Academic literature on the topic 'Ghanéens Ghana'

Registered General Nurses (RGNs) play crucial roles in emergency departments (EDs). EDs in Ghana are primarily staffed by RGNs who have had no additional formal education in emergency care. Additionally, basic, master’s, or doctoral level nursing education programs provide limited content on the complexities of emergency nursing. Nurses in EDs are affected by many challenges such as growing patient population, financial pressures, physical violence, verbal abuse, operational inefficiencies, overcrowding, and work overload. There is a paucity of research on challenges experienced by RGNs in EDs in the Volta Region of Ghana. In this qualitative study, twenty RGNs in EDs from three selected hospitals in the Volta Region of Ghana were interviewed. All recorded interviews were transcribed, reviewed several times by researchers and supervisors, and analyzed using content analysis. Five thematic categories were identified. These thematic categories of challenges were lack of preparation for ED role, verbal abuse from patients relatives, lack of resources in ED, stressful and time consuming nature of ED, and overcrowding in ED. Formal education of RGNs in the advanced role of emergency care, adequate supply of resources, increased hospital management support, and motivations for RGNs working in ED are necessary to improve the practice of emergency care.

Abstract Women have always been central concerning the provision of healthcare. The transitions into the modern world have been very slow for women because of how societies classify women. Starting from lay care, women provided healthcare for their family and sometimes to the members of the community in which they lived. With no formal education, women served as midwives and served in other specialised fields in medicine. They usually treated their fellow women because they saw ‘women’s medicine’ as women’s business. They were discriminated against by the opposite sex and by the church, which regarded it as a taboo to allow women to practice medicine. This study points to a Ghanaian context on how the charismas of women have made them excel in their efforts to provide healthcare for their people. The study also focused on the role of indigenous practitioners who are mostly found in the rural areas and modern practitioners who are mostly found in the peri-urban, urban areas and larger cities in Ghana.

The potential for the firm to improve its resource use especially energy management by using Environmental Management Systems (EMS) like ISO 14001 has been shown to be possible. Yet, no in-depth research has been conducted to explore this possibility in Ghana. The implementation of EMS integrates the corporate environmental management strategies and management commitment to sustainable development but most of the organisations in developing countries of West Africa are slow to adopt the management system. The aim of this paper is to assess the drivers, the competitive advantages of ISO 14001 EMS certification and the environmental impact of ISO 14001 EMS certification, in terms of energy consumption. Before and after methods of evaluation were used to analyse the data collected. Purposive sampling technique was used to administer questionnaires and interview guides to employees of the cable manufacturing firm. A review was also made of annual data for electricity consumption before and after ISO 14001 EMS certification. The findings indicate that the main driver of the ISO 14001 EMS certification by the firm is to take advantage of certification to expand its market share. It was also found out that reduction in potential environmental liability risks is the main competitive advantage of ISO 14001 EMS certification. In terms of energy consumption, the findings show that the firm is saving a lot of energy thus cost. It is recommended that more efforts should be made by the energy commission of Ghana through the provision of funds to firms who want to implement environmental management systems.

Associations between water sources, socio-demographic characteristics and household drinking water quality are described in a representative sample of six coastal districts of Ghana's Central Region. Thirty-six enumeration areas (EAs) were randomly chosen from a representative survey of 90 EAs in rural, semi-urban and urban residence strata. In each EA, 24 households were randomly chosen for water quality sampling and socio-demographic interview. Escherichia coli per 100 ml H2O was quantified using the IDEXX Colilert® system and multi-stage regression models estimated cross-sectional associations between water sources, sanitation and socio-demographic factors. Almost three quarters, 74%, of the households have >2 E. coli /100 ml H2O. Tap water has significantly lower E. coli levels compared with surface or rainwater and well water had the highest levels. Households with a water closet toilet have significantly lower E. coli compared with those using pit latrines or no toilets. Household size is positively associated, and a possessions index is negatively associated, with E. coli. Variations in community and household socio-demographic and behavioural factors are key determinants of drinking water quality. These factors should be included in planning health education associated with investments in water systems.

