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1
Hart, Lynette A., and Benjamin L. Hart. "Flehmen, Osteophagia, and Other Behaviors of Giraffes (Giraffa giraffa angolensis): Vomeronasal Organ Adaptation." Animals 13, no. 3 (January 19, 2023): 354. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani13030354.
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The size of adult male giraffes (Giraffa giraffa angolensis) far exceeds the size of the females. At the Namutoni waterholes in Etosha National Park, bulls were seen many times each day screening adult females for their pending sexual receptivity by provoking them to urinate; this mainly involved sniffing their genitalia. If the female accedes to the male’s invitation, she widens her hindleg stance, braces her body, and then urinates, usually for at least five seconds. The male places his muzzle and tongue in the urine stream, and then performs flehmen, often raising his head high in the air. Males never investigated urine on the ground. The bilateral papillae on the giraffe’s hard palate connect with the nasopalatine ducts, which enter the bilateral vomeronasal organ (VNO). Unlike many mammals, the giraffe’s VNO lacks a prominent connection to the nasal cavity and its connections to the oral cavity are primarily via the incisive papillae. Most days, some giraffes were observed searching for bones for extended periods, chewing them, and sometimes being troubled by a bone stuck in their mouth. A giraffe killed by lions was frequented for several days by a procession of giraffes investigating the carcass. A very dark-colored bull giraffe emitted loud pulsed growls that drove off most of the surrounding giraffes.
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Hamadou, O., A. Amadou Oumani, H. Yahou, B. Morou, and A. Mahamane. "Modélisation de la distribution spatiale de la girafe (Giraffa camelopardalis peralta, Linnaeus 1758) de l’Afrique de l’Ouest pour sa conservation au Niger." International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 15, no. 6 (February 22, 2022): 2486–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v15i6.19.
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La conservation de la girafe (Giraffa camelopardalis peralta, Linnaeus 1758), nécessite la connaissance de son aire de répartition potentielle et des facteurs environnementaux conditionnant cette répartition. Cette étude visait à identifier les facteurs écologiques régissant la répartition géographique de la girafe et la cartographie de son aire de distribution sous les conditions climatiques actuelles pour une meilleure planification de sa gestion durable. La modélisation a été utilisée pour cartographier l’habitat de la girafe suivant les modèles climatiques (CCMA et CSIRO), à l’aide de l’outil Maxent, Diva-Gis et ArcGi 10.3. Cinq variables bioclimatiques (BIO1, BIO 12, BIO 13, BIO3 et BIO 5) ont été sélectionnées sur les 19 variables existantes, elles ont ensuite été utilisées avec les points d’occurence de la girafe dans l’outil Maxent. Les variables les plus significatives conditionnant la distribution de la girafe étaient les précipitations et les températures annuelles. Les distributions futures (2020 et 2050) ont montré des habitats très favorables, avec une augmentation de 21,22 à 59,95% par rapport à la distribution actuelle. Des mesures d’atténuer la dégradation continue de de l’habitat de la girafe s’imposent en vue de maintenir sa dynamique actuelle et permettre sa conservation. Aussi, il serait intéressant de mettre en place un protocole du suivi permanent des comportements de la girafe, y compris ses mouvements saisonniers afin d’anticiper les sorties vers des zones hostiles pour la conservation.
English title: Modelling the spatial distribution of the West African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis peralta, Linnaeus 1758) for its conservation in Niger
The conservation of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis peralta, Linnaeus 1758) requires knowledge of its potential range and the environmental factors conditioning this distribution. This study aimed to identify the ecological factors governing the geographic distribution of the giraffe and to map its range under current climatic conditions for better planning of its sustainable management. Modeling was used to map giraffe habitat under climate models (CCMA and CSIRO), using Maxent, Diva-Gis and ArcGi 10.3. Five bioclimatic variables (BIO1, BIO 12, BIO 13, BIO3 and BIO 5) were selected from the 19 existing variables and used with giraffe occurrence points in Maxent. The most significant variables conditioning the giraffe distribution were annual precipitation and temperature. Future distributions (2020 and 2050) showed very favorable habitats, with an increase of 21.22 to 59.95% over the current distribution. Measures to mitigate the continued degradation of the giraffe's habitat are needed to maintain its current dynamics and allow its conservation. Also, it would be interesting to set up a protocol for the permanent monitoring of the giraffe's behaviors, including its seasonal movements in order to anticipate the exits towards hostile areas for the conservation.
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Malyjurkova, Lenka, Marketa Hejzlarova, Pavla Junkova Vymyslicka, and Karolina Brandlova. "Social Preferences of Translocated Giraffes (Giraffa Camelopardalis Giraffa) in Senegal: Evidence for Friendship Among Females?" Agricultura Tropica et Subtropica 47, no. 1 (March 1, 2014): 5–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/ats-2014-0001.
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Abstract Giraffe social behaviour and relationships are currently in the period of scientific renaissance, changing the former ideas of nonexisting social bonds into understanding of complex social structures of giraffe herds. Different giraffe subspecies have been studied in the wild and only one was subject of detailed study in captivity. Our study focused on the neglected Cape giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa). We investigated the social preferences of 28 introduced giraffes in semi-captivity in Bandia reserve, Senegal. Our aim was to assess the group size of Cape giraffes outside their native range and describe their social relationships. Mean group size in Bandia was 7.22 ± 4.06 (range 2-17). The dyads were classified according to strength of relationship (weak, medium, strong) using the association index. We reported weak and medium relationships in all types of dyads except female-juvenile. The strongest bond was found in mother-calf dyads. Three of 21 possible female dyads also demonstrated strong relationships. Those three dyads included six of seven adult females, which we labelled as friends. Females associated more frequently with calves of their friends then with calves of non-friend females. The strength of the relationship between calves depended on the strength of relationship between their mothers. We concluded that Cape giraffes in new environment have shown similar group size and nonrandom preference for conspecifics as shown in wild and captive studies. The research was supported by CIGA 20135010, CIGA 2134217, IGA FTZ 20135123, ESF/MŠMT CZ.1.07/2.3.00/30.0040.
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Deacon, Francois, and Andy Tutchings. "The South African giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa: a conservation success story." Oryx 53, no. 1 (April 5, 2018): 45–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605317001612.
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AbstractAcross Africa the majority of giraffe species and subspecies are in decline, whereas the South African giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa remains numerous and widespread throughout southern Africa. By 2013 the number of giraffes in South Africa's Kruger National Park had increased by c. 150% compared to 1979 estimates. An even greater increase occurred on many of the estimated 12,000 privately owned game ranches, indicating that private ownership can help to conserve this subspecies. The estimated total population size in South Africa is 21,053–26,919. The challenge now is to implement monitoring and surveillance of G. camelopardalis giraffa as a conservation priority and to introduce sustainable practices among private owners to increase numbers and genetic variation within in-country subspecies.
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Kooriyama, Takanori. "Fecal Cortisol Dynamics of Captive Giraffes in Zoos in Northern Japan." International Journal of Zoology and Animal Biology 5, no. 3 (2022): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.23880/izab-16000383.
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Animals in zoos are kept under environmental conditions differing from those of their original habitat. Recently, zoos have been attempting to reduce stress by introducing environmental enrichment. Adrenal-derived glucocorticoids are common stress indicators found in blood, saliva, urine, and feces. Fecal cortisol levels have been studied as a stress marker in captive giraffes, but the data are insufficient. In this study, we examined fecal cortisol in captive giraffes in northern Japan to increase basic data on fecal cortisol as an indicator of environmental enrichment. For one month, we collected fecal samples from 14 giraffes [Masai giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) and reticulated giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata)] from eight zoos. The fecal samples were stored at –20 °C until fecal cortisol levels were measured using a cortisol EIA kit after drying, grinding, and ethanol extraction. Cortisol levels were compared between males and females, pregnant and nonpregnant animals, by age, and by differences in temperature of the rearing environment. The fecal cortisol levels ranged from 37~10346 pg/g. Among females, pregnant individuals had the highest values. Among nonpregnant females, a female that was harassed by a male had higher fecal cortisol levels than the others. This may be due to chronic psychological distress. In males, values varied greatly among individuals. This study increases the volume of giraffe fecal cortisol data, which will contribute to establishing basic giraffe fecal cortisol values.
