DI of 25% of full irrigation requirements. Part two of the work includes application of Macro RWH technique at mountain areas in Northeastern part of Iraq. In these areas, all selected basins having slope more than 5 % and located at the rain-fed farms of Kurdistan region of Iraq, Erbil and Sulaymaniyah Governorates. The annual rainfall is greater than what was available at Nineveh Governorate. Part three of the work focused about the ability of Macro RWH technique to support wheat crop yield production in dry rain-fed farms at north Sinjar district, north west of Iraq, using wheat crop yield-water relationship that conducted by International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). Three scenarios of supplemental irrigation (100%, 75% and 50%) of full irrigation. requirements with, various rainfall conditions were used, two types of wheat (bread and durum) were considered. Part four of the work focused on climatic change and future prospects for Macro RWH technique. Box-Jenkins methodology for time series analysis and forecasting (ARIMA model) was used to study future rainfall for 4 main rainfall stations surrounding Sinjar area in order to forecast expected rainfall for the period 2012-2016. Future rainfall depths were forecasted with adoption of a confidence level of 95%. The future rainfall was employed for RWH technique. This part also includes a review of the impact of climatic change on countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA region). The climatic model CGCM3.1 (T47) 2 was used to explain the changes in the average temperatures and rainfall on MENA region with special emphases on Iraq. Long term future seasonal rainfall during the period 2020-2099 at east Sinjar (Nineveh Governorate) showed a clear negative trend reflecting the reduction in total seasonal rainfall amount. For these future rainfall depths, the maximum, minimum and average harvested runoff volumes were estimated. The comparison of the runoff results between future and historical recorded rainfall for the same study area was carried out to show the future validity of rainwater harvesting. In order to estimate the amount of runoff that can be harvested from a given catchment area at eastern Sinjar, an attempt was made to provide set of charts that are easy to be used in order to estimate the equivalent harvested runoff depth (mm) for different selected rainfall depths under different hydraulic conditions for the catchment area. Macro rainwater harvesting (RWH) technique had been tested for future rainfall data that predicted by two emission scenarios of climatic change (A2 and B2) for the period 2020-2099 at Nineveh and Sulaymaniyah Governorates north of Iraq. The results of the four parts of the thesis reflect useful values for RWH and its influence to increase the irrigated area and then the crop yield in the studied region when combined with an effective system like supplemental irrigation. Rain-fed land in the studied areas requires effective technique in terms of saving significant runoff water for irrigation purposes and this might be achieved by rain-water harvesting (RWH) technique.
Godkänd; 2014; 20140310 (andbra); Nedanstående person kommer att disputera för avläggande av teknologie doktorsexamen. Namn: Saleh Mohammed Saleh Zakaria Ämne: Geoteknik/Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Avhandling: Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) North of Iraq Opponent: Professor Ahmed Hachum, Dams and Water Resources Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Mosul University, Mosul, Iraq Ordförande: Professor Sven Knutsson, Avd för geoteknik, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, Luleå tekniska universitet Tid: Tisdag den 29 april 2014, kl 10.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

Wars in Iraq (1991 and 2003) generated various types of hazardous waste (HW) in the form of soil contaminated by depleted uranium (DU). Other HW emanated from destroyed army vehicles and remnants of Iraqi nuclear facilities holding various types and amounts of chemical and radioactive material. The negative impact of the various wastes on the health conditions of the population was reported from different parts of Iraq, showing an enhanced frequency of cancer and abnormally born infants. For isolating the wastes, which represent low-level and short-lived intermediate level radioactive wastes, near-surface repositories (NSR) are proposed since they represent the least expensive way of solving future problems with sufficient safety. Internationally, the timeframe of the containment of such wastes is designated to be 300 years. Site selection affects and largely controls the selection of a suitable design the aim being to minimize or eliminate migration of hazardous elements from the waste to the environment. The formulation of siting criteria is the first vital step toward the resolution of the problem. Site selection criteria are proposed taking in account three major factors: environmental, geological and socio-economic factors. Accordingly, Iraqi deserts, which make up 60% of Iraq, represent the number one candidate for locating a safe disposal facility, primarily because of the low population, suitable topography, climatic conditions, seismic stability and availability of raw materials. Long-term performance of NSR is directly related to the function of top and bottom liner systems. They should be designed so that they are mutually compatible and combine to effectively isolate the waste. Liners are considered as the main elements of any disposal facility on the ground surface and a properly designed top liner system is of particular importance since it will minimize or eliminate water percolation into the waste body. Compacted clay liners (CCL) should preferably have with a low hydraulic conductivity, which is achievable by proper selection of raw materials, compaction density and construction methods. A further criterion is that they must not soften significantly by expansion on wetting, which puts a limit to the smectite content and density. The liners can consist of native material found near the landfill site, and be used after simple processing, primarily drying and crushing, or be mixed with fillers like silty sand. Since the hydraulic conductivity is the key property of a reliable CCL, relevant experimental determination of the hydraulic conductivity is vital. The common practice in geotechnical laboratories is to apply high hydraulic gradients for getting results quickly but this can lead to non-conservative, incorrect results. The present study involved determination of the hydraulic conductivity of a smectite-rich clay sampled at places within reasonable distance from potential NSR sites. Various hydraulic gradients were applied to samples compacted to several different densities, using two permeants and two filter types. It was concluded that the outflow filter can significantly affect the evaluated conductivity especially when applying high hydraulic gradients. This was partly explained by clogging of outflow filters of conventional fine-porous type by torn-off clay particles at such gradients. A major conclusion was that the gradient in laboratory testing should not exceed 100 m/m.In order to assess the suitability of available raw materials within the Iraqi Deserts, two smectitic soils termed as Green and Red clays were investigated for potential use in CCLs. Both clays are fairly rich in smectite, which calls for mixing them with properly graded silt/sand material from the desert for modifying the expandability. The shear strength, swelling pressure, hydraulic conductivity and creep properties were determined and used for defining criteria for selecting suitable clay-sand ratios. The results showed that 30-50% Green clay mixed with sand and 40-60% Red clay mixed with sand were suitable for constructing top liners with a hydraulic conductivity of 1×10-9 - 1×10-10 m/s. For bottom liners, 70% Green clay mixed with sand and 80% Red clay mixed with sand would be suitable; they were found to have a hydraulic conductivity of 1×10-11 m/s.The long-term performance of CCL is controlled by a number of processes like long periods of extreme dryness and short periods of very heavy rain. The percolation of water through the top liner system of a number of design alternatives were simulated using the code HELP 3.95D and subsequently by the FE program VADOSE/W. For the assumed NSR concept the slope stability of the top liner is essential and it was determined by using FE technique considering various slope angles. The engineering properties, primarily the hydraulic conductivity, swelling pressure and shear strength of 30-50% Green clay mixed with sand were introduced in the simulations. Two initial water contents of the compacted materials were considered representing 1) optimum water content (“wet case”), and 2) air‐dry conditions (“dry case”). Application of the HELP code decided the selection of suitable CCL having a thickness of 0.5 m and inclined by 5.7ᵒ. More detailed analyses with VADOSE/W showed that a mixture at the dry case would bring 0.5 mm (0.5 litre of leaking water per square meter) through CCL in an eight year simulation period. Long-term simulations (up to 300 years) showed that CCL would undergo continuous drying without reaching saturation even in the case of periods of very heavy rain (616 mm) for the wet and dry cases. The slope stability factor for the rather steep angle 30ᵒ was found to be 1.5 for the most critical case representing complete water saturation. In conclusion, the proposed materials and design features are believed to be suitable for practical application.
Godkänd; 2014; 20140924 (laikha); Nedanstående person kommer att disputera för avläggande av teknologie doktorsexamen. Namn: Laith Al-Taie Ämne: Geoteknik/Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Avhandling: Performance of Clay Liners in Near-Surface Repositories in Desert Climate Opponent: Professor Frank Wagner, University of Trier, Department of Geology, Tyskland Ordförande: Professor Sven Knutsson, Avd för geoteknologi, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, Luleå tekniska universitet Tid: Onsdag den 3 december 2014, kl 13.00s Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