Abstract Groundwater, traditionally extracted from hand-dug wells and boreholes is the main drinking water source in the Northern Region of Ghana. Many boreholes have been constructed in the region to increase accessibility to potable water mainly as part of rural water supply projects where borehole siting has to be relatively cheaper. These projects have resulted in low success rates of borehole drilling because of the application of inefficient and simple geophysical techniques supposed to be cheaper. Field surveys were conducted with the Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI) technique, Electrokinetic System (EKS) sounding technique and Radon (222Rn) technique with the objectives of determining the best geophysical methods for borehole siting and its efficiency in the Volta Basin (VB) in the Northern Region of Ghana. The surveys were conducted at stations of existing dry and positive boreholes. Results show that the three geophysical techniques are efficient to identify groundwater accumulation zones. The ERI, EKS and 222Rn are efficient to identify discontinuities, calculate hydraulic conductivity of discontinuities and identify areas of water circulation respectively. It is recommended that the ERI be used to obtain discontinuities and weak zones for drilling on rural water supply projects in the VB. The EKS and 222Rn should be conducted to evaluate these features when high yield boreholes are required. Keywords: Geophysical Techniques, Volta Basin, Borehole Drilling, Success Rates

Abstract Based on a qualitative design and a qualitative analysis of responses from primary informants and secondary sources we present a narrative on the attitudes and perception of the Ghanaian on skin bleaching. Based on retrospective and thematic analyses the authors conclude that there is the need for education and enforcement of laws that protect the consumer from patronizing cosmetics that bleach the skin. The study further highlights the role of institutions that are responsible for legislating, regulating, preventing and educating the general public. It is envisaged that this article shall reinvigorate the need for further research and discourses on skin bleaching in Africa and Ghana in particular. Policy makers and policy implementers should be spurred on to make a difference.

The authors investigate the impact of two contrasting logics, effectuation and causation, on the innovation process in emerging economies (EEs). Effectuation theory, which emphasizes responses to uncertainty, is integrated with the innovation process literature, which emphasizes resource constraints. In particular, the authors show that in EEs the flexibility dimension of effectuation is underemphasized, while its pre-commitment dimension is overemphasized. The combination of effectuation and causation mechanisms is influenced by the industry context, as well as by the type, degree and timing of resource constraints. Employing longitudinal data from six innovation process cases across one industry (financial services) and four EEs (Botswana, Ethiopia, Ghana and South Africa), the authors employ a process approach using real-world data to support their propositions.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD
In Ghana, the number of people living in extreme poverty has reduced. Yet the poverty rate is currently 24.2 %, which is still high considering that Ghana is a lower middle-income country (Emmanuel, Frempong, Opareh & Rose, 2015; 35). In Ghana, the poor are classified in two groups: “ 1) … those who live above an upper line of GHC 1314.00 per day which is equivalent to US $ 1.83, and; 2) those within a lower poverty line of GHC 729.05 equivalent to US $ 1.03 a day…” (Emmanuel, Frempong, Opareh & Rose, 2015; 35). Those who “… live above the upper line of GHC 1314.00 are considered as non-poor, whereas those with a consumption expenditure equivalent or below GHC 729.05 a lower poverty line are in absolute poverty or living in extreme poverty…” (Emmanuel et al., 2015). In Ghana, Yaidoo and Kalaiah (2018) agree that microcredit programs are a neoliberal ploy that keep poor people in a perpetual state of poverty. Most microcredit beneficiaries are located in the rural areas and majority are the lowest income earners of the employed population. Microcredit should ordinarily have a broader range of empowerment services, yet the Ghana microcredit programs do not have this. Microcredit in Ghana has become a debt trap and its benefits to the poor is illusory (Yaidoo and Kalaiah, 2018). Most microcredits have high interest rates and seek to profit operations which had created a situation where microcredits are an additional burden to the people, impacting negatively on their livelihood (Yaidoo and Kalaiah, 2018). Further, Yaidoo and Kalaiah (2018) pinpointed that in Ghana, by observing the crippling consequences of debt burden on countries (such as Ghana who opted for the Highly Indebted Poor Country status in 2002), the world financial crisis in 2007/08, and cases of high default in repayment of debt, it would make sense to adopt a more impactful approach to microcredit. In that other role, players are needed to fill the gap with intervention resulting in improving people’s livelihood. This study aimed to empirically access the effect of microcredit on beneficiaries’ livelihood improvement. The study was conducted in four regions of Ghana, with the main objective to find out whether the Self-Supported Assistant Programme (SSAP) microcredit has improved the livelihood of its beneficiaries. The specific objectives of the study were to: i) evaluate the Beneficiaries Livelihoods Status as per their asset accumulation, voluntary saving, capabilities and frequency of loan repayment, and; ii) to estimate the effects of Demographic + Socioeconomic + Loan T&Cs Variables (financial training + loan interest rates + loan monitoring) on Beneficiaries Livelihoods Improvement (asset accumulation, voluntary saving, capabilities).