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Coimbra, Raphael T. F., Sven Winter, Barbara Mitchell, Julian Fennessy, and Axel Janke. "Conservation Genomics of Two Threatened Subspecies of Northern Giraffe: The West African and the Kordofan Giraffe." Genes 13, no. 2 (January 25, 2022): 221. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes13020221.
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Three of the four species of giraffe are threatened, particularly the northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), which collectively have the smallest known wild population estimates. Among the three subspecies of the northern giraffe, the West African giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis peralta) had declined to 49 individuals by 1996 and only recovered due to conservation efforts undertaken in the past 25 years, while the Kordofan giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis antiquorum) remains at <2300 individuals distributed in small, isolated populations over a large geographical range in Central Africa. These combined factors could lead to genetically depauperated populations. We analyzed 119 mitochondrial sequences and 26 whole genomes of northern giraffe individuals to investigate their population structure and assess the recent demographic history and current genomic diversity of West African and Kordofan giraffe. Phylogenetic and population structure analyses separate the three subspecies of northern giraffe and suggest genetic differentiation between populations from eastern and western areas of the Kordofan giraffe’s range. Both West African and Kordofan giraffe show a gradual decline in effective population size over the last 10 ka and have moderate genome-wide heterozygosity compared to other giraffe species. Recent inbreeding levels are higher in the West African giraffe and in Kordofan giraffe from Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo. Although numbers for both West African and some populations of Kordofan giraffe have increased in recent years, the threat of habitat loss, climate change impacts, and illegal hunting persists. Thus, future conservation actions should consider close genetic monitoring of populations to detect and, where practical, counteract negative trends that might develop.
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Berry, Philip S. M., and Fred B. Bercovitch. "Population census of Thornicroft's giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti in Zambia, 1973−2003: conservation reassessment required." Oryx 50, no. 4 (January 20, 2016): 721–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s003060531500126x.
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AbstractThornicroft's giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti is limited in distribution to a single population resident in the Luangwa Valley, Zambia. During 1973−2003 regular counts were recorded along the Luangwa River in the core section of the subspecies’ range. In 2013 we conducted a count in the same region for comparison with the earlier survey results. During the 30-year period 1973−2003 the giraffe index (no. of individuals per km surveyed) was relatively stable, with an increase in 1994 and 1995 coinciding with an influx of giraffes to the west bank following an exceptionally reduced flow of the Luangwa River. The mean giraffe index during this period was 0.51 km−1, whereas the 2013 count yielded an index of 0.44 km−1. Given the limited range of the Thornicroft's giraffe, we estimate that the population comprises c. 500–600 individuals.
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Bertelsen, Mads F., Kristine Østergaard, Jesper Monrad, Emil T. Brøndum, and Ulrik Baandrup. "Monodontella giraffae Infection in Wild-caught Southern Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa)." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 45, no. 4 (October 2009): 1227–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-45.4.1227.
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Seeber, Peter A., Patrick Duncan, Hervé Fritz, and André Ganswindt. "Androgen changes and flexible rutting behaviour in male giraffes." Biology Letters 9, no. 5 (October 23, 2013): 20130396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2013.0396.
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The social organization of giraffes ( Giraffa camelopardalis ) imposes a high-cost reproductive strategy on bulls, which adopt a ‘roving male’ tactic. Our observations on wild giraffes confirm that bulls indeed have unsynchronized rut-like periods, not unlike another tropical megaherbivore, the elephant, but on a much shorter timescale. We found profound changes in male sexual and social activities at the scale of about two weeks. This so far undescribed rutting behaviour is closely correlated with changes in androgen concentrations and appears to be driven by them. The short time scale of the changes in sexual and social activity may explain why dominance and reproductive status in male giraffe in the field seem to be unstable.
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Hart, Emma E., Julian Fennessy, Srivats Chari, and Simone Ciuti. "Habitat heterogeneity and social factors drive behavioral plasticity in giraffe herd-size dynamics." Journal of Mammalogy 101, no. 1 (December 5, 2019): 248–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyz191.
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Abstract Behavioral plasticity, or the mechanism by which an organism can adjust its behavior in response to exogenous change, has been highlighted as a potential buffer against extinction risk. Giraffes (Giraffa spp.) are gregarious, long-lived, highly mobile megaherbivores with a large brain size, characteristics that have been associated with high levels of behavioral plasticity. However, while there has been a recent focus on genotypic variability and morphological differences among giraffe populations, there has been relatively little discussion centered on behavioral flexibility within giraffe populations. In large wild herbivores, one measure of behavioral plasticity is the ability to adjust herd size in line with local environmental conditions. Here, we examine whether a genetically isolated population of Angolan giraffes (G. g. angolensis) in a heterogeneous environment adjust their herd sizes in line with spatiotemporal variation in habitat. Our results suggest that ecological factors play a role in driving herd size, but that social factors also shape and stabilize herd-size dynamics. Specifically, we found that 1) mixed-sex herds were larger than single-sex herds, suggesting that sexual composition of herds played a role in driving herd size; 2) the presence of young did not influence herd size, suggesting that giraffes did not make use of the dilution effect to safeguard their young from predation; and 3) there was a strong relationship between herd size and spatial, but not seasonal, variation in food biomass availability, suggesting stability in herd sizes over time, but temporary variation in line with resource availability. These findings indicate that giraffes adjust herd size in line with local exogenous factors, signaling high behavioral plasticity, but also suggest that this mechanism operates within the constraints of the social determinants of giraffe herd size.
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Munyaka, Takunda V., and Edson Gandiwa. "An Assessment of Forage Selection by Giraffe Introduced into Umfurudzi Park, Northern Zimbabwe." Scientifica 2018 (July 24, 2018): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/9062868.
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Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is one of the flagship herbivore species in the savanna ecosystem and is of high conservation value. Management of the species under diversified ecosystems, particularly, their introduction in new ecosystems is of great concern, given that limited information is available of how the species acclimatizes to new ecosystems and which forage species it selects. The objectives of the present study were to (i) identify woody plant species selected by the recently introduced giraffes and (ii) determine whether there were differences in woody plant diversity between the dry and wet seasons in Umfurudzi Park, northern Zimbabwe. Forage selection and woody composition data were collected from a herd of giraffe between May and December 2016, using the focal observation method in an enclosure within the study area. A total of 106 observation plots were established. Our results showed that 12 woody plant species comprising six families were selected from a total of 29 woody plant species recorded in the study area. Giraffe showed a higher preference of the selected species in the dry season than in the wet season. In contrast, no significant differences were recorded in terms of forage availability and woody vegetation diversity between seasons. In conclusion, our results suggest that plant phenology, particularly, presence of leaves on plants influences giraffe feed preferences. Establishing long-term monitoring plots to determine woody vegetation utilisation by giraffes is valuable as a way to monitoring habitat utilisation by the species.
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Ishengoma, Edson, Morris Agaba, and Douglas R. Cavener. "Evolutionary analysis of vision genes identifies potential drivers of visual differences between giraffe and okapi." PeerJ 5 (April 6, 2017): e3145. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3145.
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BackgroundThe capacity of visually oriented species to perceive and respond to visual signal is integral to their evolutionary success. Giraffes are closely related to okapi, but the two species have broad range of phenotypic differences including their visual capacities. Vision studies rank giraffe’s visual acuity higher than all other artiodactyls despite sharing similar vision ecological determinants with many of them. The extent to which the giraffe’s unique visual capacity and its difference with okapi is reflected by changes in their vision genes is not understood.MethodsThe recent availability of giraffe and okapi genomes provided opportunity to identify giraffe and okapi vision genes. Multiple strategies were employed to identify thirty-six candidate mammalian vision genes in giraffe and okapi genomes. Quantification of selection pressure was performed by a combination of branch-site tests of positive selection and clade models of selection divergence through comparing giraffe and okapi vision genes and orthologous sequences from other mammals.ResultsSignatures of selection were identified in key genes that could potentially underlie giraffe and okapi visual adaptations. Importantly, some genes that contribute to optical transparency of the eye and those that are critical in light signaling pathway were found to show signatures of adaptive evolution or selection divergence. Comparison between giraffe and other ruminants identifies significant selection divergence inCRYAAandOPN1LW. Significant selection divergence was identified inSAGwhile positive selection was detected inLUMwhen okapi is compared with ruminants and other mammals. Sequence analysis ofOPN1LWshowed that at least one of the sites known to affect spectral sensitivity of the red pigment is uniquely divergent between giraffe and other ruminants.DiscussionBy taking a systemic approach to gene function in vision, the results provide the first molecular clues associated with giraffe and okapi vision adaptations. At least some of the genes that exhibit signature of selection may reflect adaptive response to differences in giraffe and okapi habitat. We hypothesize that requirement for long distance vision associated with predation and communication with conspecifics likely played an important role in the adaptive pressure on giraffe vision genes.