Storage and management of mine waste are both needed in the mining industry. After mineral extraction of the ore, there are generally leftovers with insufficient economical value that need to be taken care of. The finest grained fractions are referred to as tailings. Since every mine site and every tailings impoundment is unique, there is unfortunately not an universal answer to proper management that can be applied everywhere. Even though local guidelines and regulations can be considered to give a best practice in terms of design, there is correspondingly a need for dam safety stewardship on an operational level. Without such stewardship, not even the best designed dams or facilities would be fully controlled in terms of safety. Conversely, even badly designed dams can be operated in safe manners with good stewardship and surveillance programs. The coupling between design and stewardship is therefore important in order to reach proper tailingsmanagement.In the design of tailings dams, a certain value of the factor of safety for slopes of the dams is normally striven for to secure stability. The value is generally based on national regulations and/or guidelines. In Sweden the factor of safety should not be lower than 1.5 under normal conditions. In the guidelines, recommendations are often given on dam surveillance and field measurements of e.g. pore water pressure, deformations and seepage. Field measurements are taken, but are generally assessed in terms of trends (change with time) and not by comparison to anticipated performance.In this study, numerical modeling has been used for stability analyses and dam performance, as predictions of deformations and pore water pressure levels. An upstream tailings dam located in northern Sweden has been used as a case. The granular materials being part of the model based were described based upon geotechnical investigations (field and lab). The tailings material was modeled, on a constitutive level, by the Hardening Soil model. Good agreement betweensimulated behavior and laboratory tests was achieved. Other dam materials were simulated by the Mohr-Coulomb model.The model was built as a staged construction model where historical events between 1992 and 2013 were simulated. The historical events included dam raises, increased beach elevations, remedial works etc. The simulations of historical events were used for facilitating comparison with field measurements. By means of inclinometer data, horizontal deformations were measured and evaluated for a period of six years. These deformations were accurately simulated, which was considered to verify the numerical model. By this verification, the model is considered accurate enough to be used for simulating future events. Both stability and corresponding dam performance were computed, by simulating a period of 10 years. The stability analyses were used for the set-up of rockfill support plans, i.e. where and when remedial works are needed in order to maintain a certain safety level. The corresponding values in deformations and pore water pressures were used for the set-up of alert levels for each measuring unit. These alert levels will help the engineer in field with data interpretation, where the simulated values are compared with field measurements taken. The proposed methodology is recommended for tailings dams in general, which reduces the gap between design and stewardship. Hence, one step closer to proper tailings management is taken.
Godkänd; 2015; 20151026 (rogknu); Nedanstående person kommer att hålla licentiatseminarium för avläggande av teknologie licentiatexamen. Namn: Roger Knutsson Ämne: Geoteknik/Soil Mechanics Uppsats: Tailings Dam Performance Modeling and Safety Analysis of a Tailings Dam Examinator: Professor Sven Knutsson Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser Avdelning Geoteknologi Luleå tekniska universitet Diskutant: Technical Director Annika Bjelkevik Tailings Consultant Scandinavia AB Stockholm Tid: Fredag 27 november 2015 kl 13.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

Excavation damage is usually regulated in Swedish infrastructure tunnel contracts as it can influence the quality and lifecycle cost for tunneling projects. The topic is important for underground constructions with a long operation period such as tunnels for public transport, permanent access tunnels in mines or underground repositories for nuclear waste. In competent crystalline rock, excavation damage is often simplified to macro fractures induced by blasting as this has the most significant impact on the remaining rock. Blasting in Scandinavian tunneling projects is mostly conducted with pumpable emulsion explosives and a good result is often dependent on control of the charging process, i.e. that the explosives are charged according to the blast design. This thesis is based on data from five field investigations carried out in Sweden and Finland. In addition, data from a case study on quality control and documentation in a tunnel excavation project in Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (HRL) is also included. Data on blast fracture length and frequency have been compiled from all sites, where emulsion explosives were used. The sites include experimental tunnels, a road tunnel, an underground depot for subway trains and a wastewater tunnel. Data from the field investigations have been analyzed using statistical methods including statistical hypothesis test and multivariate data analysis by means of Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The evaluation method gives indications as to how blast design and geology influence the development of blast fractures. Charge concentration was found to be the most influential design variable and simultaneous initiation of contour holes (delay time <1 ms) gave shorter blast fractures with a longest blast fracture of approx. 25 cm compared to approx. 40 cm from pyrotechnical initiation. However, the delay time had limited influence on the number of blast fractures in the remaining rock. Results from the PCA suggest that blast fractures length could be dependent also on geology. Three main groups of fracture patterns were identified, one group with relatively few and short fractures, a group with several longer blast fractures and a group with few or a single long blast fracture. The result shows differences in fracture length between the column and bottom charge part of the contour holes, with blast fracture lengths up to approx. 40 cm for the column charge and up to approx. 60 cm for the bottom charge. The case study showed that good precision in charging with string emulsion can be achieved and documented using modern logger technology in drilling and charging equipment. However, the methods applied for evaluation of charging precision as well as documentation require manual processing and interpretation of data. Further development of the logger systems and processing software is needed in order to follow up logged amounts of emulsion explosive during production.

I och med EG:s avfallsdirektiv från 1999 är det förbjudet att deponera hela däck från och med 2003 och förbjudet att deponera fragmenterade däck (gummiklipp) från och med 2006. Lagstiftningen syftar till ökad återanvändning eller återvinning av uttjänta däck. I Nordamerika, där liknande lagstiftning finns, har hela och fragmenterade däck använts i 30 år i vägbyggnadssammanhang som bland annat tjälisolerings- och lättfyllnadsmaterial. Syftet med detta licentiatarbete är att samla ihop och värdera den idag tillgängliga kunskapen om gummiklipps tekniska och miljömässiga egenskaper samt skaffa praktisk erfarenhet av att använda materialet i mark- och anläggningstekniska tillämpningar. Med gummiklipp avses fragmenterade däck där de enskilda bitarna varierar från ca. 30×30 mm2 till ca. 100×300 mm2. De övergripande målen med detta licentiatarbete är att: a) Identifiera, analysera och presentera den idag tillgängliga kunskapen om gummiklipps tekniska och miljömässiga egenskaper kopplat till mark- och anläggningstekniska tillämpningar. b) Genom egna fält- och laboratorieförsök skaffa praktisk erfarenhet av att använda materialet i vägkonstruktioner. c) Ge rekommendationer angående användande av materialet i mark- och anläggningstekniska tillämpningar. En vägsträcka med gummiklipp som skyddslager har byggts och utvärderats. Utrustning har installerats i vägkonstruktionerna för mätning av temperaturer, tjälfronten, sättningar och lakvatten. Konstruktionernas styvhet har bestämts genom fallviktsmätning. Tekniska egenskaper och erhållet lakvatten har jämförts mellan provsträckor och referenssträckan. Syftet med byggandet av provsträckan med gummiklipp som skyddslager är att: a) Erhålla kunskaper om att bygga med materialet. b) Studera funktionen av materialet ur tjälisoleringssynpunkt. c) Studera hur överbyggnaden ska dimensioneras för att kompensera för elasticiteten och styvheten i materialet. Målet med teststräckan är att kunna genomföra mätningar och utvärdering av sättningar av gummiklippslagret, temperaturer och tjälgränsen i vägkonstruktionen, konstruktionens styvhet (bärförmåga) och lakvatten från konstruktionen. Litteraturstudien visar att de karakteristiska egenskaperna för gummiklipp, i jämförelse med friktionsjord, är att materialet är lätt (låg densitet), elastiskt, dränerande och värmeisolerande. Gummiklipp är ett relativt kompressibelt material och många tekniska egenskaper beror av aktuell belastning. Materialet blir styvare med ökad belastning. De ämnesgrupper hos gummiklipp som främst är undersökta ur miljösynpunkt är metaller, PAH och i viss mån fenoler. I en anläggningsteknisk tillämpning är det normalt vattenburna föroreningar som är av intresse för vilken miljöpåverkan materialet kan ha på omgivningen. Lakförsök visar att metaller lakar ut från däcklipp, främst järn, koppar, mangan och zink. Metalläckaget är av samma storleksordning som för bergmaterial. Av studerade organiska föreningar lakar PAH och fenoler ut, i låga koncentrationer. Toxikologiska studier visar att lakvatten från däckmaterial har påvisbar negativ effekt på organismer. Färskt däckmaterial uppvisar större negativ respons på organismer än äldre material. Vägen med gummiklipp i skyddslager byggdes under perioden 2002-2003. Dimensioneringsarbetet med provsträckan visade att den uppskattade livslängden på konstruktionen inte påverkades nämnvärt av att styvhetsmodulen för skyddslagret varierades inom intervallet 0,25-2,0 MPa. Gummiklipp kan hanteras med konventionell utrustning som används vid vägbyggande. I vissa avseenden är gummiklipp mer lätthanterligt än konventionella vägbyggnadsmaterial som bergkross och friktionsjord, exempelvis håller materialet ihop bättre. Utvärderingen av vägkonstruktionen fram till färdigställandet av vägen visade att: a) Den utvärderade bärförmågan hos gummiklippslagret var lägre än förväntat. b) Den primära kompressionen av gummiklippet skilde mycket i storlek mellan de två delsträckorna med olika material i förstärkningslagret. c) Gummiklipp har en tjälisolerande förmåga. d) Gummiklippen lakar ut små mängder metaller och PAH. PAH-halterna var något högre än förväntat. Den färdigställda vägkonstruktionen kommer framledes att utvärderas fortlöpande dels för att jämföra dimensioneringsresultaten med verkliga konstruktionens egenskaper avseende bärförmåga och livslängd, och dels för att följa upp deformationer och tjälisoleringsförmåga samt bestämma lakvattnets sammansättning. Utifrån kunskapsnivån avseende de tekniska parametrarna som redovisats i denna avhandling kan tillämpningar pekas ut där kunskapsläget är tillräckligt för att rent tekniskt kunna använda materialet och tillämpningar där forskningsbehovet är större. Tillämpningar där tillräcklig kunskap avseende tekniska egenskaper idag kan anses finnas är bankfyllningar, dräneringslager, tjälisolering och motfyllnad. De tekniska begränsningarna som idag finns när det gäller användning av gummiklipp rör främst de elastiska egenskaperna i materialet, främst avseende styvhet och kompressibilitet. Miljöaspekten måste beaktas vid användning av gummiklipp. Vid känsliga recipienter och där avrinningsvatten kan ansamlas i små volymer kan materialet i extremfallet innebära en negativ påverkan. Placerat i applikationer där perkolationen är liten och kontakttiden mellan vatten och gummiklipp är kort bör materialet inte innebära mer påverkan än andra material. Uppföljningsstudier av provobjekt där gummiklipp använts som skyddslager i vägar och bankfyllnader visar att metaller och organiska ämnen lakar ut i låga koncentrationer från konstruktionerna.

