Academic literature on the topic 'Goats – Pakistan – Feeding and feeds'

Buffalo and cattle are main dairy animals of Pakistan, making 30% of the total livestock. Out of total milk produced in the country, buffalo contributes about 68%, followed by cattle (27%), rest (5%) by sheep, goats, and camels. They are kept both in rural as well as peri-urban dairy production systems. These dairy animals mostly strive on low-quality feed stuffs including roughages and crop-residues with poor nutritive value resulting in poor production and reproduction performance. Recent investigations and published data show that there is also an issue of unjustified feeding without considering the production and physiological stages of dairy animals, resulting in overfeeding of non-productive and under-feeding of productive animals, leading to poor feed use efficiency. There is also no separate feeding system for different classes of dairy animals. Furthermore, in the prevailing dairy production scenario, there is absence of an efficient feeding system especially devised for growing heifers (kept as replacement herd) keeping in view their feeding requirements that could reduce their age at puberty with a significant reduction in the cost of feeding. Similarly, the introduction of milk replacer and early weaning of calves are very effective ways without any adverse effects on growth when given free access to good quality calf starter, and it could add to dairy economics. Fodder scarcity during the winter months (November to January) and summer (May–June) in Pakistan is another big constraint toward sustainable dairying. It is concluded that more efficient feed utilization in these dairy production systems could be achieved by developing innovative approaches and solutions (hay and silage making) to fight these scarcity periods and developments in dairy nutrition, like the establishment of nutrient requirements for dairy animals for local dairy breeds, adopting group feeding practices of dairy animals according to the stage of lactation and production status, and proper feeding systems for growing heifers and effective milk replacer feeding for calves. These practical and innovative steps could effectively lead to sustained dairy production in Pakistan.

Livestock is now sharing by more than 53 percent of total agricultural value added in Pakistan. Identifying and developing the potential areas of livestock production is part of the overall development strategy for this sector while rural poverty alleviation is a major concern of Pakistan’s overall development policy. Our major livestock production systems are grazing, stall-fed and grazing-cum-stall-fed based. Grazing based livestock farming is economical and customary system in mountainous, rainfed, deserts and salinity affected areas. The livestock herders of desert areas deserve special attention of the policy-makers because of their most deprived living conditions as majority is living below poverty line by all poverty measuring standards. The present study is aimed to generate an updated synthesis based on empirical knowledge about status of livestock farming in desert ecologies of Pakistan. The results show that the average herd sizes maintained by the herders is fairly large to cover losses due to drought, disease and other epidemics. The human and physical capital endowments of the farmers are generally poor. Other common characteristics are: major dependence on natural vegetation with limited supply of fodder, more physical exertion of animals during grazing, poor animal health, practicing natural method of breeding, low milk and meat productivity, highly limited livestock and milk marketing opportunities, etc. The stall feeding is mainly composed of dry stalks and straws of different crops along with a small quantity of food grains. On marketing side, because of location and lack of infrastructure support, milk marketing opportunities are meager, therefore, it is converted into desi ghee—a value added and preserved form which is sold in nearby town markets. In marketing of live animals, the farmers are always exploited by beoparies. On average herd size, the net monthly income in Cholistan desert from cattle (for milk), sheep and goats farming (for meat purpose) was Rs 10128, Rs 990 and Rs 508, respectively; for Thal desert the corresponding estimates were Rs 457, Rs 359 and Rs 552, respectively; and for Tharparkar, the corresponding estimates are Rs 918, Rs 3221 and Rs 331, respectively. There is a strong need of prioritising development efforts for desert ecologies. High priority areas include efforts for increasing availability of rangeland vegetation and green fodder, improvement in the genetic potential of local livestock breeds, provision of more efficient livestock health coverage, and establishment of milk collection centres of milk processing plants. The low priority areas include designing regulatory framework for milk and livestock marketing, programs for human capacity building, facilitating through institutional credit, and different incentives for the veterinary staff posted in such areas. JEL classification: Q130, Q190, Q200 Keywords: Desert, Tharparkar, Thal, Cholistan, Livestock Farming, Livestock Feeding Patterns, Feed Composition, Livestock Trade Intensity, Priority Setting.