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Thompson, Kimberly A., Ronan Eustace, Vengai Mavangira, Colleen Turner, and Colleen F. Monahan. "Left displacement of the abomasum in a reticulated giraffe bull in managed care." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 33, no. 5 (June 24, 2021): 1023–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/10406387211027845.
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A 10-y-old giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) bull developed colic after a 3-mo history of reduced feed consumption. Physical examination and management were performed with 2 standing sedations. The giraffe developed metabolic alkalosis and progressive pre-renal azotemia followed by compensatory respiratory acidosis and paradoxical aciduria. A metallic “ping” sound was auscultated on the left side near ribs 10–12. The giraffe was euthanized given the grave prognosis, and postmortem examination confirmed left displacement of the abomasum (LDA) with fluid sequestration (150–190 L [40–50 gal]) within the rumen. Dental disease was evident at postmortem examination and perimortem skull computed tomography. To ensure cases of LDA are not overlooked, the position of the abomasum must be noted during postmortem examination prior to removal of the gastrointestinal tract. The risk factors for the development of LDA in giraffes are not known, and associations such as those of dairy cattle (hypocalcemia, high-concentrate low-fiber diet, and indoor housing) remain to be elucidated.
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Booth, Demi, Amos Kamau, Henry Kayondo, Anna Mae Sumaya, and Muhammad Waseem Ashraf. "Training a Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) for Voluntary Foot Radiographs at Dubai Safari Park." Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens 3, no. 4 (December 8, 2022): 688–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jzbg3040051.
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When 0.1 Reticulated Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) began displaying signs of lameness and a persistent swelling of the front left pastern joint, an operant based training program was created for front foot radiographs to diagnose and better manage lameness. Using a protected contact set up, behaviour was shaped using a positive reinforcement procedure. A series of cued behaviors were trained and used to obtain dorsolateral palmar medial oblique front foot radiographs to aid vets in diagnosing the cause of lameness. By training giraffes for foot radiographs, potential causes of lameness could be identified and better managed. Long-term, the results may help zoos identify best practices for managing and preventing lameness in giraffe and subsequently improve welfare. Training animals to participate in their own medical care can improve welfare by giving them a sense of control within the situation. Training for medical procedures helps to reduce the stress imposed on the giraffe and the associated risks compared to alternative methods.
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Zhu, Chenglin, Sabrina Fasoli, Gloria Isani, and Luca Laghi. "First Insights into the Urinary Metabolome of Captive Giraffes by Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy." Metabolites 10, no. 4 (April 17, 2020): 157. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/metabo10040157.
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The urine from 35 giraffes was studied by untargeted 1H-NMR, with the purpose of obtaining, for the first time, a fingerprint of its metabolome. The metabolome, as downstream of the transcriptome and proteome, has been considered as the most representative approach to monitor the relationships between animal physiological features and environment. Thirty-nine molecules were unambiguously quantified, able to give information about diet, proteins digestion, energy generation, and gut-microbial co-metabolism. The samples collected allowed study of the effects of age and sex on the giraffe urinary metabolome. In addition, preliminary information about how sampling procedure and pregnancy could affect a giraffe’s urinary metabolome was obtained. Such work could trigger the setting up of methods to non-invasively study the health status of giraffes, which is utterly needed, considering that anesthetic-related complications make their immobilization a very risky practice.
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Fasoli, Sabrina, Giulia Andreani, Francesco Dondi, Enea Ferlizza, Elisa Bellei, and Gloria Isani. "Urinary Reference Values and First Insight into the Urinary Proteome of Captive Giraffes." Animals 10, no. 9 (September 19, 2020): 1696. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani10091696.
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Urinalysis is widely recognized to be a useful tool in routine health investigations, since it can diagnose numerous pathologies. Considering the paucity of knowledge concerning giraffes, urine from 44 giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) (18 males and 26 females, from 3 months of age to 21 years of age) underwent routine urinalysis, 1D-electrophoresis, and protein identification using mass spectrometry, with the aim of identifying the urinary reference values and the urine proteome. The urine specific gravity (USG), urine total proteins (uTP), urine creatinine (uCr), and urine protein:creatinine ratio (UPC) reference values, reported as the median, and lower limit (LL) and upper limit (UL), were 1.030 (1006–1.049), 17.58 (4.54–35.31) mg/dL, 154.62 (39.59–357.95) mg/dL, and 0.11 (0.07–0.16), respectively. Mass spectrometry, together with electrophoresis, revealed a pattern of common urinary proteins; albumin, lysozyme C, and ubiquitin were the most represented proteins in the giraffe urine. It has been hypothesized that these proteins could act as a defense against microbes. Moreover, in giraffes, urinalysis could be a valid tool for gauging renal function and physiological status changes.
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Yohe, Laurel R., and Nikos Solounias. "The five digits of the giraffe metatarsal." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 131, no. 3 (October 12, 2020): 699–705. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blaa136.
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Abstract Evolution has shaped the limbs of hoofed animals in specific ways. In artiodactyls, it is the common assumption that the metatarsal is composed of the fusion of digits III and IV, whereas the other three digits have been lost or are highly reduced. However, evidence from the fossil record and internal morphology of the metatarsal challenges these assumptions. Furthermore, only a few taxonomic groups have been analysed. In giraffes, we discovered that all five digits are present in the adult metatarsal and are highly fused and modified rather than lost. We examined high-resolution micro-computed tomography scans of the metatarsals of two mid and late Miocene giraffid fossils and the extant giraffe and okapi. In all the Giraffidae analysed, we found a combination of four morphologies: (1) four articular facets; (2) four or, in most cases, five separate medullary cavities internally; (3) a clear, small digit I; and (4) in the two fossil taxa of unknown genus, the presence of external elongated grooves where the fusions of digits II and V have taken place. Giraffa and Okapia, the extant Giraffidae, show a difference from all the extinct taxa in having more flattened digits tightly packed together, suggesting convergent highly fused digits despite divergent ecologies and locomotion. These discoveries provide evidence that enhances our understanding of how bones fuse and call into question current hypotheses of digit loss.
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Grasso, Chiara, Giorgia Poso, and Christian Lenzi. "Social network-proximity association: Preliminary evaluation of giraffe sociality in a zoo-housed group." Animal Behavior and Cognition 9, no. 1 (February 1, 2022): 80–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.26451/abc.09.01.07.2022.
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Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) are found in zoos all over the world. In recent years, numerous researchers have documented complex sociality in these mammals. They highlighted that giraffes have non-random preferences in their choices of social partners, which can depend on various factors such as age, sex, and kinship. One of the still little-known aspects is how the social structure of giraffes is formed in captivity. Moreover, the scientific literature about some aspects of the social structure of giraffes in captivity (i.e., proximity or affiliative interactions) is scarce. Our hypothesis was that there would be an association between the social network, based on affiliative reciprocal interactions, and physical proximity within a group of six giraffes (5 females and 1 male) living in a zoo. To test this hypothesis, in addition to the ethological observations, we also used a Geographical Information System (GIS) to study the position of the individuals within the daytime installation. Most of the giraffes had a high number of mutual dyadic interactions, which is connected to high group cohesion. Also, each individual actively selected social partners and formed non-random social bonds. Nevertheless, our hypothesis that there would be a social network–physical proximity association, was confirmed for one dyad and partially confirmed for the other two. The results of this study can be useful to increase the knowledge of giraffe sociality and to develop GIS as a new application in zoo studies.