Thesis advisor: Melissa M. Kelley
Thesis advisor: Lisa Sowle Cahill
Thesis (STL) — Boston College, 2016
Submitted to: Boston College. School of Theology and Ministry
Discipline: Sacred Theology

The debased condition under which people work is pervasive in contemporary societies and is especially ubiquitous in the so-called developing world. Yet, internationally recognized standards for the regulation of working conditions abound and are often applauded, without the passion for their application. Otherwise, why should a country like Ghana, which has one of the highest numbers of ratified labour standards conventions, continue to be fraught with poor working conditions? This undoubtedly simple but fundamental question is what this study sought to answer. Earlier attempts to answer this question have suffered from the lack of rich empirical data and compelling theoretical convictions. In view of this, 'Labour Standards Application in Ghana: Influences, Patterns and Solutions' may be considered a valuable contribution to the treatise of the labour standards phenomenon. Theoretically, the study collates salient aspects of both the market-oriented neo-classical and the non-market institutional and political-economy perspectives into an integrated model for the conceptualization of the labour standards phenomenon in Ghana. A combination of the quantitative and qualitative research strategies is then adopted for primary data collection in view of their respective epistemological and ontological implications. Specifically, a survey, which requires a large sample size to aid the generalisation of the existing patterns in the application of labour standards is used and complimented with interviews and observations to facilitate in-depth and contextual analyses of the issues under study.This thesis is therefore a presentation of a thoroughly researched and argued study of the influences on, patterns of, and solutions to, the labour standards problem. With regard to the macro level influences, the study has shown that continuous external influences in the form of the World Bank and the IMF policies, with their emphasis on economic growth, erodes the very fabric of the society and Ghana's capacity to turn workers away from victims of economic growth to dignified citizens. Meanwhile, what is needed to create wealth - which may be fairly distributed, is a dignified working class. Particularly as it relates to the patterns of labour standards application, the study provides a compelling reason for the conclusion that working conditions in Ghana are poor and that it is misleading to put all multinational corporations and local firms together and make blanket statements as to whether or not they apply labour standards. This is because a number of factors, such as the country of origin, determine whether they apply labour standards or not. Regarding solutions, the revelation is that, the solutions to the labour standards problem proposed in the literature and in use in many developed countries are simply not workable in Ghana. Deliberative recommendations are therefore presented, in a context specific fashion, to ensure that labour standards application in Ghana is not just rhetoric but a reality. This way, the labour standards problem will be minimised and the working people of Ghana will be treated as worthy of the decency and dignity due all humans.

Introduction This study was carried out in Ghana, where the incidence of end stage kidney disease (ESKD) is increasing in a context of limited treatment options. Understanding the issues patients with ESKD grapple with when diagnosed with this life-threatening condition is essential to improve healthcare policy and practice in such low- and middle-income settings. In the absence of evidence related to the African ESKD patient journey, this study aimed at exploring how decisions about ESKD management are being made, especially in under-resourced settings where specific treatment modalities are not always available. The study addresses an important gap in the literature concerning choice and decision making in an international context. The key research question for this study is, in terms of the context, does the problem of limited resources in low- and middle-income countries present different choices to the patient with ESKD facing decisions about their treatment? Methodology and Methods The study employed a qualitative research design, using grounded theory methodology. Twenty-seven participants in three renal centres, comprising twenty-two patients with ESKD and five clinicians, were selected using the theoretical sampling approach and interviewed for this study. Constant comparative analysis was employed in data analysis. Results A conceptual map depicting the ESKD patient journey and key phases of decision making was developed from this study. Ghanaian patients with ESKD are mostly unaware of the implications of their initial symptoms, and end up delaying seeking healthcare from a hospital. Some of those who seek care from hospitals are initially diagnosed with and treated for other conditions other than ESKD. Thus, many patients with ESKD in Ghana present late to a renal centre. Treatment for ESKD is initiated for various reasons, including, initially, the urgent need to avoid premature death. Many approach their condition in terms of hoping for a cure and do not always understand the chronic nature of their condition. Decisions on initiating haemodialysis (HD) are mostly shared between clinicians and patients and/or their families but the process is mainly driven by the need to ascertain patient and family’s ability to finance HD, rather than considering other aspects of treatment burden. The subject of death or conservative management is not openly discussed and, once this is brought up, patients usually do everything possible to opt for another form of treatment, including the simultaneous use of other non-RRT and traditional or faith-based healing approaches. Clinicians play vital roles in the decision making of patients with ESKD although they have general feelings of helplessness while supporting these patients. Convergence between individuals’ experiences of realities of living with and managing ESKD, and support from clinicians in the renal setting ultimately leads to a reconstruction of health expectations that commensurate management goals of ESKD. This sums up the substantive theory of ‘reconstructing health expectations’ that was generated from this study. Conclusions Financial and geographical inaccessibility of renal replacement therapy (RRT) as well as the relative lack of biomedical treatment choices make decision making daunting for the individual with ESKD in Ghana. Reluctance to discuss death as a potential outcome is a hindrance to the consideration of conservative management as a treatment option. Effective realignment of healthcare policies to address changing patterns of diseases is necessary to contribute to prevention, early detection and effective management of ESKD in the country. An improved approach to conservative management is urgently required, including training support for clinicians on shared decision making as well as sensitisation of patients on this modality.