Godkänd; 2004; 20061031 (ysko)

Mechanical properties of snow have been a subject of research since the mid-20th century. Theresearch done is based on natural snow. During the last decades the winter business industryhas been growing and also the interest for constructing buildings and artwork of snow. Suchconstructions are generally built using artificial snow, i.e. snow produced by snow guns. Up tothe present constructions of snow are designed based on knowledge by experience. Only minorscientific studies on artificial snow and its properties has been published. Hence it is ofimportance to investigate material properties for artificial snow.A survey of current state of the art knowledge of properties for natural snow was done andbasic material properties for different qualities of artificial snow were investigated. Strengthand deformation properties for artificial snow were evaluated through uniaxial compressivetests where cylindrical test specimens were subjected to different constant deformation rates.The results show that artificial snow at low deformation rates will have a plastic deformationbehavior where the initial deformation will cause a hardening of the snow structure. At higherdeformation rates brittle failure may occur. For artificial snow with a homogeneous and finegrained structure the deformation behavior was found to change from plasticity to brittleness ata certain critical deformation rate. Artificial snow with coarse grained structure was found to bebrittle giving unstructured results independent of the load level.Four point loading was applied on beams of artificial snow to study creep deformation, bendingstrength and to determine the ultimate load for the different snow qualities. The results showedcoarse grained artificial snow underwent relatively small creep deformations. Both the creepbehavior and the ultimate strength varied randomly at the same applied load. Large plasticdeformations were observed with the fine grained artificial without any failure of the beams.The ultimate load was relatively high and repeatable results were achieved for all test.Previous presumptions that coarse grained artificial snow with high density would have highstrength and were not confirmed by the experiments performed on different qualities ofartificial snow. The performed tests indicate that fine grained artificial snow of lower densityhave more predictable strength properties of equally high or higher magnitude as for coarsegrained artificial snow. The plastic deformations were however higher for the fine grainedartificial snow. High deformations are not favorable for structures which should maintain theshape during the winter season. When designing constructions of snow both strength anddeformation properties should be taken into account.
Godkänd; 2013; 20131002 (ninlin); Tillkännagivande licentiatseminarium 2013-10-23 Nedanstående person kommer att hålla licentiatseminarium för avläggande av teknologie licentiatexamen. Namn: Nina Lintzén Ämne: Geoteknik/Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Uppsats: Mechanical Properties of Artificial Snow Examinator: Professor Sven Knutsson, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, Luleå tekniska universitet Diskutant: Tekn. lic. Lars Vikström, LKAB, Luleå Tid: Fredag den 15 november 2013 kl 10.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

Tigris and Euphrates rivers represent the artery of life in Iraq. Tigris River rises from Turkey and flows toward the southeast to enter Iraq. It drains a catchment area of 473 100 km² of which about 58% lies in Iraq. In this study the reach, about 50 km long, of the river inside Baghdad was been studied. It starts at Al-Muthana Bridge and ends at Tigris-Diyala River confluence. Generally, the river reach is part of an alluvial plain, single channel and meandering. The bed material of the river is composed mainly of fine sand and small portion of silt and clay. Other significant features of the reach are the growing islands and bank depositions. Recently water resources of Iraq are negatively affected by climatic changes and the huge water projects in the riparian countries. As a result, the flow of Tigris River at Baghdad city has significantly decreased where the average monthly flow is 520 m³/s for the period 2000-2012 which represents about 50% reduction compared to previous periods. The estimated trend for the average monthly discharges is a reduction of 5.4 % during the last 23 years. Low flow and low water levels have enhanced the water to erode the banks below its protected part. This might affect the future stability of the banks. The drop of the river discharge together with debris from the last wars in 1991 and 2003 enhanced the growing of islands in the river. In this research, changes in the morphology of Tigris River within Baghdad are to be investigated and the causes will be highlighted in order to take the right measures to restore the river system. This is a first step toward studying the hydrological characteristics of the reach. One-dimensional gradually varied flow model, using HEC-RAS, was applied to examine the flood capacity and the possibilities of inundation of the banks. The geometry of the river was represented by the findings from the river survey of 2008. Additional data about the locations and dimensions of the bridges were supplied to the model. The average monthly discharge at Sarai Baghdad for the years 2000-2012 was assumed as the base flow. A range of different scenarios were examined by increasing the discharges in order to determine the critical discharge that may cause inundation. Model calibration was achieved by adjusting the Manning’s roughness coefficient for an observed water surface profile along the lowest part of the reach. The associated error with the computed water surface profiles was in order 0.026m. Additional water level observations at Sarai Baghdad were used for verification purposes. It was found that the discharges higher than 2700 m3/s could cause partial inundation in some areas in the northern part of the reach and these areas extend to approximately 9 km for discharges greater than 3500 m3/s. The southern part of the reach is still safe from inundation for discharges below 3500 m3/s. The slope of water surface profile varies from 6.03 to 10 cm/km for discharges between 400 and 4000 m3/s respectively. In this study, a field survey was conducted between May, 2012 and January, 2013. It involved the installation of 25 bench marks, surveying the upper river banks (from the crest of the stony protection to the water surface) and 250 cross sections. Three kinds of samples were collected at this stage work: (i) river bed material, (ii) suspended load samples and (iii) bed loads samples. Hydraulic measurements were conducted and included water surface elevations, water depths at sampling points, water discharges and transversal velocities. Water temperature and other environmental measurements were also conducted. Particle size distribution, specific gravity and concentration of suspended sediment were executed in the laboratory for the collected samples.
Godkänd; 2013; 20130514 (ammali); Tillkännagivande licentiatseminarium 2013-05-22 Nedanstående person kommer att hålla licentiatseminarium för avläggande av teknologie licentiatexamen. Namn: Ammar Adel Ali Ämne: Geoteknik/Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Uppsats: Morphology of Tigris River inside Baghdad City Examinator: Professor Sven Knutsson, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, Luleå tekniska universitet Diskutant: Dr. PhD Govand H. M. Sherwani, G. D. of Scholarships, Ministry of Higher Education – KRG, Erbil, Kurdistan, Iraq Tid: Tisdag den 18 juni 2013 kl 10.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

The selection of a landfill site is considered as a complicated task because the whole process is based on many factors and restrictions. This study shows the present status of solid waste management, solid waste sources, staffing for solid waste collection, machinery and equipment used in the waste collection process, finance and financial management at Babylon Governorate and its Qadhaa. The management of collection and disposal of waste in Babylon Governorate and its Qadhaa is done through open dumping of waste and the quality of the collection process is poor. This is the case in Al-Hillah Qadhaa, which is located in the central part of the governorate, Iraq and Al-Qasim Qadhaas, which is situated in the southern part of the Babylon Governorate, Iraq. These sites do not conform to the scientific and environmental criteria applied in the selection of landfill sites.  In the first part of the current study, to find out how much solid waste will be produced in the future; two methods were used to calculate the population growth in Al-Hillah and Al-Qasim Qadhaas to the year 2030. The results showed that the total waste in 2030 according to the first and second methods respectively will be 394,081 tonnes and 472,474 tonnes in Al-Hillah Qadhaa, and (54,481 tonnes and 76,374 tonnes) in Al-Qasim Qadhaa. The cumulated quantity of solid waste expected to be produced between 2020 and 2030 according to the first and second methods respectively was 3,757,387 tonnes and 4,300,864 tonnes in Al-Hillah Qadhaa, whilst in Al-Qasim Qadhaa it was 519,456 tonnes and 695,219 tonnes. The generation rate in 2020 will be (0.88 and 0.62) kg/ (capita. day) in Al-Hillah and Al-Qasim Qadhaas respectively; in year 2030, the generation rate will be (0.97 and 0.69) kg/ (capita. day) based on method 2 and an expected incremental increase in generation rate of 1 kg/ (capita. day) per year.  The second part of this study aims to find the best sites for landfills in Al-Hillah and Al-Qasim Qadhaas. For this reason, 15 criteria were adopted in this study (groundwater depth, rivers, soil types, agricultural land use, land use, elevation, slope, gas pipelines, oil pipelines, power lines, roads, railways, urban centres, villages and archaeological sites) using GIS (geographic information system), which has a large capacity for managing input data. In addition, the AHP (analytical hierarchy process) method was used to derive the relative weightings for each criterion using pairwise comparison. The suitability index map for candidate landfill sites was obtained. Two suitable candidate landfill sites were found to fulfill the scientific and environmental requirements in each Qadhaa, with areas of 9.153 km2 and 8.204 km2 respectively in Al-Hillah Qadhaa, and with areas of 2.766 km2 and 2.055 km2 respectively in Al-Qasim Qadhaa. The area of these sites can accommodate solid waste from 2020 until 2030 based on the required areas, which were 4.175 km2 and 4.778 km2 (Ali-Hillah Qadhaa) and 0.577 km2 and 0.772 km2 in (Al-Qasim Qadhaa) according to the first and second methods respectively.