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Ciofolo, I. "West Africa's last giraffes: the conflict between development and conservation." Journal of Tropical Ecology 11, no. 4 (November 1995): 577–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467400009159.
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ABSTRACTThe distribution of the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis peralta Thomas 1898) has greatly diminished in West Africa, and now the last remaining population, reduced to less than 100 individuals, is found in Niger. These giraffes of West Africa are seriously threatened by extensive deforestation and clearing of their habitat. They live peacefully with humans and cattle and participate in an essential way in the dynamics of vegetation. Their disappearance would represent another step towards the impoverishment of the inheritance of Africa, a process already too far advanced. To save them, a fundamental rethinking of the connection between the environment and development on the one hand, and on the responsibilities of rural communities for the management of their natural resources on the other, has to be undertaken.
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Gunji, Megu, and Hideki Endo. "Functional cervicothoracic boundary modified by anatomical shifts in the neck of giraffes." Royal Society Open Science 3, no. 2 (February 2016): 150604. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150604.
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Here we examined the kinematic function of the morpho- logically unique first thoracic vertebra in giraffes. The first thoracic vertebra of the giraffe displayed similar shape to the seventh cervical vertebra in general ruminants. The flexion experiment using giraffe carcasses demonstrated that the first thoracic vertebra exhibited a higher dorsoventral mobility than other thoracic vertebrae. Despite the presence of costovertebral joints, restriction in the intervertebral movement imposed by ribs is minimized around the first thoracic vertebra by subtle changes of the articular system between the vertebra and ribs. The attachment area of musculus longus colli , mainly responsible for ventral flexion of the neck, is partly shifted posteriorly in the giraffe so that the force generated by muscles is exerted on the cervical vertebrae and on the first thoracic vertebra. These anatomical modifications allow the first thoracic vertebra to adopt the kinematic function of a cervical vertebra in giraffes. The novel movable articulation in the thorax functions as a fulcrum of neck movement and results in a large displacement of reachable space in the cranial end of the neck. The unique first thoracic vertebra in giraffes provides higher flexibility to the neck and may provide advantages for high browsing and/or male competition behaviours specific to giraffes.
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Bond, M. L., D. E. Lee, D. R. Farine, A. Ozgul, and B. König. "Sociability increases survival of adult female giraffes." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 288, no. 1944 (February 10, 2021): 20202770. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.2770.
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Studies increasingly show that social connectedness plays a key role in determining survival, in addition to natural and anthropogenic environmental factors. Few studies, however, integrated social, non-social and demographic data to elucidate what components of an animal's socio-ecological environment are most important to their survival. Female giraffes ( Giraffa camelopardalis ) form structured societies with highly dynamic group membership but stable long-term associations. We examined the relative contributions of sociability (relationship strength, gregariousness and betweenness), together with those of the natural (food sources and vegetation types) and anthropogenic environment (distance from human settlements), to adult female giraffe survival. We tested predictions about the influence of sociability and natural and human factors at two social levels: the individual and the social community. Survival was primarily driven by individual- rather than community-level social factors. Gregariousness (the number of other females each individual was observed with on average) was most important in explaining variation in female adult survival, more than other social traits and any natural or anthropogenic environmental factors. For adult female giraffes, grouping with more other females, even as group membership frequently changes, is correlated with better survival, and this sociability appears to be more important than several attributes of their non-social environment.
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ENEVOLDSEN, Esther Magdalene Ellersgaard, Katrine MØLLER-LASSESEN, Ninna LARSEN, Oliver Emil Søndergård GERT, Rune HOLMEGARD, Stine Ellegård JENSEN, S. PAGH, et al. "The influence of feeding opportunities of six zoohoused Giraffa camelopardalis rothschild." Genetics & Biodiversity Journal 6, no. 2 (July 1, 2022): 103–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.46325/gabj.v6i2.261.
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Previous studies on captive giraffes have shown that an increase in foraging opportunities leads to reduced abnormal behaviour. This study evaluates the nocturnal behaviours of six captive giraffes, housed in Aalborg Zoo (N: 57.04°, E: 9.90°). The herd consists of one male giraffe (age 8), one male calf (age 1 ½), two femelle giraffe (age 7; 20) and two female calves (age 8 months; 2 years). The observations lasted eight nights and compared two observation periods (October and November) with different compositions of branches. The giraffes spent approximately 30% of their nocturnal activity on feeding behaviour. An increase in feeding behaviour was correlated with a decrease in oral stereotypy. It was observed that the type of branches influenced time spent on browsing as it was consumed at different rates. Further studies are required to clarify questions left in this study, such as studies with more observation days and known types of branches
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Berland, Jody. "Attending the Giraffe." Humanimalia 9, no. 1 (September 22, 2017): 22–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.52537/humanimalia.9612.
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In this article I compare the story of the first contact tribute giraffe sent from Bengal to China in 1414 with the story of April, the famously web-cam pregnant giraffe of 2017. Both giraffes were transported by new technologies that brought together geographically dispersed people through a notable event. Both giraffes had to be conveyed from natural habitats into confinement, from distance into quasi-intimacy with European and global observers, from matriarchal family structure into an individual with a face that could at least hypothetically look back at its human viewer. The space between these two events has been marked by the emergence of a capitalist world order together with growing public anxiety about environmental risk. This shared precarity, commonly named the Anthropocene, is widely conceptualized as the result of human domination of and estrangement from nature. But the history of the giraffe reminds us that some people were estranged from nature, while others were defined by and exploited precisely because of their proximity to its resources. Each step of being made visible has relied on something else being made invisible.
The double act of foregrounding and disappearing has discursively shaped both our relations with animals and the visual aesthetics of modern culture. To borrow Marshall McLuhan’s well-known phrase, the medium is the message, and in this article, the medium is an animal. Two giraffes, two historical eras, two distinct sociopolitical and technological situations. Why giraffes, and what are they mediating?
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Hasoksuz, Mustafa, Konstantin Alekseev, Anastasia Vlasova, Xinsheng Zhang, David Spiro, Rebecca Halpin, Shiliang Wang, Elodie Ghedin, and Linda J. Saif. "Biologic, Antigenic, and Full-Length Genomic Characterization of a Bovine-Like Coronavirus Isolated from a Giraffe." Journal of Virology 81, no. 10 (March 7, 2007): 4981–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.02361-06.
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ABSTRACT Coronaviruses (CoVs) possess large RNA genomes and exist as quasispecies, which increases the possibility of adaptive mutations and interspecies transmission. Recently, CoVs were recognized as important pathogens in captive wild ruminants. This is the first report of the isolation and detailed genetic, biologic, and antigenic characterization of a bovine-like CoV from a giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) in a wild-animal park in the United States. CoV particles were detected by immune electron microscopy in fecal samples from three giraffes with mild-to-severe diarrhea. From one of the three giraffe samples, a CoV (GiCoV-OH3) was isolated and successfully adapted to serial passage in human rectal tumor 18 cell cultures. Hemagglutination assays, receptor-destroying enzyme activity, hemagglutination inhibition, and fluorescence focus neutralization tests revealed close biological and antigenic relationships between the GiCoV-OH3 isolate and selected respiratory and enteric bovine CoV (BCoV) strains. When orally inoculated into a BCoV-seronegative gnotobiotic calf, GiCoV-OH3 caused severe diarrhea and virus shedding within 2 to 3 days. Sequence comparisons and phylogenetic analyses were performed to assess its genetic relatedness to other CoVs. Molecular characterization confirmed that the new isolate belongs to group 2a of the mammalian CoVs and revealed closer genetic relatedness between GiCoV-OH3 and the enteric BCoVs BCoV-ENT and BCoV-DB2, whereas BCoV-Mebus was more distantly related. Detailed sequence analysis of the GiCoV-OH3 spike gene demonstrated the presence of a deletion in the variable region of the S1 subunit (from amino acid 543 to amino acid 547), which is a region associated with pathogenicity and tissue tropism for other CoVs. The point mutations identified in the structural proteins (by comparing GiCoV-OH3, BCoV-ENT, BCoV-DB2, and BCoV-Mebus) were most conserved among GiCoV-OH3, BCoV-ENT, and BCoV-DB2, whereas most of the point mutations in the nonstructural proteins were unique to GiCoV-OH3. Our results confirm the existence of a bovine-like CoV transmissible to cattle from wild ruminants, namely, giraffes, but with certain genetic properties different from those of BCoVs.