This thesis is about how the philanthropy of individual foreigners is having an impact on rural development in Ghana. There is an important history of philanthropy as a source of resources for the alleviation of poverty and to contribute to development. Decentralisation of power in many developing countries, which began in the late 1980s, has meant that many village communities are increasingly in charge of their own destinies. In Ghana, one approach which rural communities are pursuing is the acquisition of capital for development through vertical philanthropy - where resources flow from the rich to the poor. Rural communities in Ghana are identifying foreign philanthropists who can inject financial capital into the village to initiate development. In addition, they are also invited to be involved in that ‘development’ by leading the development process. A key leadership position of development chiefs and queens has been created for them. This thesis evaluates the contribution of this new form of philanthropy to the wellbeing and livelihoods of rural communities through primary research in Ghanaian villages and with foreign development chiefs and queens. The study is framed with reference to theories about philanthropy and the practices of rural development, in particular the significance of community participation. The cultural implications and contestations about opting for foreign leadership in village-level development are also investigated. Its findings are that this new approach can yield important net benefits for rural people but outcomes are influenced by the interactions between the three main stakeholders involved in the concept – the philanthropists, the traditional leadership and the people. Issues related to leadership and participation proved to be of key significance.

From 1993-1994, a study of Vitellaria paradoxa was carried out. This study involved an in-depth review of biological and ecological information on Vitellatia throughout its range. Stand studies and an analysis of the climate in relation to fire risk. There were also experimental investigations of germination and pollination. All field studies were at the site of the Cocoa Research Institute outstation at Bole. Stand characteristics of Vitellaria (>10 cm dbh) at the 68 kM2 plot of the Cocoa Research Institute's Sheanut Research Station, Bole were examined in two strata distinguished on the basis of distance from the nearest village: >3.0 km and <3.0 km. Regeneration (<10 cm dbh) was assessed and recorded for height, root collar diameter and mode of regeneration. Analysis of variance indicated higher stocking of individuals > 10 cm dbh further from villages but significantly more Vitellaria trees >10 m tall close to villages. Suckers accounted for > 86% of regenerating individuals, and more than 90% of regenerating plants were < 50 cm high. Analysis of climatic data indicated a mean drought index (1990-1994) of 514 ± 61 points. However, the fire danger index never reached an extreme value. The germination response of depulped, cracked and intact seeds of Vitellaria sown under- and outside the canopy of mature Vitellatia trees (> 30 cm dbh), showed a significant association between germination and seed treatment: a higher proportion of depulped than intact seeds germinated. Open pollinated flowers, gave significantly lower fruit set than hand-pollinated flowers. There was no difference, however, in the amount of fruit set achieved with pollen from sources 50 m, 500 m and 1000 m away or from flowers of two different style lengths. It is concluded that fires are adversely affecting the population structure and natural regeneration of stands at Bole, and that low fruit set in Vitellaria is due at least in part, to low vector activity. Suggestions are made for future research on the species.