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of prelacteal feeding among mothers ofPakistan and to find out the various concepts behind this practice and fundamentally to establishthe association of prelacteal feeding with breastfeeding outcomes. Background: In Pakistan,many efforts have been done to emphasize the nutritional importance and adequacy of breastmilk for the newborns. Despite such efforts, it has been witnessed on multiple occasions thatprior to the commencement of breastfeeding, prelacteal feeds are introduced by the mothers totheir young ones. Prelacteal feed (PLF) are food supplements that are given to newborns orally.Design: Qualitative, descriptive, cross sectional Survey. Setting: The Lady Dufferin Hospital(LDH) and Jinnah Medical College hospital (JMCH). Methods: Study includes 400 Mothersincluding young mothers and data was collected with use of a pre-assessed authenticatedquestionnaire. Results: A large group of, both educated and uneducated, mothers knew aboutPLF administration (90.5%). Out of these, 70% mothers routinely give prelacteal feeds, withreadymade ghutti and honey being the most widely used supplements, 19.5% and 37.2%respectively .However their reasons for doing so differed significantly. Family tradition (27.8%)and religious credence (21.8%) are the most popular reasons for practicing prelacteal feeding.The other minor reasons are breast milk insufficiency, prevention of dehydration, hypoglycaemia,preparation of the gastrointestinal tract for digestion and to quench thirst. However, majorityof the subjects were aware of the benefits of breastfeeding and 99% mothers breastfed theirchildren. Conclusions: Regardless of the fact that mothers understand the significance ofbreast milk, most mothers routinely and unnecessarily give prelacteal feeds. Therefore, mothersshould be discouraged for the unsafely administration of prelacteal feeds and re-emphasizedabout the importance and nutritional adequecy of breastfeeding.

Feding different physical forms of diets on performance and carcass traits of goats was studied. Thirty-six wethers were fed total mixed diets of either whole or rolled barley mixed with grass-alfalfa hay either chopped to 2.5 or 5 cm lengths. No differences (P > 0.05) in ADG (76.6 to 84.8 g d-1), feed intake (0.92 to 1.01 kg d-1), F:G (12.2 to 13.1 kg kg-1), hot carcass weight (13.5 to 14.1 kg), dressing %, (45.0 to 45.7%) and ribeye area (10.9 to 13.1 cm2) were observed among goats fed the four dietary combinations. Key words: Processing, feeds, goats, performance, carcass

The present study was conceived with the aim of encouraging utilization of environmental wastes in the form of shed tree leaves for livestock feeds production. Three complete isonitrogenous (15.45 ± 0.17 % CP) diets, each constituted from shed leaves of Vitellaria paradoxa, Gmelina arborea or Daniella olliveri tree plus corn bran, soy bean meal, bone meal and sodium chloride, were evaluated through laboratory and nutritional studies for their suitability as complete diets for goat production. The diets were analyzed for dry matter and chemical contents while their feeding values were assessed in a 56-day growth and nutrients digestibility trial with goats. The three shed leaves-based diets were found to be similar in dry matter content but differed (P < 0.05) in the levels of crude protein, Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF), calcium, phosphorous and condensed tannins. Results from the feeding trial indicated significant (P < 0.05) effects of treatments on feed intake, body weight gain and nitrogen retention in the goats. Goats on Gmelina shed leaves-based diet gained in body weight at a slower rate (P < 0.05) than the other treatment groups. No adverse effect on the general well being and behaviour of goats attributable to treatments was discernible during the 56-day feeding trial. Results of both the laboratory and feeding trials confirmed the hypothesis that each of the three shed leaves could be utilized to provide nutrients for goat production. In terms of feeding values to the goats the dried forages were ranked in the order: Vitellaria > Daniella > Gmelina

Sixteen Yearling Red Sokoto goats were used to determine the effect of complete diet feeding on intake and nutrient utilization of diets based on soyabean haulm. Three diets in which soyabean haulm constituted 40, 50 and 60% of the mixture were compared with a control diet in which soyabean haulm was offered separately but supplemented with a concentrate mixture. Total feed intake, liveweight gain and feed efficiency were significantly (PO.05) better in goats fed complete diets particularly at the 40 and 50 levels of soyabean haulm inclusion. The results of the study showed that the utilization of soyabean haulın can be further enhanced by mixing it with other concentrate feeds.