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van der Walt, Marna Suzanne, Willem Daffue, Jacqueline Goedhals, Sean van der Merwe, and Francois Deacon. "A Preliminary Study on the Siphon Mechanism in Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)." Animals 12, no. 23 (November 29, 2022): 3348. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani12233348.
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Adult giraffes reach heights of 4.5 m with a heart-to-head distance of over 2 m, making cranial blood supply challenging. Ultrasound confirmed that the giraffe jugular vein collapses during head movement from ground level to fully erect, negating the possibility of a siphon mechanism in the neck. We showed that a short-length siphon structure over a simulated head-to-heart distance for a giraffe significantly influences flow in a collapsible tube. The siphon structure is determined according to brain case measurements. The short-length siphon structure in a shorter-necked ostrich showed no significant increase in flow. The shorter head-to-heart distance might be the reason for the lack of effect in ostriches. A siphon mechanism situated in the cranium is certainly possible, with a significant effect exerted on the amount of pressure the heart must generate to allow adequate cranial blood perfusion in a long-necked giraffe. The study validated that a cranial-bound siphon structure can operate and will be of significant value for adequate cranial blood perfusion in long-necked species such as giraffes and might also have existed in extinct species of long-necked dinosaurs.
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Danowitz, Melinda, Rebecca Domalski, and Nikos Solounias. "The cervical anatomy of Samotherium , an intermediate-necked giraffid." Royal Society Open Science 2, no. 11 (November 2015): 150521. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150521.
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Giraffidae are represented by many extinct species. The only two extant taxa possess diametrically contrasting cervical morphology, as the okapi is short-necked and the giraffe is exceptionally long-necked. Samotherium major , known from the Late Miocene of Samos in Greece and other Eurasian localities, is a key extinct giraffid; it possesses cervical vertebrae that are intermediate in the evolutionary elongation of the neck. We describe detailed anatomical features of the cervicals of S. major , and compare these characteristics with the vertebrae of the two extant giraffid taxa. Based on qualitative morphological characters and a quantitative analysis of cervical dimensions, we find that the S. major neck is intermediate between that of the okapi and the giraffe. Specifically, the more cranial (C2–C3) vertebrae of S. major represent a mosaic of features shared either with the giraffe or with the okapi. The more caudal (C5–C7) S. major vertebrae, however, appear transitional between the two extant taxa, and hence are more unique. Notably, the C6 of S. major exhibits a partially excavated ventral lamina that is strong cranially but completely absent on the caudal half of the ventral vertebral body, features between those seen in the giraffe and the okapi. Comprehensive anatomical descriptions and measurements of the almost-complete cervical column reveal that S. major is a truly intermediate-necked giraffid. Reconstructions of the neck display our findings.
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Solounias, Nikos, Mark Teaford, and Alan Walker. "Interpreting the diet of extinct ruminants: the case of a non-browsing giraffid." Paleobiology 14, no. 3 (1988): 287–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s009483730001201x.
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Modern ruminant species have traditionally been placed in three broad dietary categories (browsers, grazers and intermediates) based on their observed feeding habits. Shape analysis of premaxillary outlines of 31 species of ruminants shows that their premaxillae differ according to their dietary category. Browsers have pointed premaxillae and grazers square ones. Intermediate feeders have intermediate outlines.The Miocene giraffid Samotherium boissieri has always been viewed as a specialized browser similar to the modern okapi, Okapia johnstoni. However, the premaxillary shape of S. boissieri falls very close to the mean of the grazers and is most similar to that of the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), a committed grazer.Quantitative analyses of the microscopic wear patterns on the molars reveal significant differences between three modern species from the three dietary groups. S. boissieri has more microscopic scratches on its teeth than either the modern giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis (a browser) or Grant's gazelle Gazella granti (an intermediate feeder). In this respect, it is indistinguishable from the wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus which is a committed grazer.Both of these analyses suggest that this extinct giraffid was a grazer, although we cannot rule out the possibility that it was an intermediate feeder. It was definitely not a specialized browser as are both living members of the Giraffidae.
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Gippoliti, Spartaco, Jan Robovský, and Francesco M. Angelici. "Taxonomy and Translocations of African Mammals: A Plea for a Cautionary Approach." Conservation 1, no. 2 (June 14, 2021): 121–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/conservation1020011.
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Ecotourism can fuel an important source of financial income for African countries and can therefore help biodiversity policies in the continent. Translocations can be a powerful tool to spread economic benefits among countries and communities; yet, to be positive for biodiversity conservation, they require a basic knowledge of conservation units through appropriate taxonomic research. This is not always the case, as taxonomy was considered an outdated discipline for almost a century, and some plurality in taxonomic approaches is incorrectly considered as a disadvantage for conservation work. As an example, diversity of the genus Giraffa and its recent taxonomic history illustrate the importance of such knowledge for a sound conservation policy that includes translocations. We argue that a fine-grained conservation perspective that prioritizes all remaining populations along the Nile Basin is needed. Translocations are important tools for giraffe diversity conservation, but more discussion is needed, especially for moving new giraffes to regions where the autochthonous taxa/populations are no longer existent. As the current discussion about the giraffe taxonomy is too focused on the number of giraffe species, we argue that the plurality of taxonomic and conservation approaches might be beneficial, i.e., for defining the number of units requiring separate management using a (majority) consensus across different concepts (e.g., MU—management unit, ESU—evolutionary significant unit, and ECU—elemental conservation unit). The taxonomically sensitive translocation policy/strategy would be important for the preservation of current diversity, while also supporting the ecological restoration of some regions within rewilding. A summary table of the main translocation operations of African mammals that have underlying problems is included. Therefore, we call for increased attention toward the taxonomy of African mammals not only as the basis for sound conservation but also as a further opportunity to enlarge the geographic scope of ecotourism in Africa.
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Patel, Freisha, Françoise Wemelsfelder, and Samantha J. Ward. "Using Qualitative Behaviour Assessment to Investigate Human-Animal Relationships in Zoo-Housed Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis)." Animals 9, no. 6 (June 21, 2019): 381. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani9060381.
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Human-Animal Relationships (HAR) in zoos develop from repeated interactions between animals and their caretakers. HAR have been shown to affect health and welfare in farm animals, but limited zoo-based studies exist. This study investigates the association between the qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) of emotional expression in giraffes and keeper action score in four types of keeper-animal interaction (KAI). Three giraffes generating 38 clips. QBA, using a free-choice profiling methodology, was applied instructing 18 observers to assess giraffe expressions shown in these clips. QBA scores were analysed using Generalized Procrustes Analysis. Keeper actions during each KAI event were rated by an independent marker, resulting in cumulative scores for keeper action quality. The association between QBA and the keeper action was analyzed using Spearman’s rank correlations. Two main QBA dimensions were identified explaining 59% of the variation between clips. There were significant effects of giraffe and KAI type on QBA dimension 2 (inquisitive/impatient—calm/distracted), and significant positive associations between keeper action quality rating and QBA dimensions 1 and 2, indicating that positive keeper actions resulted in calm and confident giraffes with a willingness to interact. This is the first successful application of QBA for empirically addressing HARs in zoos, however given the small sample size of giraffes in this study, it can be regarded as a pilot study only, and further research is needed to validate the use of QBA in this context.
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Brøndum, E., J. M. Hasenkam, N. H. Secher, M. F. Bertelsen, C. Grøndahl, K. K. Petersen, R. Buhl, et al. "Jugular venous pooling during lowering of the head affects blood pressure of the anesthetized giraffe." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 297, no. 4 (October 2009): R1058—R1065. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.90804.2008.