Recent years have witnessed renewed global attention to persistent spatial inequalities and the potential role of politics and power relations in redressing and reinforcing them. This thesis offers a political analysis of the problem of regional inequality in Ghana, with particular attention to the role of inter-elite power relations in underpinning the country’s historical North-South divide. The analysis is based on three main sets of data: the regional distribution of political power during 1993-2008; the regional composition of public expenditure; and elite interviews. The thesis argues that a key factor that explains Ghana’s stark unbalanced regional development has been the continuous exclusion of the historically poorer Northern regions from a fair share of both productive and social sector spending. The socio-economic marginalisation of these regions has been underpinned principally by a weaker influence of Northern elites on resource allocation decisions within a political environment that is driven largely by patron-client relations. Consequently, even policies and programmes designed with the formal objective of targeting the ‘poor’ often end up discriminating against the poorer Northern regions at the level of implementation. However, Northern elites’ lack of ‘agenda-setting powers’ is not a function of their exclusion from government, but rather of their ‘adverse incorporation’ into the polity, whereby they have often been included on relatively unfavourable terms. This explanation differs significantly from much of current mainstream thinking regarding the underlying drivers of persistent unbalanced regional development, including dominant accounts of Ghana’s North-South inequalities. Notably, there has been a tendency of both academics and policy makers to put the blame on certain innate characteristics of the North, such as the region’s fewer production potentials associated with its ‘bad geography’ and Northerners’ proclivity for violent conflicts. Such accounts therefore tend to blame the relative socio-economic backwardness of the Northern regions on the North itself rather than the nature of its incorporation into broader political formations.

This study investigates accountability and transparency issues in the management of oil and gas (O&G) revenues in Ghana through public discourse. It establishes the factors that influence accountability and investigates how accountability is discharged amongst stakeholders in the O&G industry in Ghana, with respect to contemporary accountability theories. The thesis develops a contextualised analytical framework drawing on Dhanani and Connolly’s (2012), and Gray et al.’s (1996) conceptualisations of accountability, in addition to other contemporary accountability concepts, mirrored through the ethical variant of stakeholder theory to classify, analyse and interpret the issues of transparency and accountability in revenue management in the O&G industry in Ghana. It uses this framework to analyse and interpret questionnaires and interviews of stakeholders in the O&G industry in Ghana; these include the government, civil society groups and upstream oil companies. The thesis establishes that the accountability relationships (strategic, financial, fiduciary and procedural) between accountees and accountors in the O&G industry in Ghana are hierarchical, bureaucratic and fussy, making the discharge of accountability unintelligent, ineffective and vulgate and only routinely given for cosmetic purposes. Consequently, the accountors in the O&G industry in Ghana employ the positive variant of the stakeholder theory, motivated by legitimisation practices to regularise their activities, contrary to the expected ethical variant of the theory. The outcome reflects the practices of for-profit organisations such as upstream O&G companies, but conflicts with the government’s fiduciary responsibilities towards citizens and the espoused communal values of the legal and regulatory framework of the industry. Current perspectives on positive stakeholder and legitimacy theory therefore appear to explain existing stakeholder relationships and how accountability is discharged in the O&G industry in Ghana. The thesis contributes to the public accountability and transparency literature in a number of ways: First, the study presents an empirical basis to advance discourse about accountability and transparency in natural resource management in developing countries, by developing a contextualised theoretical and analytical framework drawing on Dhanani and Connolly’s (2012) and Gray et al’s (1996) accountability concepts, and using the ethical stakeholder theory as a lens for interpretation. Second, it provides an empirical basis for rethinking the hierarchical managerialist approach to accountability suggested by the positive variant of the stakeholder theory and its legitimisation mechanisms between accountees and the accountors in the O&G industry in Ghana, and suggests the adoption of the ethical variant of the stakeholder theory with its moral imperatives. Third, the study provides significant insight into governance issues in Sub-Saharan Africa that could inform policy formulation for the region by international bodies, including the United Nations Development Fund (UNDP), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), by critically reviewing accountability and transparency issues in the oil sectors in Angola, Nigeria and the DRC and juxtaposing this evidence with empirical findings for Ghana. Finally, it advances understanding of the public accountability practices and transparency issues in the O&G industry in Ghana, while pointing out significant governance implications for policy-makers, civil society and advocacy groups, think-tanks, the O&G companies and academics.

This research critically examines the perceptions, rationales, strategies and challenges of internationalisation at the public universities in Ghana. The study contributes to the available literature on Ghanaian higher education and internationalisation in the public universities. The research was a qualitative study and the conceptual framework was informed by postcolonial theory. The theory helped to address major questions in higher education including the infiltration of neoliberal ideas, inequalities and exclusions, and the perpetuation of colonial legacies in international discourse. Three public universities were purposely selected as case studies; respondents were administrators, deans, heads of departments, academics, and students from these selected universities. Personnel from the supervisory bodies of higher education in Ghana were also interviewed. Data gathering included interviews, documentary analyses and observations, and analysed using content and discourse analyses. The findings indicate that internationalisation is perceived as an important concept in the universities in the study. There are, however, dominant discourses and views of internationalisation that seem to be rooted in colonialism and the marginalisation of Indigenous Knowledge Systems. I argue that the global influences of capitalism underlie many of the strategies of the universities. Though the meanings, rationales and strategies of internationalisation are similar in all the universities, there are different nuances in the various institutions’ thinking and approach. In spite of their efforts, the universities in the study are confronted with a lot of challenges which limit their ability to offer an alternative to the dominant internationalisation discourse. I argue, however, that internationalisation is a problematic concept which should be engaged with critically; there is a need for a critical orientation to iii internationalisation that appreciates and emphasises difference, and which enriches the educational experiences of students.