Suffusion, also called internal instability, is an internal erosion mechanism that occurs in embankment dams when fine-grained particles are washed out of the core soil matrix by seepage. Initiation of internal erosion depends mainly on three major factors: grain size distribution of the soil, stress conditions and hydraulic load; whilst its continuation depends of the filter properties. Broadly graded moraines, as glacial tills, are more susceptible to internal erosion by suffusion than other types of soils used in dams. Most embankment dams in Sweden consist of a central core of glacial till built more than 50 years ago. At the time of its construction, the available guidelines did not include specific grain size boundaries for the core and the filter related to internal erosion susceptibility. Today, several Swedish embankment dams have experienced incident of internal erosion such as leakages and sinkholes, making internal erosion an important safety issue. This circumstance allows raising the questions: How safe are the Swedish embankment dams and what conditions are needed for internal erosion by suffusion to initiate? This research aims to contribute to the assessment of dam safety by giving inputs regarding the characterization of internal erosion by suffusion and the relation among the main factors involved on its occurrence (geotechnical characteristics of soil material, degree of compaction and hydraulic load). This in order to increase the knowledge regarding the critical hydraulic gradient needed to develop suffusion in a given till material with a known degree of compaction. The research includes a laboratory program consistent on suffusion tests, which is an extension of the standard permeability test, and considers post-test examination and diagnosis of the samples. Two main groups of tests were performed: small and large suffusion tests. The small tests serve as a reference of the expected behaviour of soil samples under different boundary and test conditions, which allows optimizing the number of test to be performed in large tests. Results show that suffusion mechanism can be classified as internal suffusion (or filtration) and external suffusion (loss of soil particles from the soil matrix). The influence of compaction degree on the initiation of suffusion is limited in internally stable soils. However, poorly compacted specimens exposed to high hydraulic gradients could develop both internal and external suffusion if the filter is not capable to retain the eroded particles. The hydraulic conductivity of specimens with internal suffusion tends to decrease with a step wise increase of the hydraulic gradient. Such tendency is the result of the matrix of soil reaching equilibrium with the new seepage stresses. The hydraulic conductivity of specimens with external suffusion tends to increase with the increase of the hydraulic gradient.

This thesis forms the basis for a new documented experience of grouting design and work in the extension of the blue metro line in Stockholm. It includes documentation of the grouting design based on theoretical basis, stop criteria and fan geometries for favorable and unfavorable geological conditions. The work is concerned in evaluating the design stop criteria in different geological conditions to assess the efficiency of grouting process, and its compatibility to the maximum permissible leakage according to applications submitted to the land and environmental court in Stockholm. The work was conducted in cooperation with TYPSA AB and SWECO; the joint venture who designed the grouting work. This work was initiated by studying the design documents and reports, requirements, geological and hydrogeological prognosis documents. Six access tunnels were analyzed, with different work percentage based on the actual work achieved at the site at the time of conducting the study. Each access tunnel stretch was determined in terms of geological condition (rock quality), hydrogeological domain, and grouting class (IK1, IK2 or IK3). Evaluations and assessments were done for different aspects including evaluating the grout volume uptake per each grouting class, calculating the percentage of boreholes that stopped by time, volume or zero flow per grouting class, and comparing the measured leakage with prognosed leakage to check the efficiency of the design and implementation phases. RTGC (Real Time Grouting Control) method was also applied on some fans to check its validity in grout optimization, knowing that it is a relatively new method and not yet fully validated. The results showed that geological mappings during the implementation phase were slightly different from the mappings done during the design phase, which is expected due to the high uncertainties in rock mass science. It was also shown that the design stop criteria in this project were promising, through which they have satisfied the requirements according to the application to the land and environmental court. Average grout uptake in typical injection classes were compatible with the results in City Line projects, where the average grout uptake in 2 L/m. However, results also showed that in weakness zones, the average grout uptake was different with high standard deviations. Knowing the fact that unfavorable geological conditions were classified based on different parameters, it is not possible to find one reference value for the grout uptake, but instead results can be used as references in similar geological conditions in main tunnels work and future projects. Some recommendations are made in this thesis on the design stop criteria in weakness zones, surface rock domains, and at fans injected at large water depth. These zones always form the basis for controversial discussions and thus, if documentation of grouting work is carried out and continued in this project, then more knowledge can be gained and transferred to other projects. As part of this thesis, RTGC was applied in favorable conditions where it showed very promising results, the matter that makes it possible to optimize the stop criteria and actual work by conducting trial grouting. However, in unfavorable geological conditions, the RTGC could not be applied because the dimensionality of the flow is 3D, while RTGC was developed for 1D and 1D flow. Therefore, and since it was proven to be as a promising tool, further studies are recommended to develop the method for 3D flow.
Denna avhandling utgör grunden för en ny dokumenterad upplevelse av injekteringsdesign och arbete i förlängningen av den blå tunnelbanelinjen i Stockholm. Den innehåller dokumentation av injekteringsdesignen baserad på teoretisk grund, stoppkriterier och fläktgeometrier för gynnsamma och ogynnsamma geologiska förhållanden. Arbetet handlar om att utvärdera designstoppskriterierna under olika geologiska förhållanden för att bedöma injekteringsprocessens effektivitet och dess kompatibilitet med maximalt tillåtna läckage enligt ansökningar som lämnats in till Mark- och miljödomstolen i Stockholm. Arbetet genomfördes i samarbete med TYPSA AB och SWECO; det gemensamma företaget som designade injekteringsarbetet. Detta arbete inleddes genom att studera designdokument och rapporter, krav, geologiska och hydrogeologiska prognosdokument. Sex arbetstunnlar analyserades, med olika arbetsprocent baserat på det faktiska arbete som uppnåddes på platsen när studien genomfördes. Varje arbetstunnelsträcka bestämdes i termer av geologiskt tillstånd (bergkvalitet), hydrogeologisk domän och injekteringsklass (IK1, IK2 eller IK3). Utvärderingar och bedömningar gjordes för olika aspekter inklusive utvärdering av injektionsmassans upptag per injekteringsklass, beräkning av andelen borrhål som stoppades av tid, volym eller nollflöde per injekteringsklass och jämförelse av det uppmätta läckaget med prognostiserat läckage för att kontrollera effektiviteten av design- och implementeringsfaserna. RTGC-metoden (Real Time Grouting Control) tillämpades också på vissa fans för att kontrollera dess giltighet vid injekteringsoptimering, med vetskap om att det är en relativt ny metod och ännu inte helt validerad. Resultaten visade att geologiska kartläggningar under implementeringsfasen skilde sig något från kartläggningarna som gjordes under designfasen, vilket förväntas på grund av den höga osäkerheten inom bergmassevetenskap. Det visades också att designstoppskriterierna i detta projekt var lovande, genom vilka de har uppfyllt kraven enligt ansökan till mark- och miljödomstolen. Genomsnittligt injektering av injekteringsbruk i typiska injektionsklasser var förenligt med resultaten i City Line-projekt, där det genomsnittliga injekteringen av injekteringsbruk i 2 liter / m. Resultaten visade emellertid också att i svaghetszoner var det genomsnittliga injekteringen av injekteringsbruk annorlunda med höga standardavvikelser. Att veta det faktum att ogynnsamma geologiska förhållanden klassificerades baserat på olika parametrar är det inte möjligt att hitta ett referensvärde för injekteringen av injekteringsbruk, utan resultaten kan användas som referenser i liknande geologiska förhållanden i huvudtunnelarbeten och framtida projekt. Några rekommendationer görs i denna avhandling om designstoppskriterier i svaghetszoner, ytbergsdomäner och vid fläktar injicerade på stort vattendjup. Dessa zoner utgör alltid grunden för kontroversiella diskussioner, och om dokumentation av injekteringsarbete utförs och fortsätter i detta projekt, kan mer kunskap fås och överföras till andra projekt. Som en del av denna avhandling tillämpades RTGC under gynnsamma förhållanden där det visade mycket lovande resultat, det som gör det möjligt att optimera stoppkriterierna och det faktiska arbetet genom att utföra försöksfogning. Men under ogynnsamma geologiska förhållanden kunde RTGC inte tillämpas eftersom flödets dimension är 3D, medan RTGC utvecklades för 1D- och 1D-flöde. Därför, och eftersom det visade sig vara ett lovande verktyg, rekommenderas ytterligare studier för attutveckla metoden för 3D-flöde.