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How blood flow and pressure to the giraffe's brain are regulated when drinking remains debated. We measured simultaneous blood flow, pressure, and cross-sectional area in the carotid artery and jugular vein of five anesthetized and spontaneously breathing giraffes. The giraffes were suspended in the upright position so that we could lower the head. In the upright position, mean arterial pressure (MAP) was 193 ± 11 mmHg (mean ± SE), carotid flow was 0.7 ± 0.2 l/min, and carotid cross-sectional area was 0.85 ± 0.04 cm2. Central venous pressure (CVP) was 4 ± 2 mmHg, jugular flow was 0.7 ± 0.2 l/min, and jugular cross-sectional area was 0.14 ± 0.04 cm2 ( n = 4). Carotid arterial and jugular venous pressures at head level were 118 ± 9 and −7 ± 4 mmHg, respectively. When the head was lowered, MAP decreased to 131 ± 13 mmHg, while carotid cross-sectional area and flow remained unchanged. Cardiac output was reduced by 30%, CVP decreased to −1 ± 2 mmHg ( P < 0.01), and jugular flow ceased as the jugular cross-sectional area increased to 3.2 ± 0.6 cm2 ( P < 0.01), corresponding to accumulation of ∼1.2 l of blood in the veins. When the head was raised, the jugular veins collapsed and blood was returned to the central circulation, and CVP and cardiac output were restored. The results demonstrate that in the upright-positioned, anesthetized giraffe cerebral blood flow is governed by arterial pressure without support of a siphon mechanism and that when the head is lowered, blood accumulates in the vein, affecting MAP.
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O’Brien, Haley D., Paul M. Gignac, Tobin L. Hieronymus, and Lawrence M. Witmer. "A comparison of postnatal arterial patterns in a growth series of giraffe (Artiodactyla:Giraffa camelopardalis)." PeerJ 4 (February 16, 2016): e1696. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1696.
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Nearly all living artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates) possess a derived cranial arterial pattern that is highly distinctive from most other mammals. Foremost among a suite of atypical arterial configurations is the functional and anatomical replacement of the internal carotid artery with an extensive, subdural arterial meshwork called the carotid rete. This interdigitating network branches from the maxillary artery and is housed within the cavernous venous sinus. As the cavernous sinus receives cooled blood draining from the nasal mucosa, heat rapidly dissipates across the high surface area of the rete to be carried away from the brain by the venous system. This combination yields one of the most effective mechanisms of selective brain cooling. Although arterial development begins from the same embryonic scaffolding typical of mammals, possession of a rete is typically accompanied by obliteration of the internal carotid artery. Among taxa with available ontogenetic data, the point at which the internal carotid obliterates is variable throughout development. In small-bodied artiodactyls, the internal carotid typically obliterates prior to parturition, but in larger species, the vessel may remain patent for several years. In this study, we use digital anatomical data collection methods to describe the cranial arterial patterns for a growth series of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), from parturition to senescence. Giraffes, in particular, have unique cardiovascular demands and adaptations owing to their exceptional body form and may not adhere to previously documented stages of cranial arterial development. We find the carotid arterial system to be conserved between developmental stages and that obliteration of the giraffe internal carotid artery occurs prior to parturition.
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Marealle, Wilfred N., Tomas Holmern, and Eivin Røskaft. "Factors Affecting Group Size and Vigilance Behaviour of Maasai Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) on the Serengeti-Ngorongoro Ecosystem, Tanzania." East African Journal of Environment and Natural Resources 2, no. 1 (April 8, 2020): 14–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.37284/eajenr.2.1.133.
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This study investigated the factors affecting different group sizes of Maasai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) in the Serengeti-Ngorongoro ecosystem. The study was motivated to test the following hypotheses: 1) in a given group, the sex ratio of males to females with calves is related to group size; 2) group size affects vigilance behaviour; 3) illegal hunting influences group size and vigilance behaviour; and 4) group size differs in different habitats, being larger in woodlands during the wet season and in riverine habitats during the dry season. A negative relationship between the ratio of the proportion of adult males to females with calves and group size was observed, whereas the proportion of females and calves increased with group size. The proportion of vigilant individuals decreased with an increase in group size. Habitat, risk of illegal hunting and proportion of calves in the group was found to be significant contributors to an increase in vigilance behaviour. However, the results do not support the hypotheses that seasonality and habitat preference affect group sizes of the Maasai giraffes. Emphasis should be put on anti-poaching efforts on males and nursery groups, especially in areas with a high risk of illegal activities.
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Fasoli, Sabrina, Enea Ferlizza, Giulia Andreani, Camillo Sandri, Francesco Dondi, and Gloria Isani. "Noninvasive sampling method for urinalysis and urine protein profile in captive giraffes." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 33, no. 1 (November 26, 2020): 25–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1040638720975370.
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Urinalysis could be helpful to investigate the health status of giraffes held in captivity using noninvasive methods to avoid animal handling or anesthesia. We collected 52 voided urine samples from 20 giraffes of different ages, sexes, and subspecies from the ground. To evaluate potential interference by soil contaminants, a pilot study was performed using 20 urine samples obtained from 10 cows. All bovine and 29 giraffe samples were subjected to routine urinalysis including urine specific gravity (USG). All samples were analyzed for urine total protein (uTP), urine creatinine (uCrea) concentration, and urine protein-to-urine creatinine ratio (UPC). Urinary proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE electrophoresis. No significant differences were determined between free-catch and urine sampled from the ground in cows. Giraffe urine was pale-yellow, with alkaline pH (>8.0) and a mean USG of 1.035 ± 0.013. The uTP, uCrea, and UPC expressed as median (range) were 0.20 (0.08–0.47) g/L, 2.36 (0.62–5.2) g/L, and 0.08 (0.05–0.15), respectively. SDS-PAGE allowed the separation of protein bands with different molecular masses, including putative uromodulin at 90 kD, putative albumin at 64 kD, and putative immunoglobulin heavy and light chains at 49 kD and 25 kD, respectively. Urine collection from the ground appears to be a reliable technique for urinalysis and urine electrophoresis in giraffes.
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Mitchell, G., and J. D. Skinner. "Lung volumes in giraffes, Giraffa camelopardalis." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 158, no. 1 (January 2011): 72–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2010.09.003.
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Roggenbuck, Michael, Cathrine Sauer, Morten Poulsen, Mads F. Bertelsen, and Søren J. Sørensen. "The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) rumen microbiome." FEMS Microbiology Ecology 90, no. 1 (September 1, 2014): 237–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1574-6941.12402.
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Scheijen, Ciska P. J., Sean van der Merwe, Andre Ganswindt, and Francois Deacon. "Anthropogenic Influences on Distance Traveled and Vigilance Behavior and Stress-Related Endocrine Correlates in Free-Roaming Giraffes." Animals 11, no. 5 (April 25, 2021): 1239. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani11051239.
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Giraffes are an important tourist attraction, and human presence to wildlife is increasing. This has an impact on an animal’s behavior and its endocrine correlates. Studies on other species show alterations in movement patterns, vigilance, and stress-related hormone levels in the presence of humans. Limited information is available on how anthropogenic activities alter giraffe’s behavior, social structure, and related endocrine parameters. The purpose of this study was to obtain insight into anthropogenic influences on giraffe’s behavior and adrenal activity. We used GPS devices mounted onto giraffes to compare the distance walked in the presence or absence of human observers. We also conducted behavioral observations to assess their vigilance and collected fecal samples to analyze their fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations. Giraffes walked significantly further distances in the presence of humans, but the cumulative time that observers were present decreased the hourly distance walked with an observer present, suggesting that the giraffes were becoming habituated. The number of observers present significantly increased the percentage of time spent on observing an observer as well as the number of unhabituated individuals present in the herd. The percentage of time spent observing a human observer did not decrease with the increase of habituation. Last, fGCM concentrations increased with human presence but decreased when individuals became habituated to human presence. More research is needed to understand the effect of anthropogenic influences in different scenarios (e.g., tourism, vehicles, hunting, etc.).
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Veasey, J. S., N. K. Waran, and R. J. Young. "On Comparing the Behaviour of Zoo Housed Animals with Wild Conspecifics as a Welfare Indicator, Using The Giraffe (Giraffa Camelopardalis) as a Model." Animal Welfare 5, no. 2 (May 1996): 139–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0962728600018571.