The efficacy of decentralised local governance to transform rural communities into vibrant modern communities has often been highlighted. The Constitution of Ghana lends a strong hand to decentralised local governance as key to achieving rural development and poverty reduction. Achieving the above is however premised on the basis that local authorities would function effectively; promote effective community participation; and are functionally autonomous. However, some conceptual and practical challenges appear to limit the achievement of the stated benefits of local governance in Ghana. This thesis seeks to examine the nature of local governance and how its function translates into rural community development. It responds to pertinent questions central to Ghana’s decentralisation. It questions the local community development initiatives implemented by local government institutions, by exploring perspectives on the usefulness of these initiatives to local communities. Further it explores how the participation of local communities is engaged in executing these initiatives; and thirdly, it investigates institutional capacities to effectively carry out the decentralised community development initiatives. The thesis sought answers by conducting in-depth and semi-structured interviews with 134 participants drawn from 32 local communities within three District Assemblies, and a variety of stakeholders including key local government actors, individuals, and groups from three Districts in Northern Ghana. The thesis argues that political, administrative and systemic deficits challenge effective local government function in Ghana. For instance, recent evidence points to the fact that regimes since December 2000 dwell on political gerrymandering to bolster their political fortunes, which further weaken existing local governments rather than facilitate their effective and efficient function. Further that, local governments are observed to work within a chaotic community development environment where initial development strategies where overly influenced by exogenous forces, which made them unrealistic to rural community development. Again, the findings suggests a history of decentralised local governance full of a continual tinkering and halfhearted implementation of the decentralisation process since colonial times. This is mostly to achieve well orchestrated political goals. This historical legacy stifles local governments’ capacities over time and also leaves mostly ineffective structures replete with opportunities for political favour and rent seeking behaviours. Evidently however, this has tendered to percolate present day systems and processes where local political elites seek to, and prosecute the political agenda of the national government instead of dealing with local needs. On the development strategies implemented by local governments, a penchant tendency to transplant national development plans as local development strategies on central governments’ insistence was discovered. Though a contradiction to the laid down local government development planning and implementation process, local governments follow through with this practice. Further, a historical legacy of powerful external multi-lateral stakeholders’ grips or influence of the local development agenda appears a paramount reason for the above, and this in real terms leads to a de-emphasises of home grown local development strategies. The implication is that unrealistic rural community development strategies perpetuate. This further leads to noted planning incongruence at the local level. Aside this, there is also an overbearing local political and administrative interferences, and manipulations which leads further to a ‘filtering’ of development strategies to meet national politically motivated strategies or interests. This notwithstanding, local communities have strong faith in local governments as viable community development agents. The findings further suggest local governments’ acknowledgement of the critical roles of active community participation in the local community development agenda. Yet again they struggle to apply the national development planning Act 1994, (Act 480), which holds the greatest promise to directly translate to effective participation. In the least, local governments preferred to consult and inform local community members. In the same vain, central governments some times implement community development initiatives within local government jurisdictions without consulting them. A chief factor which appears to work against direct local level influence of the development planning process is the existence of penurious institutions at the local level. Consequently an exercise of tokenism is thus promoted to satisfy requirements for effective local community participation. In most cases ultimate development decisions are taken by the management and political leadership and not in direct consultation with local communities. Notwithstanding the above, it appears that local governments’ institutional capacities to effectively deliver on their mandate appear potentiated when viewed from the extent of supporting legal and institutional frameworks which gives credence to local governance. Local governments possess a powerful list of constitutionally sanctioned guiding frameworks which should necessarily inure to their smooth operation. Ironically there are noted deliberate systemic and political processes which tend to constraint this smooth function. In the least central government deliberately keeps a functionally dependent relationship with local governments. One direct result of the subjection of local government within this perpetual highly dependent functional relationship is a continual blurring of roles. Local governments appear to be perpetually subjugated to functional obscurity by central governments through incomplete decentralisation, strained internal relationships, and unhealthy ‘politicking’ between District Assembly members and administrative staff to say the least. Although most decentralised departments appear to have competent technical staff, their function is limited because of numerical insufficiency as well as limited material and logistical support.