Jattal goats (n=90) of approximately 2-6 years of age being reared in Cholistan desert of Pakistan were studied during January to December, 2015 to examine the alterations in hematochemical parameters of Jattal goats at different reproductive phases while feeding on natural vegetations of desert areas of Cholistan. These were divided into three equal groups (non-pregnant, pregnant and lactating). Blood samples were collected by jugular vein puncture from goats of these three groups. Hematological parameters, white blood cells (WBC), lymphocytes (LYM), monocytes (MON), granulocytes (GRA), red blood cells ( RBC), hemoglobin (Hb), hematocrit ( HCT), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean cell hemoglobin (MCH), mean cell hemoglobin concentration ( MCHC) and red cell distribution width RDW were recorded. The results obtained revealed that all these parameters were generally lower in non-pregnant goats. The study revealed that significant higher values of hemoglobin (Hb), mean cell hemoglobin (MCH) and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) were observed in the lactating goats (P<0.05). Pregnant goats showed a significantly (P<0.05) higher values of leucocytes (WBC) than lactating and non-pregnant goats. Plasma sodium (Na) and potassium (K) concentration were markedly lower in lactating goats. Plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were significantly lower in pregnant goats. The Plasma concentration of cholesterol and triglycerides were higher in pregnant goats. In conclusion in present study changes in some hematochemical parameters have been determined in pregnant, non-pregnant and lactating goats of Jattal breed.

Highlights An automatic feeding system, employing a suspended-type feed dispenser and capable of detecting different zones and accordingly adjusting the quantity of feed distributed, was designed for distributing concentrated feed to goats.The assigned tasks were satisfactorily completed by the system with no major malfunctions or problems.The farmer of the test barn reported a 10% increase in lactation quantity with no additional labor.The automatic feeding system is a means of resolving the labor shortage problem and achieving an improved feeding strategy for goat husbandry.Abstract. To resolve the labor shortage problem and to achieve better feeding strategy for goat husbandry in Taiwan, an automatic feeding system (AFS) was developed. Because of the relatively small scale of Taiwanese goat farms, goats at various growth stages are kept in the same barn but separated into zones. Different concentrated feed formulas are needed for goats at different growth stages. The majority of goat farms in Taiwan adopt elevated-floor-type barn. The zone-separating fences and the meshed floors hinder the application of walking-type feed dispenser. Corresponding to the farming conditions, the AFS was designed to use suspended-type feed dispenser and is capable of detecting different zones and adjusting the distribution proportion accordingly. This system comprises a feed bucket and distribution unit, a suspended feed bucket moving unit, and a sensor control unit. A programmable logic controller is used as the controller. Electric power needed to move the dispenser and to power other devices is translated through a conductor rail system, and the control signals are transmitted using wireless transceivers. The feed bucket incorporates two sub-buckets for different types of feed and distributes different proportions and quantities of feed at different times according to the feeding zone. A vibrating motor was used to prevent bridging and jamming of feeds inside feed buckets. The system was also equipped with ultrasonic sensors to detect the quantity of feed remaining in the buckets and proceeded with an automatic refilling procedure when the quantity remaining is too low. A maximum of 12 time periods for feeding can be scheduled daily. Functional tests results showed that the AFS could achieve the design goals, which include evenly dispensing various proportion concentrated feeds according to the zones, at several set disperser travelling speeds. The vibrating motor could realize zero feed remaining in the feed buckets. Field tests were carried out in a 55- × 10-m goat barn with 385 goats for six months. The barn was divided into six zones. Goats were fed 8 times per day, four times as much as compared to the conventional feeding scheme, with preset amounts of concentrated feed distributed per goat per meal. Field test results indicated that the AFS could satisfactorily fulfill the assigned tasks with no major malfunction or problem. In addition, the farmer of the test barn reported a 10% increase of lactation quantity with no additional labor after using the system for 1 year. This system proved to be feasible, have practical value and commercial potential. An extensive application of this system in the future is expected to resolve the labor shortage that besets goat farming. Keywords: Automatic, Goat farm, Labor saving, Smart agriculture.

Small maize livestock farmers in the Eastern Province of Zambia badly need forage high in protein to supplement the protein deficient pasture grass. Nutrient intake, especially for the small ruminants with small gastro-intestinal capacity compared to metabolizable energy requirement, will be near or below maintenance if these poor quality feeds are not supplemented. High quality supplements however, are beyond the reach of the small scale farmers. The effect of feeding maize husk and leucaena as a mixture or separately on voluntary intake of maize husk was studied over a 40 day period. Ten male goats with an average weight of 15 kg were used. In a separate experiment the effect of browse supplementation on maize husk utilization by goats was studied. The treatments were; maize husk plus urea; maize husk plus Leucaena leucocephala (3:2); maize husk plus Calliandra calothyrsus (3:2); and maize husk plus leucaena plus calliandra (3:1:1). The results of the study indicate that leucaena and calliandra are both potentially valuable feed components.