Tätspont är en vanligt förekommande typ av stödkonstruktion och är i dagslägen den mest tids- och kostnadseffektiva på marknaden. Tätsponter består utav sammanfogade spontplankor i stål som ofta drivs med vibrationsutrustning. Ett antal studier har sedan början av 2000-talet undersökt vilka faktorer som påverkar drivbarheten av en planka. Men kunskapen kring förväntat produktionskapacitet, sett till ett helt projekt, är fortfarande bristfällig och det enda indikationerna för svår drivning som används idag är förekomsten av block och fast friktionsjord. Detta medför osäkerheter vid projektering som kan leda till förseningar och ökade kostnader. Målet med detta arbete är att möjliggöra för uppskattande av kapacitet vid spontdrivning i ett tidigt skede av projekt. Arbetet avser att besvara vilken kapacitet som kan förväntas vid spontdrivning och om det går att förutse denna utifrån de parametrar som kan utvärderas från en jord-bergsondering. För att uppfylla arbetets mål har nio spontprojekt utförda av Skanska Sverige AB studerats. Utifrån information från dagböcker och spontprotokoll, från dessa projekt, har kapaciteten för spontdrivning sammanställts. Sammanställd data för kapaciteten har sedan kopplats till utvärderat borrmotstånd från jord-bergsonderingar för att undersöka eventuellt samband. Det mest väsentliga resultatet av genomförd studie visar att inget samband mellan kapacitet och borrmotståndet vid jord-bergsondering tycks gå att påvisa. Denna avsaknad av samband kan användas som argument mellan parter för att påvisa att jord-bergsondering inte är lämplig för att beräkna förväntat kapacitet. Flera möjliga orsaker till resultatet finns och en är osäkerhet i information som inhämtats från projektens dagböcker. Ytterligare en förklaring kan vara att jord-bergsonderingen inte återspegla de parametrar i jorden som har störst betydelse vid drivning av spontplankor.
Sheet pile walls is a common type of retaining structure and is today the most time and cost effective solution on the market. Sheet pile walls consist of steel sheet piles which often are driven with vibratory equipment. A number of studies have since the beginning of the 21st century investigated which factors that influence the driveability of a sheet pile. But the knowledge about expected production capacity, for an entire project, is still limited and the only indication for difficulties when piling, that is used today, is the occurrence of blocks and firm friction soil. This leads to uncertainties in the planning phase of project which can lead to delays and increased costs. The goal of this work is to enable for estimation of the sheet piling capacity in an early state of projects. The work intends to answer what capacity can be expected when sheet piling and if it is possible to predict this from the parameters evaluated from the soil-rock sounding. To fulfill the goal of this work nine sheet piling project performed by Skanska Sverige AB have been studied. Based on information from diaries and sheet piling protocols, from these projects, the capacities of the sheet piling have been gathered. Gathered data for the capacity have then been connected to the penetration resistance evaluated from the soil-rock sounding to find a possible relationship. The most significant result of this study illustrates that no relationship between the capacity and penetration resistance from soil-rock sounding can be shown. This lack of relationship can be used as an argument between parties to show that soil-rock sounding is not suitable for calculating expected capacity. There are several possible reasons for this result and one is uncertainties in the information gathered from project diaries. Another explanation can be that soil-rock sounding does not reflect the parameters in the soil which has the greatest significance when sheet piling.

Numerical modelling is often needed as a tool to predict the behaviour and assess the safety of dam structures. Embankment dam structures analyses are quite complex and potential failures are hazardous. Predictions of dam behaviour by numerical modelling rely on knowledge about the mechanical properties of the materials the dam is constructed with. The materials included in a dam vary significantly because zones in the dam have different functions. In order to conduct reliable modelling, parameter values defining the stress-strain relationship of the materials are needed to be assigned.  Obtaining information about the mechanical behaviour in already existing embankment dams is usually challenging. As many dams are old, there might be a limited amount of information available of the materials used, construction methods and mostly about the stress-strain relationship of the soil. Traditionally, field sampling is performed in order to obtain such information. However, conventional field sampling might negatively affect the dam body and thereby the performance as well as the safety of the dam. This is of special importance if sampling is performed in the impervious (core) part. Since traditional sampling might harm the dam body, use of non-destructive methods would be advantageous to utilise for obtaining information about the stress-strain relationship and the strength in a dam structure.  An option for a non-destructive method is parameter identification by inverse analysis. The idea of inverse analysis is to calibrate finite element models towards field measurements. In the calibration process, the input for a stress-strain relationship (constitutive model) is modified until the discrepancy between the output of the numerical model and the associated chosen field measurement is minimised. The agreement between output from the numerical model and reality is measured by an objective function that will calculate the error. In order to automatically search for the minimum a search algorithm is utilised in the optimisation process. When the objective function is minimised, the calibration of the material parameters is done.  In previous research at Luleå University of Technology, the method of inverse analysis was applied to an embankment dam. The finite element program PLAXIS was used in combination with an optimisation code. The optimisation code includes an objective function (for error evaluation) and a search algorithm. The genetic algorithm was employed as search algorithm, since it is known for its robustness and efficiency as well as the fact that it provides a set of solutions instead of one unique answer. This is beneficial from a geotechnical point of view, since engineering judgement can be included in the final choice of solution.     The first study in the present thesis deals with a case study of an embankment dam, where a simple model calibration was performed. This was a part of a larger study, at the ICOLD Benchmark Workshop in 2017, where the work presented here was forming one of the contributions. In order to have a model response similar to reality, the contributors were asked to choose constitutive models and calibrate them. The calibration was done by manually changing the input for the constitutive model chosen. While the response of the numerical finite element model was capturing the trends of measured total stresses and pore pressure in the dam quite well, there were difficulties in capturing the long term deformations of the dam. This was a challenge for all contributors. An idea for improving the model response, is to run a more advanced calibration by inverse analysis.  In the second study in the thesis, predictions are presented for the embankment dam that inverse analysis was previously conducted for at LTU. Strengthening actions in form of a new berm were performed at the dam. With identified material parameter values from the inverse analysis, predictions were conducted both before and after the strengthening measures. The predicted deformations were compared to deformation data from inclinometer measurements.  A reasonably well agreement was obtained with the real deformations. The trend of the deformations was replicated and the magnitudes of the deformations were in the right order. The study is indicating that predicting future dam behaviour based on results from inverse analysis can be done reasonably well.  In the third and final study in the thesis, effects of random measurement error on the performance of the genetic algorithm for soil parameter identification are assessed. Also here, with the application to the embankment dam used in previous research at LTU. Optimisations were performed against inclinometer measurements. To be sure that the constitutive model can find the correct solution, synthetic (i.e. numerically generated) inclinometer data was utilised. Perturbations were randomly generated within chosen intervals of error and added to the numerically generated deformations.  The genetic algorithm showed its robustness, by continuing to search for solutions without breaking down even if the field data was substantially perturbed. Considering usual errors for inclinometer measurements, the genetic algorithm can deliver good solutions. The inclinometer errors used were taken from literature, and thereafter related to the perturbations of the numerically generated data. Dealing with errors that are becoming gradually larger than what can be considered as usual, problems are faced by the genetic algorithm. In this cases it is difficult to find a solution, and if solutions are found they might significantly deviate from the unperturbed optimum solution.  The three studies handled in this thesis are treating aspects of back analysis of embankment dams; from a simple calibration, to predictions based on material parameters from advanced inverse analysis and finally effects of errors on the genetic algorithm. It been shown that using inverse analysis for already existing embankment dams is very beneficial for the material characterisation and is forming a step towards better predictions of future dam behaviour.