Engineering projects are a major proponent of development in impoverished areas throughout the world. Designers face difficulties when working on projects for unfamiliar cultures and infrastructure, from problem and constraint definition to final technology transfer. Through a design project and implementation trip, this study will examine the design process as it spans borders, cultures and languages, identifying key steps and methods in the process necessary for the success of such projects. One major problem many rural communities in developing nations experience is a lack of transportation infrastructure. Forms of transport common throughout the rest of the world are, in many cases, neither economically feasible nor locally sustainable. To establish basic infrastructure, a sustainable, affordable method of transporting goods and services is essential. This research project fulfilled this need by designing an appropriate local transportation solution, a human-powered utility vehicle (HPUV). To properly understand the problem, the researcher traveled to two different rural locations in Sub-Saharan Africa (Maase-Offinso, Ghana and Me`ri, Cameroon) on four different trips to gather information and customer input for the design of the HPUV. A final implementation involved traveling to Me`ri, Cameroon for three months during which one design prototype was built, tested and reviewed by local farmers and other end-users. The vehicle was tested quantitatively against metrics and specifications derived from initial assessment trips, as well as qualitatively through customer feedback. This direct feedback provides insight into the effectiveness of the machine and the design process followed, as well as identification of possible revisions to enhance the design’s value to those who need it. The design drawings and manufacturing plan are public-domain, and local mechanics in the village were taught the basic skills needed to produce the vehicle. The drawings and manufacturing plan were also presented to a local NGO capable of producing the vehicle using local labor.