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O objetivo principal foi determinar a contribuição dos diferentes segmentos do trato gastrointestinal (TGI) para a digestão da fibra. Dois experimentos foram conduzidos, os quais foram determinados o tempo médio de retenção (TMR) de partículas e líquido, conteúdo e pesos dos tecidos nos diferentes segmentos pelo método do abate. O primeiro estudo avaliou TMR de partículas e líquido de cabritos Saanen em crescimento de diferentes sexos e submetidos a diferentes níveis de restrição alimentar. Foram utilizados 54 cabritos da raça Saanen (18 fêmeas, 18 machos castrados e 18 machos inteiros) em um arranjo fatorial 3 × 3 que compreendeu os três sexos e três níveis de restrição alimentar (ad libitum / sem restrição, restrição moderada e severa). Contrastes polinomiais foram utilizados para determinar o efeito linear e quadrático da restrição alimentar, enquanto o efeito do sexo foi comparado pelo teste de Tukey. Os efeitos do sexo e interação entre sexo e restrição alimentar não foram significativos na maioria das variáveis avaliadas. A restrição alimentar aumentou o TMR de partículas e fluído. O TMR foi um recurso importante para aumentar a oferta de nutrientes, quando os animais foram submetidos à restrição alimentar, como indicado pelo aumento da digestibilidade total. O segundo estudo avaliou aspectos fisiológicos da digestão da fibra, retenção de partículas e líquido, conteúdo e peso dos tecidos em todo o TGI de cabritos da raça Saanen. O total de 58 cabritos da raça Saanen foram aleatoriamente dispostos em um arranjo fatorial 3 × 3, composto por três sexos (fêmeas, machos castrados, machos inteiros) e três pesos de abate (aproximadamente 16, 23, e 30 kg de peso no abate). Os efeitos do tratamento foram avaliados em um esquema de parcelas subdivididas, com o sexo como efeito principal e peso de abate como sub parcela. Contrastes polinomiais foram utilizados para determinar os efeitos ...
The main objective was to assess the contribution of different segments of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) to the fiber digestion. Two experiments were conducted, which mean retention time (MRT) of particulate and liquid matter, pool size, and tissues weight in different segments were determined by slaughter technique. The study one evaluated MRT of particulate and liquid matter in growing Saanen goats of different sexes and subjected to different levels of feed restriction. Fifty-four Saanen goats (18 each of females, castrated males and intact males) were used in a 3×3 factorial arrangement comprising the three sexes and three levels of feed restriction (unrestricted/ad libitum, moderate and severe restriction). Polynomial contrasts were used to determine linear and quadratic effect of feed restriction, while the effect of sex was compared by Tukey test. The effects of sex and the interaction between sex and feed restriction were not significant on most of variables evaluated. In conclusion, the level of feed restriction increased the MRT of particulate and liquid matter. The MRT was an important mechanism to increase nutrient supply when animals were subjected to feed restriction, as indicated by increased total tract digestibility. The second study examined physiological aspects in the digestion of fiber, particulate and liquid matter residence, pool size, and tissues weight in the whole tract of growing Saanen goats. A total of 58 Saanen goats were disposed in a 3×3 factorial arrangement consisting of three sexes (female, castrated males, intact males) and three slaughter weights (target BW 16, 23, and 30 kg at slaughter). Treatment effects were evaluated in a split-plot design, with sex as the main plot and slaughter weight as the subplot. Polynomial contrasts were used to determine linear and quadratic effects of slaughter weight. Thus increased BW at slaughter resulted in greater MRT of particulate and liquid matter in ...