I dagsläget saknas i Sverige ett verktyg som behandlar både belagda och icke-belagda vägar i arbetet med långtidsplanering av vägnätet. För att kunna göra en riktig fördelning av resurser för drift- och underhållsåtgärder över vägnätet krävs ett verktyg som kan behandla samtliga vägtyper och som ger jämförbara resultat. Genom att använda programmet "Highway Development and Management systems", HDM-4, är det möjligt att simulera nedbrytning och åtgärdseffekter för det totala vägnätet, som en enhet. Målet med detta är att kunna simulera vägars tillståndsutveckling och lönsamhet vid olika underhållsstrategier, oavsett beläggningstyp. Kan detta uppnås är förhoppningen att man utifrån en begränsad budget kan utföra det lämpligaste underhållet för att öka standarden på vägnätet. Det faktum att grusvägsmodulen i HDM-4 inte nyttjas i områden med kallt klimat, samt att nedbrytnings- och åtgärdsmodellerna är utvecklade utifrån studier gjorda i områden med totalt annat klimat än Sverige gör att dessa bör valideras innan programmet tas i bruk. Syftet med detta arbete är att genom simuleringar av tillståndsutvecklingen för ett antal grusvägar visa på brister, användningsområden och möjliga idéer till förbättringar av HDM-4. Studier av nedbrytnings- och åtgärdsmodellerna visar på brister i främst anpassningen av modellerna till vinterklimat. I simuleringar med HDM-4 antas ojämnhetsutveckling och materialförlusten från en grusväg vara lika stor över hela året. Detta kan vara rimligt i områden där vägarna inte är snötäckta och frusna stora delar av året. Detta är dock fallet i norra Sverige. Det faktum att nedbrytningen av en väg inte sker på samma sätt under vinterhalvåret som under barmarksperioden tas det heller ingen hänsyn till i modellerna. Simuleringarna visar på möjligheter att använda HDM-4 för att se trender i ojämnhetsutveckling och materialtransport för olika åtgärdsstrategier. De faktorer i modellerna som tar hänsyn till klimat går inte enkelt att anpassa till nordiska förhållanden. Detta medför att tillförlitligheten av de numeriska värdena från simuleringarna bör behandlas med försiktighet när programmet används. Försök med att endast simulera barmarksperioden har även utförts. Dessa visar på en möjlig lösning till att enbart simulera nedbrytningen och effekterna av åtgärder under barmarksperioden. Utifrån de studier av programmet som hittills har utförts finns en möjlighet att kunna använda programmet för prioritering av insatser för det svenska grusvägnätet på en översiktlig nivå. Detta utan att ändra i de ekvationer som ligger till grund för nedbrytningsmodellerna. Programmet är däremot för grovt för att använda vid studier av enstaka objekt i detalj. De variationer i IRI som återspeglar olika nivåer av åtgärder kan tydligt identifieras, vilket innebär att programmet kan användas för att urskilja trender i ojämnhetsutvecklingen för olika åtgärdsalternativ. Ytterligare studier bör utföras för att testa de idéer till ändringar som hittills kommit fram i projektet.
Godkänd; 2005; 20061218 (haneit)

Målet med arbetet som ligger till grund för licentiatuppsatsen har varit att bestämma behovet av och omfattningen på fält- och laboratorieundersökningar för att erhålla tillförlitliga resultat från beräkningar med programmet Pc-heave. Utgångspunkten har varit att studera om man enbart med en enklare fält- och laboratorieundersökningar kan erhålla ingångsparametrar som ger tillräcklig noggrannhet vid predikteringen av tjällyftning och tjälnedträngning i en jord med hjälp av programmet Pc-heave. Syftet har varit att beräkningen skall vara en prognos och utföras utan att i efterhand behöva anpassa parametrarna för att uppnå överensstämmelse mellan beräknade och uppmätta värden på tjälnedträngning och tjällyftning. Med anpassning av sådana parametrar som, mängd ofruset vatten och permeabilitet, utifrån en kortare tids, en månads, observationer i inledningen av tjälningsperioden erhåller man god överensstämmelse mellan beräknade och uppmätta värden på tjällyftning, islinsernas läge och mäktighet och tjälnedträngningen. Islinsernas läge och mäktighet i den frusna jorden har detekterats med hjälp av röntgenfotografering av upptagna borrkärnor. Ingångsparametrar valda utifrån enklare undersökningar av typen kornfördelning, densitet, vattenkvot eller ytterligare parametrar bland annat ofrusetvatteninnehåll och permeabilitet bestämda i laboratorium ger däremot sämre resultat.

Godkänd; 1999; 20070320 (ysko)

Vid gruvbrytning genereras bland annat ett finmalet gråbergsavfall, anrikningssand. Den vanligaste deponeringsmetoden för anrikningssand är att den tillsammans med vatten pumpas eller leds till en gruvdamm. Där deponeras anrikningssanden genom sedimentation. Trots att det är den vanligaste deponeringsmetoden är den behäftad med svagheter. Det uppdämda vattnet i gruvdammen kan ge upphov till incidenter och i olyckliga fall till allvarliga haverier. Ett sätt att minska riskerna och att öka stabiliteten, är att deponeringen sker under dränerade förhållanden. Detta kan åstadkommas med hjälp av sildammar. För att studera funktion och lämplig uppbyggnad av sildammar har ett anta fält- och laboratorieförsök genomförts. Grovkornigt gråbergsavfall, kallat sovringsgråberg, användes när sildammarna byggdes. Sildammarnas uppgift var att hindra flödet av anrikningssand genom filtrering och samtidigt tillåta dränering av inpumpat vatten. Syftet med denna licentiatuppsats har varit att hitta en lämplig design för sildammar. Efter en inledande litteraturstudie byggdes testanläggningar, både som rännförsök och i pilotskala. I testanläggningarna testades olika sildammar genom att dess filtrerande och dränerande förmåga undersöktes. Testerna föregicks av laboratorieförsök där sildammsmaterialens hydrauliska konduktivitet undersöktes. Testerna visar att vid valet av lämpligt material för sildammar, kan filterkriteria användas tillsammans med bedömningar av materialets hydrauliska konduktivitet. Finns inte lämpligt sovringsgråberg att tillgå, kan geotextiler användas som filter i en sildamm. Sildammarnas filtrerande förmåga beräknades som verkningsgrader, vilka låg mellan 34 - 100 % beroende på sildammarnas design. Sildammarnas dränerande förmåga beräknades i det deponerade materialet med hjälp av uppmätta och beräknade porvattentryck. Porvattentrycken sjönk mellan 60 - 100 % under testperioden. Testerna visar att det deponerade materialets egenskaper påverkas av den inpumpade mängden av vatten och anrikningssand samt av sildammarnas funktion. Där sildammens filtrerande förmåga var hög, tog det längre tid innan det deponerade materialet dränerades. Vidare påverkas sildammarnas funktion av det deponerade materialets egenskaper. Vid deponeringen skedde en partikelsegregering, då de tyngsta partiklarna sedimenterade närmast inloppsröret medan lättare partiklar transporterades längre innan de sedimenterade. Denna segregation påverkar sildammens dränerande funktion negativt. Sildammen kan inte filtrera enbart de finkornigaste partiklarna samtidigt som sildammen skall dränera det inpumpade vattnet. Ju mer omfattande partikelsegregationen är och ju bättre sildammen kan hindra de finkornigaste partiklarna, desto större kommer sättningarna i det sedimenterade materialet bli nära sildammen. Detta kan försvåra dränering av ytvattnet. Testerna genomfördes sommartid. Framtida undersökningar bör koncentreras på att anpassa metoden även för vinterförhållanden. Vidare bör materialprover tas för att få en bättre uppskattning av partikelsegregationen. Målet är att kunna beräkna deponins optimala storlek. Slutligen bör ytterligare fältförsök genomföras där anrikningssanden deponeras i våningar. Vid dessa försök bör det deponerade materialets dräneringsförmåga ytterligare utredas tillsammans med undersökningar av eventuella erosionsproblem i underliggande sildammar från dränerat vattnet.
Godkänd; 2005; 20061215 (haneit)

Three papers form the present thesis. In paper I a numerical model for calculation of surface temperatures on a highway is presented. The model takes all relevant factors into consideration, i.e. conduction, wind, short- and long wave radiation. Temperatures obtained by the model are compared with those measured in a highway pavement. A good correlation is obtained. The model is using the position of the sun as input data and is not considering noon time conditions all the day, as in many other models for surface temperature calculation. In paper II and III a simple numerical model for calculation of frost depth and frost heave in highways is presented. Calculation results are compared with data obtained from two different test sites. Comparison is also made to laboratory tests conducted by using a new laboratory-testing device, developed by the author. The equipment is described in paper III. It is further argued, that frost heave to great extent is caused by ice lenses formed by water from the pores in unfrozen soil and only to a minor extent by water taken from the ground water, which is normally assumed. Good correlation is found between calculated and observed frost penetration and frost heave, in both field and laboratory condition. Special attention is paid to the influence of heave rate and water intake rate.
Godkänd; 2000; 20070318 (ysko)