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AbstractTo assess the validity of using wild behavioural data as a welfare indicator for zoo animals, the time budgets of 19 captive giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), from four zoos were compared with the time budgets of wild giraffe from Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Differences were shown to exist between the behaviour of wild and captive giraffe. However, only the duration of lying differed significantly across zoos. Correlations demonstrated that both enclosure size and feed restriction affected the locomotor activity of giraffe. An attempt to quantify observer influence upon the behaviour of wild giraffe was made. Different methods of observation were shown to significantly affect the time budget established. The extent to which wild giraffe behaviour can be used as a welfare indicator for captive conspecifics is discussed, as are the problems inherent in such a study. The difficulties in constructing an alternative welfare measure using prevalence to veterinary problems, are briefly considered. Methods by which captive giraffe welfare can be improved are discussed, particularly concerning the provision of browse to allow more natural feeding patterns to be established.
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Petersen, Karin K., Arne Hørlyck, Kristine H. Østergaard, Joergen Andresen, Torbjoern Broegger, Nini Skovgaard, Niklas Telinius, et al. "Protection against high intravascular pressure in giraffe legs." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 305, no. 9 (November 1, 2013): R1021—R1030. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00025.2013.
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The high blood pressure in giraffe leg arteries renders giraffes vulnerable to edema. We investigated in 11 giraffes whether large and small arteries in the legs and the tight fascia protect leg capillaries. Ultrasound imaging of foreleg arteries in anesthetized giraffes and ex vivo examination revealed abrupt thickening of the arterial wall and a reduction of its internal diameter just below the elbow. At and distal to this narrowing, the artery constricted spontaneously and in response to norepinephrine and intravascular pressure recordings revealed a dynamic, viscous pressure drop along the artery. Histology of the isolated median artery confirmed dense sympathetic innervation at the narrowing. Structure and contractility of small arteries from muscular beds in the leg and neck were compared. The arteries from the legs demonstrated an increased media thickness-to-lumen diameter ratio, increased media volume, and increased numbers of smooth muscle cells per segment length and furthermore, they contracted more strongly than arteries from the neck (500 ± 49 vs. 318 ± 43 mmHg; n = 6 legs and neck, respectively). Finally, the transient increase in interstitial fluid pressure following injection of saline was 5.5 ± 1.7 times larger ( n = 8) in the leg than in the neck. We conclude that 1) tissue compliance in the legs is low; 2) large arteries of the legs function as resistance arteries; and 3) structural adaptation of small muscle arteries allows them to develop an extraordinary tension. All three findings can contribute to protection of the capillaries in giraffe legs from a high arterial pressure.
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Péron, Guillaume, Christophe Bonenfant, Roxanne Gagnon, and Cheryl T. Mabika. "The two oxpecker species reveal the role of movement rates and foraging intensity in species coexistence." Biology Letters 15, no. 10 (October 2019): 20190548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0548.
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The two Buphagus oxpecker species are specialized passerines that forage for ticks and other food particles on the body of ungulates in the African savannahs. One of their intriguing features is their ability to coexist despite sharing the same, specialized diet. Using co-occurrence data (photographs of giraffes with oxpeckers on them) and approximate Bayesian computing, we demonstrate that yellow-billed oxpeckers changed host faster than red-billed oxpeckers and appeared to displace red-billed oxpeckers from preferred giraffe body parts. Conversely, red-billed oxpeckers exhibited a fuller use of each host and displaced yellow-billed oxpeckers from distal giraffe body parts. These findings highlight that the partition of giraffe hosts in two separate niches was only part of the coexistence story in this species pair. More precisely, the oxpeckers shared the resource by exploiting it at different rates. They engaged in different trade-offs between giving-up density, patch discovery rate and competitor displacement ability. They illustrate the importance of the time frame of interactions.
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Berthelsen, Anne Katrine Leth, Bertram Brix Kjeldgaard, Katrine Møller-Lassesen, Ninna Larsen, Patrick Urup, Stine Ellegård Jensen, Trine Hammer Jensen, Cino Pertoldi, Aage Kristian Olsen Alstrup, and Sussie Pagh. "Behavioural instability as an indicator of personality within captive populations of Rothschild Giraffes." GABJ 5, no. 1 (January 25, 2021): 159–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.46325/gabj.v5i1.179.
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The novel concept of behavioural instability has proven suitable for studying the behavior and personality in zoo animals. Individual personality has an impact on how the zoo best perform environmental enrichment, and behavioural diversity of captive populations intended to potentially repopulate wild habitats. This study aims to prove the presence of recognizable personalities in Rothschild giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi), as well as to investigate whether visitor numbers affect the behavioural expressions in this species. Six giraffes (bot young and adults) were filmed in Aalborg Zoo, and the recordings were subsequently analysed. The procured data was then analysed using a series of tests primarily focusing on behavioural reaction norms. The results shows that distinct personalities exist within the groups of Rothschild giraffes. However, the number of visitors exhibited no statistical significance upon the behaviour of the individuals. It can thereby be concluded that specimens of Rothschild giraffes possess unique personality traits which are worth defining in order to ensure behavioural diversity.
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Dadone, Liza, Steve Foxworth, Robert Aruho, Amy Schilz, Andrea Joyet, Myra Barrett, Peter Morkel, Garrett Crooks, Julian Fennessy, and Matthew S. Johnston. "Foot shape and radiographs of free-ranging Nubian giraffe in Uganda." PLOS ONE 16, no. 12 (December 16, 2021): e0252929. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252929.
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Foot health in zoo giraffe has been a topic of recent research, although little is known about the foot health of free-ranging giraffe. This study describes the foot shape and radiographic pathological changes in 27 young adult Nubian giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) from a translocation in Uganda (August 2017). Giraffe feet were observed to have a concave sole, the hoof wall was longest by the toe tip, and the weight-bearing surface of the foot was primarily along the periphery of the foot including hoof wall, parts of the heel, and the edge of the sole. Radiographs showed that pedal osteitis and sesamoid bone cysts were relatively uncommon (3/24 giraffe with osteitis, 1/24 giraffe with sesamoid cysts), and that no giraffe in the study had P3 joint osteoarthritis, P3 rotation, or P3 fractures. Radiographs consistently demonstrated a positive palmar/plantar angle with the sole of the hoof thicker at the heel than by the toe tip, with the non weight-bearing palmar/plantar angle measuring 1.6°- 4.3°. This is the first systematic review of foot shape and radiographs in free-ranging giraffe and demonstrates a low prevalence of foot pathologies. This study suggests qualitative differences in foot shape, foot health, radiographic anatomy, and foot pathologies when comparing free-ranging and zoo giraffe. Further research is needed to identify why these differences occur and whether husbandry modifications could help improve zoo giraffe foot health and prevent associated lameness.
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Suraud, J. P., J. Fennessy, E. Bonnaud, A. M. Issa, H. Fritz, and J. M. Gaillard. "Higher than expected growth rate of the Endangered West African giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis peralta: a successful human–wildlife cohabitation." Oryx 46, no. 4 (October 2012): 577–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605311000639.
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AbstractThe West African giraffe is a genetically unique population represented only by the subspecies Giraffa camelopardalis peralta, categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. These giraffes live outside protected areas, without natural predators and share their habitat with local people and their livestock. This study provides demographic data on this poorly studied megaherbivore and documents its recovery. We analysed the results of photo-identification censuses from 1996 to 1999 (count data) and from 2005 to 2008 (count and demographic data). From 1996 to 1999 the annual growth rate was c. 19% because of an unbalanced population structure after a period of severe poaching. From 2005 to 2008 an annual growth rate of c. 12–13% was estimated from both count data and demographic parameters. This value fits with the maximum growth rate calculated for a browser species based on the allometric relationship linking growth rate and body mass. During the period 2005–2008 adult and subadult females had a constant survival rate of 0.94 and a constant recapture rate of 0.97. Annual calf survival rate was 1. Observed sex ratio at birth was 0.57 and mean reproductive success was 0.257. Generation time was estimated to be 9.66 years. This spectacular population growth was mostly attributed to the absence of predators and the ongoing monitoring to limit illegal hunting.
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Natterson-Horowitz, Barbara, Basil M. Baccouche, Jennifer Mary Head, Tejas Shivkumar, Mads Frost Bertelsen, Christian Aalkjær, Morten H. Smerup, Olujimi A. Ajijola, Joseph Hadaya, and Tobias Wang. "Did giraffe cardiovascular evolution solve the problem of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction?" Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health 9, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 248–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/emph/eoab016.