This report maps the African landscape of Open Science – with a focus on Open Data as a sub-set of Open Science. Data to inform the landscape study were collected through a variety of methods, including surveys, desk research, engagement with a community of practice, networking with stakeholders, participation in conferences, case study presentations, and workshops hosted. Although the majority of African countries (35 of 54) demonstrates commitment to science through its investment in research and development (R&D), academies of science, ministries of science and technology, policies, recognition of research, and participation in the Science Granting Councils Initiative (SGCI), the following countries demonstrate the highest commitment and political willingness to invest in science: Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda. In addition to existing policies in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI), the following countries have made progress towards Open Data policies: Botswana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, South Africa and Uganda. Only two African countries (Kenya and South Africa) at this stage contribute 0.8% of its GDP (Gross Domestic Product) to R&D (Research and Development), which is the closest to the AU’s (African Union’s) suggested 1%. Countries such as Lesotho and Madagascar ranked as 0%, while the R&D expenditure for 24 African countries is unknown. In addition to this, science globally has become fully dependent on stable ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) infrastructure, which includes connectivity/bandwidth, high performance computing facilities and data services. This is especially applicable since countries globally are finding themselves in the midst of the 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR), which is not only “about” data, but which “is” data. According to an article1 by Alan Marcus (2015) (Senior Director, Head of Information Technology and Telecommunications Industries, World Economic Forum), “At its core, data represents a post-industrial opportunity. Its uses have unprecedented complexity, velocity and global reach. As digital communications become ubiquitous, data will rule in a world where nearly everyone and everything is connected in real time. That will require a highly reliable, secure and available infrastructure at its core, and innovation at the edge.” Every industry is affected as part of this revolution – also science. An important component of the digital transformation is “trust” – people must be able to trust that governments and all other industries (including the science sector), adequately handle and protect their data. This requires accountability on a global level, and digital industries must embrace the change and go for a higher standard of protection. “This will reassure consumers and citizens, benefitting the whole digital economy”, says Marcus. A stable and secure information and communication technologies (ICT) infrastructure – currently provided by the National Research and Education Networks (NRENs) – is key to advance collaboration in science. The AfricaConnect2 project (AfricaConnect (2012–2014) and AfricaConnect2 (2016–2018)) through establishing connectivity between National Research and Education Networks (NRENs), is planning to roll out AfricaConnect3 by the end of 2019. The concern however is that selected African governments (with the exception of a few countries such as South Africa, Mozambique, Ethiopia and others) have low awareness of the impact the Internet has today on all societal levels, how much ICT (and the 4th Industrial Revolution) have affected research, and the added value an NREN can bring to higher education and research in addressing the respective needs, which is far more complex than simply providing connectivity. Apart from more commitment and investment in R&D, African governments – to become and remain part of the 4th Industrial Revolution – have no option other than to acknowledge and commit to the role NRENs play in advancing science towards addressing the SDG (Sustainable Development Goals). For successful collaboration and direction, it is fundamental that policies within one country are aligned with one another. Alignment on continental level is crucial for the future Pan-African African Open Science Platform to be successful. Both the HIPSSA ((Harmonization of ICT Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa)3 project and WATRA (the West Africa Telecommunications Regulators Assembly)4, have made progress towards the regulation of the telecom sector, and in particular of bottlenecks which curb the development of competition among ISPs. A study under HIPSSA identified potential bottlenecks in access at an affordable price to the international capacity of submarine cables and suggested means and tools used by regulators to remedy them. Work on the recommended measures and making them operational continues in collaboration with WATRA. In addition to sufficient bandwidth and connectivity, high-performance computing facilities and services in support of data sharing are also required. The South African National Integrated Cyberinfrastructure System5 (NICIS) has made great progress in planning and setting up a cyberinfrastructure ecosystem in support of collaborative science and data sharing. The regional Southern African Development Community6 (SADC) Cyber-infrastructure Framework provides a valuable roadmap towards high-speed Internet, developing human capacity and skills in ICT technologies, high- performance computing and more. The following countries have been identified as having high-performance computing facilities, some as a result of the Square Kilometre Array7 (SKA) partnership: Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Mauritius, Namibia, South Africa, Tunisia, and Zambia. More and more NRENs – especially the Level 6 NRENs 8 (Algeria, Egypt, Kenya, South Africa, and recently Zambia) – are exploring offering additional services; also in support of data sharing and transfer. The following NRENs already allow for running data-intensive applications and sharing of high-end computing assets, bio-modelling and computation on high-performance/ supercomputers: KENET (Kenya), TENET (South Africa), RENU (Uganda), ZAMREN (Zambia), EUN (Egypt) and ARN (Algeria). Fifteen higher education training institutions from eight African countries (Botswana, Benin, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Sudan, and Tanzania) have been identified as offering formal courses on data science. In addition to formal degrees, a number of international short courses have been developed and free international online courses are also available as an option to build capacity and integrate as part of curricula. The small number of higher education or research intensive institutions offering data science is however insufficient, and there is a desperate need for more training in data science. The CODATA-RDA Schools of Research Data Science aim at addressing the continental need for foundational data skills across all disciplines, along with training conducted by The Carpentries 9 programme (specifically Data Carpentry 10 ). Thus far, CODATA-RDA schools in collaboration with AOSP, integrating content from Data Carpentry, were presented in Rwanda (in 2018), and during17-29 June 2019, in Ethiopia. Awareness regarding Open Science (including Open Data) is evident through the 12 Open Science-related Open Access/Open Data/Open Science declarations and agreements endorsed or signed by African governments; 200 Open Access journals from Africa registered on the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ); 174 Open Access institutional research repositories registered on openDOAR (Directory of Open Access Repositories); 33 Open Access/Open Science policies registered on ROARMAP (Registry of Open Access Repository Mandates and Policies); 24 data repositories registered with the Registry of Data Repositories (re3data.org) (although the pilot project identified 66 research data repositories); and one data repository assigned the CoreTrustSeal. Although this is a start, far more needs to be done to align African data curation and research practices with global standards. Funding to conduct research remains a challenge. African researchers mostly fund their own research, and there are little incentives for them to make their research and accompanying data sets openly accessible. Funding and peer recognition, along with an enabling research environment conducive for research, are regarded as major incentives. The landscape report concludes with a number of concerns towards sharing research data openly, as well as challenges in terms of Open Data policy, ICT infrastructure supportive of data sharing, capacity building, lack of skills, and the need for incentives. Although great progress has been made in terms of Open Science and Open Data practices, more awareness needs to be created and further advocacy efforts are required for buy-in from African governments. A federated African Open Science Platform (AOSP) will not only encourage more collaboration among researchers in addressing the SDGs, but it will also benefit the many stakeholders identified as part of the pilot phase. The time is now, for governments in Africa, to acknowledge the important role of science in general, but specifically Open Science and Open Data, through developing and aligning the relevant policies, investing in an ICT infrastructure conducive for data sharing through committing funding to making NRENs financially sustainable, incentivising open research practices by scientists, and creating opportunities for more scientists and stakeholders across all disciplines to be trained in data management.