This thesis focuses on the 2D modelling of Geosyntheticaly Reinforced Piled Embankments (GRPE) in PLAXIS 2D. In doing so, it explores two main aspects: 1) the calibration of Interface Stiffness Factors (ISFs) governing the soil-pile interaction of Embedded BeamRow (EBR) elements in PLAXIS 2D, and 2) the prospects and limitations of modelling geogrids (GR) in PLAXIS 2D when underlain by EBR elements; although several studies have validates the EBR element in modelling piles, none address the geogrid-EBR interaction and its implications on modelling GRPE systems. The thesis performs the calibration and validation processes using the full-scale GRPE structure ASIRI (Amélioration des Sols parInclusions Rigide) as documented in Briançon and Simon, 2012 and Nunez et al., 2013. Calibration of the EBR’s ISFs is done against 1) load-displacement curve of a test pile, 2)load-displacement of the structure’s monitored piles, and 3) differential soil-pile settlement. Model results for soil settlement, pile settlement, and pile load are then compared to reported values from the ASIRI site. Results show that the natural deviation between the structure and test pile’s load - displacement results in a wide range of possible calibration values for the ISFs, making calibration based on a test pile’s load-displacement curve an unpractical method. Even when such natural deviations were eliminated by calibrating the model against the structure’s reported values for pile load-displacement, model predictions for subsoil displacement were compromised. It is thus advisable to calibrate the EBR element with respect to soil settlement, pile settlement, and pile load rather than solely on a load-displacement curve as to avoid high divergences in soil-pile differential settlement. Modelling geogrids in GRPE systems, PLAXIS 2D underestimates GR strain due to its inability to simulate GR deflection: EBR elements are superimposed on top of a continuous soil mesh, thus allowing the embankment soil to settle through the EBR element. This unrealistically minimizes GR deflection, which underestimates GR strain when modelling GRPEs in PLAXIS 2D. In addition to validating the 2D modelling of GRPE systems, the thesis conducts a comparative literature review of GRPE design guidelines, focusing on the British BS8006 (2010), the German EBGEO (2011), and the Dutch CUR226 (2016). It then applies the latter two to the ASIRI full scale case study and compares results for predicted maximum GR strainand displacement to those from the PLAXIS 2D model and ASIRI measurements. The literature review shows that the geogrid load distribution is highly dependent on the state of subsoil support, where a uniform distribution is more appropriate for high subsoil support, and an inverse-triangular one more appropriate for low subsoil support. However, the analytical analysis of the ASIRI case shows that the triangular distribution, previously dismissed as unrealistic by the literature review, gives satisfactory results due to a combination of soil sliding and high subsoil support at the ASIRI site.
Examensarbetet utvärderar 2D modellering av bankpålning med geosyntetisk armering (Geosyntheticallt Reinforced Piled Embankments – GRPE) i PLAXIS 2D. Examensarbetet utforskar två huvudaspekter: 1) kalibrering av Interface Stiffness Factors (ISFs) som styrjord-påle samspelet av Embedded Beam Row (EBR) element i PLAXIS 2D, och 2) möjligheter och begränsningar vid modellering av geonät i PLAXIS 2D när de ligger över EBR element. Även om flera studier har validerat användningen av EBR element för modelleringenav pålning, har inga behandlat samspelet geonät-EBR samt dess implikationer på modelleringen av GRPE. I arbetet har kalibrerings- och valideringsprocesser genomförts genom att använda den fullskaliga GRPE strukturen ASIRI (Amélioration des Sols par Inclusions Rigide) som dokumenterats i Briançon och Simon(2012) samt Nunez et al. (2013). Kalibrering av EBR ISFshar utförts mot: 1) last/förskjutningssamband av testpålar, 2) last/förskjutningssambad av övervakade pålar i strukturen, och 3) jord-påle differenssättningen. Modellens resultat försättningar i jorden, deformation i pålarna och lasten i pålarna jämförs med mätningar från ASIRI. Resultaten visar att naturliga avvikelser mellan strukturens- och testpålens last/förskjutningssambad resulterar i ett brett spektrum av möjliga kalibreringsvärden för ISFs, som gör kalibrering mot testpålens last/förskjutningssambad opraktisk. Även vid justering för detta genom kalibrering mot strukturpålens last/förskjutningssambad minskade modellens noggrannhet för sättningar i jorden. Det är således lämpligt att kalibrera EBR element motsättningar i jorden, deformation i pålarna och lasten i pålarna i stället för bara last/förskjutningssambaden för att undvika hög divergens i differenssättningen jord-påle. Vid modellering av GRPE-geonät underskattar PLAXIS 2D töjningen i geonäten på grund av sin oförmåga att simulera geonätens utböjning. EBR element ligger över ett kontinuerligt beräkningsnät av jord (soil mesh) som tillåter bankfyllningen att sätta genom EBRelement. Detta förhindrar utböjningen i geonätet som resulterar i en underskattning av töjningen i nätet vid modellering av GRPE i PLAXIS 2D. Förutom validering av 2D modelleringen av GRPE strukturer utför examensarbetet en jämförande literaturstudie av GRPE dimensioneringsriktlinjer med fokus på Brittisk BS8006 (2010), Tysk EBGEO (2011), och Nederländsk CUR226 (2016). De två sista nämnda riktlinjerna tillämpas på ASIRI för att prognosticera maximum geonättöjning och utböjning. Beräkningsresultat jämförs med värden från PLAXIS 2D modellen och mätningar från ASIRI. Litteraturstudien visar att geonätens belastningsfördelning är beroende främst på stödet från den underliggande jorden. Likformig belastningsfördelningen är lämpligare för en hög stödnivå och en invers-triangulär belastningsfördelningen för en låg stödnivå. Dock visar den analytiska analysen av ASIRI strukturen att en triangulär belastningsfördelning, som ansågs vara orealistisk i litteraturstudien, ger tillfredsställande resultat. Det är på grund av kombinationen av ’jordensglidning’ och hög stödnivå från den underliggandejorden i ASIRI:s fall.

The purpose with this study was to investigate the impact of three-dimensional effects in slope stability for three-dimensional excavations and slopes with cohesive soils and compare the results with the method provided by the Swedish commission of slope stability in 1995 regarding three-dimensional effects. Both the factor of safety and the shape of the slip surface was compared between the methods but also the results from their equivalent two-dimensional geometry. The investigation was performed with models created in the finite element software PLAXIS 3D and the limit equilibrium software GeoStudio SLOPE/W. Three-dimensional excavations with varying slope angles, external loads and slope lengths were tested for three different geometry groups in PLAXIS 3D. The equivalent two-dimensional geometries were modeled with SLOPE/W and recalculated with the three-dimensional effect method provided by the Swedish commission of slope stability. The results show that the methods match well for slopes with inclinations 1:2 and 1:1 when an external load is present on the slope edge, and the factor of safety is greater and not close to 1,0. For an excavation with vertical walls or when no external load is present, the methods match poorly. The results also show that for a long and unloaded slope, the factor of safety approaches the value obtained from a simplified two-dimensional analysis. The results imply that the recommendations from the Swedish commission of slope stabilityare reliable for simple calculations of standard cohesive slopes. Keywords: Slope stability; 3D-effects; FEM

Near surface seismic methods have the potential for mapping theoverburden and bedrock in the Nordic environment. They can provideeffective information about shallow glacial deposits and groundwaterresources in Sweden. We analysed seismic data from the Heby andMarsta sites with the aim of improving the imaging resolution andunderstanding the substructures better, developing systematicstrategies to deal with the detection of aquifers and the delineation ofsome significant boundaries. The general scheme for every case studyis composed of processing, inversion and forward modelling.Processing strategies for the Heby and Marsta have different keypoints, because of the different acquisition equipment and systems.The Heby data were acquired by dynamite and collected withconventional geophones, while the Marsta data were acquired by asledge hammer source and a 3C data landstreamer with MEMSsensors. Inversion can be used for enhancing image quality,particularly in velocity model building. Strongly undulatedsubstructures in the Heby profile cause ambiguities and conflictingdips in the stacked section. By employing the tomographic inversionresult as a starting point to implement prestack depth migration(PSDM) the final image shows better continuity at the top of bedrockand shallow layers are resolved clearer. At Marsta, vertical and radialcomponent data were used to obtain PP and PS information,respectively, to delineate the bedrock surface. Common conversionPoint (CCP) binning of the radial component identifies the surface inbetter resolution, even a 2m variation in the depth of the bedrock canbe seen. PSDM radial component data supports and complements theresult from the CCP binning. In both the Heby and Marsta cases,forward modelling was applied for testing processing workflows forthe field data using models that mimick the real substructures.Acoustic modelling was used for understanding the P-wave responsein the Heby single component data, while elastic wave modelling wasperformed to simulate the multicomponent data at Marsta. The resultsdemonstrate that a comprehensive application of seismic methods inthe near surface (shallower than 100m) can provide adequateresolution. Noteworthy is that an accurate velocity estimation plays asignificant role in the whole scheme for seismic imaging. Thestrategies for building the velocity are also meaningful in thisresearch.