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Abstract The evolved adaptations of other species can be a source of insight for novel biomedical innovation. Limitations of traditional animal models for the study of some pathologies are fueling efforts to find new approaches to biomedical investigation. One emerging approach recognizes the evolved adaptations in other species as possible solutions to human pathology. The giraffe heart, for example, appears resistant to pathology related to heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF)—a leading form of hypertension-associated cardiovascular disease in humans. Here, we postulate that the physiological pressure-induced left ventricular thickening in giraffes does not result in the pathological cardiovascular changes observed in humans with hypertension. The mechanisms underlying this cardiovascular adaptation to high blood pressure in the giraffe may be a bioinspired roadmap for preventive and therapeutic strategies for human HFpEF.
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Borkowski, Rose, Scott Citino, Mitch Bush, Paul Wollenman, and Brenda Irvine. "Surgical Castration of Subadult Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)." Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40, no. 4 (December 2009): 786–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/2008-0112.1.
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Hermes, Robert, Alexis Lecu, Romain Potier, Frank Goeritz, Jessica P. Rickard, Julia Bohner, Rudy Wedlarski, Jiri Hruby, and Thomas B. Hildebrandt. "Cryopreservation of Giraffe Epidydimal Spermatozoa Using Different Extenders and Cryoprotectants." Animals 12, no. 7 (March 29, 2022): 857. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani12070857.
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Giraffe numbers have plummeted over the last 30 years by 30–40%. Thus, their conservation status has been raised from least concern to vulnerable. Efforts to manage in situ and ex situ populations are increasing. Assisted reproduction techniques (ART) such as sperm cryopreservation could help preserve the genetic diversity of giraffe subspecies and, when used for artificial inseminations, enhance genetic exchange between isolated populations. However, to date, the post-thaw motility of recovered sperm has been low and inconsistent. In this study, epididymal sperm collected from the testes of giraffes (n = 7) was frozen in three different extenders, namely, BotuCrio, Steridyl, and test egg yolk (TEY), each supplemented with one of two different cryoprotectants (5% glycerol or a mix of 1% glycerol and 4% methylformamide) and frozen over liquid nitrogen vapor. Across all three extenders, sperm showed significantly better post-thaw results when frozen with a mix of glycerol and methylformamide compared with glycerol alone. Sperm frozen with TEY and a mix of glycerol and methylformamide achieved superior post-thaw total and progressive sperm motility of 57 ± 3% and 45 ± 3%, respectively. These results show the benefit of using alternative cryoprotectants for freezing giraffe spermatozoa and could aid in the application of ARTs for giraffe subspecies or the closely related endangered Okapi.
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Kulkarni, Tushar Pramod. "Analysis of stereotypic behaviour and enhanced management in captive Northern Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis housed at Zoological Garden Alipore, Kolkata." Journal of Threatened Taxa 12, no. 4 (March 26, 2020): 15426–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/jott.5622.12.4.15426-15435.
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In the wild, giraffes live complex social lives exhibiting fission-fusion social systems. They have sophisticated communication which likely forms a crucial component regulating subgroup dynamics. They spend a large part of their day browsing and traveling over large distances. In captivity, lack of continuous browsing opportunities and limited space can lead to various abnormal and stereotypic behaviours. These stereotypic behaviours can have cascading detrimental health consequences. A behavioural analysis of stereotypic behaviours in giraffes under human care was conducted to evaluate sources of variation within a population and provide management recommendations. The aim of this investigation was threefold: 1. to examine current behaviour of giraffes in Zoological Garden Alipore, Kolkata to advise on their enhanced management; 2. to highlight any behavioural abnormalities and recommend enrichment mechanisms; and 3. to compare the observed stereotypic behaviours with behaviour described in other zoological institutions and in the wild to provide a focal trajectory in the development of guidelines. Four individuals (two adult males, one adult female, and one male calf) were observed outdoors for seven days, three times a day for 30 minutes by instantaneous scan sampling method. During the observation period, the giraffe exhibited oral stereotypy more than any other behaviour recorded, though this was recorded disproportionally between individuals. The giraffe spent a larger amount of time exhibiting oral stereotypy compared to feeding/foraging activities. The study suggests incorporating diet and feeding strategies with provision of natural browse as well as offering enrichment methods to increase the foraging time using various time-engaged feeding devices to mitigate the observed abnormal stereotypic behaviour. Additionally, recommendations are made for expanding the size of the open enclosure to meet guidelines by the Central Zoo Authority, as a minimum.
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Kyriánová, I. A., J. Drnek, I. Langrová, P. Peřinková, and S. Nechybová. "Gastrointestinal Parasites in Giraffes Kept in Zoological Gardens of the Czech Republic." Scientia Agriculturae Bohemica 48, no. 3 (September 1, 2017): 122–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/sab-2017-0019.
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Abstract Parasite prevalence was investigated in giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) housed in six major Czech zoological gardens: Zoo Ostrava, Zoo Dvůr Králové nad Labem, Zoo Liberec, Zoo Olomouc, Zoo Praha, and Zoo Plzeň. In autumn 2012 and in spring 2013, 120 faecal samples from 21 animals were examined using the McMaster egg counting technique. Propagative stages of three parasite groups were discovered, namely eggs of the nematodes of the order Strongylida (prevalence 25.8%), whipworms Trichuris spp. (prevalence 25%), and oocysts of the unicellular coccidia of the genus Eimeria (prevalence 1.7%). The results indicate that captive giraffes in the Czech zoos are not substantially affected by parasitic infection.
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Deacon, Francois, and Fred B. Bercovitch. "Movement patterns and herd dynamics among South African giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa)." African Journal of Ecology 56, no. 3 (April 6, 2018): 620–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/aje.12514.
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Lee, DE, E. Fienieg, C. Van Oosterhout, Z. Muller, M. Strauss, KD Carter, CPJ Scheijen, and F. Deacon. "Giraffe translocation population viability analysis." Endangered Species Research 41 (February 27, 2020): 245–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/esr01022.
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Most populations of giraffes have declined in recent decades, leading to the recent IUCN decision to upgrade the species to Vulnerable status, and some subspecies to Endangered. Translocations have been used as a conservation tool to re-introduce giraffes to previously occupied areas or establish new populations, but guidelines for founding populations are lacking. To provide general guidelines for translocation projects regarding feasibility, we simulated various scenarios of translocated giraffe populations to identify viable age and sex distributions of founding populations using population viability analysis (PVA) implemented in Vortex software. We explored the parameter space for demography and the genetic load, examining how variation in founding numbers and sex ratios affected 100 yr probability of population extinction and genetic diversity. We found that even very small numbers of founders (N ≤ 10 females) can appear to be successful in the first decades due to transient positive population growth, but with moderate population growth rate and moderate genetic load, long-term population viability (probability of extinction <0.01) was only achieved with ≥30 females and ≥3 males released. To maintain >95% genetic diversity of the source population in an isolated population, 50 females and 5 males are recommended to compose the founding population. Sensitivity analyses revealed first-year survival and reproductive rate were the simulation parameters with the greatest proportional influence on probability of extinction and genetic diversity. These simulations highlight important considerations for translocation success and data gaps including true genetic load in wild giraffe populations.
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Pizzi, R., J. Cracknell, and L. Dalrymple. "Postmortem Evaluation of Left Flank Laparoscopic Access in an Adult Female Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)." Veterinary Medicine International 2010 (2010): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.4061/2010/789465.
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There are still few reports of laparoscopy in megavertebrates. The giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is the tallest land mammal, and the largest ruminant species. An 18-year-old multiparous female hybrid giraffe, weighing 650 kg, was euthanized for chronic health problems, and left flank laparoscopy was performed less than 30 minutes after death. Safe primary access was achieved under visualisation using an optical bladed trocar (Visiport Plus, Tyco healthcare UK Ltd) without prior abdominal insufflation. A left paralumbar fossa approach allowed access to the spleen, rumen, left kidney, and intestines, but did not allow access to the reproductive tract which in nongravid females is intrapelvic in nature.