Nowadays, new measurement technologies are being used in underground mining operationsto increase the safety factors and solve several mining challenges to save time and improve theeffectiveness of mining operations. One of the new tools is the uGPS Rapid Mapper, which hasrecently entered the market. LKAB is one of the companies looking to use modern technologyto help solve problems in its Kiirunavaara and Malmberget underground mines. The operatingmechanism of the uGPS Rapid Mapper was studied and some investigations were carried outwith the device.The first part of this thesis studied the repeatability and accuracy of the uGPS Rapid Mapper™System during actual use. A number of tests were completed and data analysis viaCloudCompare software was carried out. The result of these tests showed that the uGPS RapidMapper is an efficient device that can be counted on for future work with higher reliability interms of output results.The second part of this thesis determined the overbreak percentage caused by blasting and otherfactors. The uGPS Rapid Mapper was used to scan different parts of the mine (areas that havebeen developed more than three months ago and newly-developed areas). The percentageoverbreak that occurred in these selected areas in the mine and the cause of the overbreak wereanalysed. The study indicated that the data collected by uGPS and analyzed using theDeswik.CAD (Reconciliation Tool) is a very effective method for calculating the overbreak.Most of the study areas in this study however showed an overbreak percentage of more than16% with a varying form of percentage overbreak. The potential causes of this variation are asa result of geological structures or more pronounced mining activities, or operations such asdrilling and blasting, scaling, charging and explosives parameters. The results also clearlyindicated that underground deformation, rock support installation, especially the application ofshotcrete plays a major role in filling the void after rock falls and reducing geometric crosscutentry size.The final part of the work investigated the deformation that occurred in some parts of the minewhere it is believed to have deformations exceeding 20 cm. These parts of the mine werescanned regularly for four months, and the data were analysed using CloudCompare andDeswik.CAD software. The result of the deformation studies showed that the uGPS RapidiiMapper can effectively recognize the changes underground where the recorded deformationhas exceeded 40 cm.The results confirmed that the uGPS Rapid Mapper can be used to effectively monitorunderground changes in the mine through regular underground scanning and analysis of thescanned data.

This thesis focuses on the 2D modelling of Geosyntheticaly Reinforced Piled Embankments (GRPE) in PLAXIS 2D. In doing so, it explores two main aspects: 1) the calibration of Interface Stiffness Factors (ISFs) governing the soil-pile interaction of Embedded BeamRow (EBR) elements in PLAXIS 2D, and 2) the prospects and limitations of modelling geogrids (GR) in PLAXIS 2D when underlain by EBR elements; although several studies have validates the EBR element in modelling piles, none address the geogrid-EBR interaction and its implications on modelling GRPE systems. The thesis performs the calibration and validation processes using the full-scale GRPE structure ASIRI (Amélioration des Sols parInclusions Rigide) as documented in Briançon and Simon, 2012 and Nunez et al., 2013. Calibration of the EBR’s ISFs is done against 1) load-displacement curve of a test pile, 2)load-displacement of the structure’s monitored piles, and 3) differential soil-pile settlement. Model results for soil settlement, pile settlement, and pile load are then compared to reported values from the ASIRI site. Results show that the natural deviation between the structure and test pile’s load - displacement results in a wide range of possible calibration values for the ISFs, making calibration based on a test pile’s load-displacement curve an unpractical method. Even when such natural deviations were eliminated by calibrating the model against the structure’s reported values for pile load-displacement, model predictions for subsoil displacement were compromised. It is thus advisable to calibrate the EBR element with respect to soil settlement, pile settlement, and pile load rather than solely on a load-displacement curve as to avoid high divergences in soil-pile differential settlement. Modelling geogrids in GRPE systems, PLAXIS 2D underestimates GR strain due to its inability to simulate GR deflection: EBR elements are superimposed on top of a continuous soil mesh, thus allowing the embankment soil to settle through the EBR element. This unrealistically minimizes GR deflection, which underestimates GR strain when modelling GRPEs in PLAXIS 2D. In addition to validating the 2D modelling of GRPE systems, the thesis conducts a comparative literature review of GRPE design guidelines, focusing on the British BS8006 (2010), the German EBGEO (2011), and the Dutch CUR226 (2016). It then applies the latter two to the ASIRI full scale case study and compares results for predicted maximum GR strainand displacement to those from the PLAXIS 2D model and ASIRI measurements. The literature review shows that the geogrid load distribution is highly dependent on the state of subsoil support, where a uniform distribution is more appropriate for high subsoil support, and an inverse-triangular one more appropriate for low subsoil support. However, the analytical analysis of the ASIRI case shows that the triangular distribution, previously dismissed as unrealistic by the literature review, gives satisfactory results due to a combination of soil sliding and high subsoil support at the ASIRI site.
Examensarbetet utvärderar 2D modellering av bankpålning med geosyntetisk armering (Geosyntheticallt Reinforced Piled Embankments – GRPE) i PLAXIS 2D. Examensarbetet utforskar två huvudaspekter: 1) kalibrering av Interface Stiffness Factors (ISFs) som styrjord-påle samspelet av Embedded Beam Row (EBR) element i PLAXIS 2D, och 2) möjligheter och begränsningar vid modellering av geonät i PLAXIS 2D när de ligger över EBR element. Även om flera studier har validerat användningen av EBR element för modelleringenav pålning, har inga behandlat samspelet geonät-EBR samt dess implikationer på modelleringen av GRPE. I arbetet har kalibrerings- och valideringsprocesser genomförts genom att använda den fullskaliga GRPE strukturen ASIRI (Amélioration des Sols par Inclusions Rigide) som dokumenterats i Briançon och Simon(2012) samt Nunez et al. (2013). Kalibrering av EBR ISFshar utförts mot: 1) last/förskjutningssamband av testpålar, 2) last/förskjutningssambad av övervakade pålar i strukturen, och 3) jord-påle differenssättningen. Modellens resultat försättningar i jorden, deformation i pålarna och lasten i pålarna jämförs med mätningar från ASIRI. Resultaten visar att naturliga avvikelser mellan strukturens- och testpålens last/förskjutningssambad resulterar i ett brett spektrum av möjliga kalibreringsvärden för ISFs, som gör kalibrering mot testpålens last/förskjutningssambad opraktisk. Även vid justering för detta genom kalibrering mot strukturpålens last/förskjutningssambad minskade modellens noggrannhet för sättningar i jorden. Det är således lämpligt att kalibrera EBR element motsättningar i jorden, deformation i pålarna och lasten i pålarna i stället för bara last/förskjutningssambaden för att undvika hög divergens i differenssättningen jord-påle. Vid modellering av GRPE-geonät underskattar PLAXIS 2D töjningen i geonäten på grund av sin oförmåga att simulera geonätens utböjning. EBR element ligger över ett kontinuerligt beräkningsnät av jord (soil mesh) som tillåter bankfyllningen att sätta genom EBRelement. Detta förhindrar utböjningen i geonätet som resulterar i en underskattning av töjningen i nätet vid modellering av GRPE i PLAXIS 2D. Förutom validering av 2D modelleringen av GRPE strukturer utför examensarbetet en jämförande literaturstudie av GRPE dimensioneringsriktlinjer med fokus på Brittisk BS8006 (2010), Tysk EBGEO (2011), och Nederländsk CUR226 (2016). De två sista nämnda riktlinjerna tillämpas på ASIRI för att prognosticera maximum geonättöjning och utböjning. Beräkningsresultat jämförs med värden från PLAXIS 2D modellen och mätningar från ASIRI. Litteraturstudien visar att geonätens belastningsfördelning är beroende främst på stödet från den underliggande jorden. Likformig belastningsfördelningen är lämpligare för en hög stödnivå och en invers-triangulär belastningsfördelningen för en låg stödnivå. Dock visar den analytiska analysen av ASIRI strukturen att en triangulär belastningsfördelning, som ansågs vara orealistisk i litteraturstudien, ger tillfredsställande resultat. Det är på grund av kombinationen av ’jordensglidning’ och hög stödnivå från den underliggandejorden i ASIRI:s fall.

Two basically different multibarrier concepts for high-level radioactive waste (HLW) are the often cited KBS-3 V/H concepts, for isolating nuclear waste at 400-600 m depth and Very Deep Boreholes concepts (VDH) for placement at 2000-4000 m depth. Both make use of expandable clay as isolating medium of canisters with HLW and as backfill material in shafts and tunnels in repositories for safe disposal of such waste. This licentiate thesis is based on three papers related to the properties of clays for use as engineered barriers, and to their performance at geological disposal. The first paper deals with the buffer criteria for the two disposal concepts. In this paper the possibilities and limitations of using clays of montmorillonite-, saponite- and mixed layer clay type are considered. The second paper discusses the swelling property and permeability of Na-montmorillonite clays (MX-80, GMZ) and illite-smectite mixed layer clay (Holmehus) saturated and percolated by distilled water and a salt solution. The third paper describes a lab-scale performance of VDH holes sealing using Holmehus clay. In this paper, methods for solving the problem of too quick hydration of the dense clay are investigated and evaluated.
Godkänd; 2015; 20151026 (tinyan); Nedanstående person kommer att hålla licentiatseminarium för avläggande av teknologie licentiatexamen. Namn: Ting Yang Ämne: Geoteknik/Soil Mechanics Uppsats: Borehole Sealing with Expandable Buffer Clays in HLW Disposal Lab-Scale Performance Third-cycle subject area: Soil Mechanics Examinator: Professor Sven Knutsson Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser Avdelning Geoteknologi Luleå tekniska universitet Diskutant: Professor Jörn Kasbohm GeoEnCon, Tyskland Tid: Tisdag 15 december 2015 kl 10.00 Plats: E1026, Luleå tekniska universitet