Orientador: Izabelle Auxiliadora Molina de Almeida Teixeira
Banca: Gustavo Rezende Siqueira
Banca: Antonello Cannas
Banca: Gilberto de Lima Macedo Junior
Banca: Renata Helena Branco Arnandes
Resumo: O objetivo principal foi determinar a contribuição dos diferentes segmentos do trato gastrointestinal (TGI) para a digestão da fibra. Dois experimentos foram conduzidos, os quais foram determinados o tempo médio de retenção (TMR) de partículas e líquido, conteúdo e pesos dos tecidos nos diferentes segmentos pelo método do abate. O primeiro estudo avaliou TMR de partículas e líquido de cabritos Saanen em crescimento de diferentes sexos e submetidos a diferentes níveis de restrição alimentar. Foram utilizados 54 cabritos da raça Saanen (18 fêmeas, 18 machos castrados e 18 machos inteiros) em um arranjo fatorial 3 × 3 que compreendeu os três sexos e três níveis de restrição alimentar (ad libitum / sem restrição, restrição moderada e severa). Contrastes polinomiais foram utilizados para determinar o efeito linear e quadrático da restrição alimentar, enquanto o efeito do sexo foi comparado pelo teste de Tukey. Os efeitos do sexo e interação entre sexo e restrição alimentar não foram significativos na maioria das variáveis avaliadas. A restrição alimentar aumentou o TMR de partículas e fluído. O TMR foi um recurso importante para aumentar a oferta de nutrientes, quando os animais foram submetidos à restrição alimentar, como indicado pelo aumento da digestibilidade total. O segundo estudo avaliou aspectos fisiológicos da digestão da fibra, retenção de partículas e líquido, conteúdo e peso dos tecidos em todo o TGI de cabritos da raça Saanen. O total de 58 cabritos da raça Saanen foram aleatoriamente dispostos em um arranjo fatorial 3 × 3, composto por três sexos (fêmeas, machos castrados, machos inteiros) e três pesos de abate (aproximadamente 16, 23, e 30 kg de peso no abate). Os efeitos do tratamento foram avaliados em um esquema de parcelas subdivididas, com o sexo como efeito principal e peso de abate como sub parcela. Contrastes polinomiais foram utilizados para determinar os efeitos ...
Abstract: The main objective was to assess the contribution of different segments of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) to the fiber digestion. Two experiments were conducted, which mean retention time (MRT) of particulate and liquid matter, pool size, and tissues weight in different segments were determined by slaughter technique. The study one evaluated MRT of particulate and liquid matter in growing Saanen goats of different sexes and subjected to different levels of feed restriction. Fifty-four Saanen goats (18 each of females, castrated males and intact males) were used in a 3×3 factorial arrangement comprising the three sexes and three levels of feed restriction (unrestricted/ad libitum, moderate and severe restriction). Polynomial contrasts were used to determine linear and quadratic effect of feed restriction, while the effect of sex was compared by Tukey test. The effects of sex and the interaction between sex and feed restriction were not significant on most of variables evaluated. In conclusion, the level of feed restriction increased the MRT of particulate and liquid matter. The MRT was an important mechanism to increase nutrient supply when animals were subjected to feed restriction, as indicated by increased total tract digestibility. The second study examined physiological aspects in the digestion of fiber, particulate and liquid matter residence, pool size, and tissues weight in the whole tract of growing Saanen goats. A total of 58 Saanen goats were disposed in a 3×3 factorial arrangement consisting of three sexes (female, castrated males, intact males) and three slaughter weights (target BW 16, 23, and 30 kg at slaughter). Treatment effects were evaluated in a split-plot design, with sex as the main plot and slaughter weight as the subplot. Polynomial contrasts were used to determine linear and quadratic effects of slaughter weight. Thus increased BW at slaughter resulted in greater MRT of particulate and liquid matter in ...
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The occurrence and concentration of substances like glycosides, alkaloids, certain amino acids, and, especially, phenolics in vegetation has been seen as a defense against environmental perturbations. Whether this phenomenon is associated with the disruptive effect of man, herbivore predation or the invasion of arthropods and microorganisms remains to be ascertained by ecologists. However, contemporary research shows that most so-called secondary metabolites in plants render them less sensitive to adverse factors in the natural environment. Likewise, herbivores that adapted to chemical defense in plants were rewarded with wider food source and might have been able to more efficiently exploit rapidly changing foraging environments. This study focuses on relationships between goats, their ruminal microbes and tannin-rich plants in a central Arizona chaparral vegetation type dominated by shrub live oak (Quercus turbinella). The study tested hypotheses involving goat dietary selection, estimated through microhistological analysis of feces; phenolic profile of shrub live oak, expressed as condensed and hydrolyzable tannins, protein binding capacity of oak leaves extract, expressed as bovine serum albumin (BSA) precipitation; and apparent dry matter digestibility of mature and immature oak leaves by goat ruminal microbes measured at 6, 12, 24 and 48 hours. Findings of this research indicated that goats prefer leaf and shoot ends of shrubs, mainly shrub live oak, despite the constant high concentration of tannins in that plant. Hydrolyzable tannins in oak are synthesized during summer/fall and late spring, and the synthesis of condensed tannins is mostly restricted to winter and early spring. Precipitation of BSA by extract of oak leaves, apparently associated with hydrolyzable tannins, did not discourage oak consumption by goats. The digestibility of younger and older oak leaves was more influenced by time of incubation than level of phenolics in plant tissue. This research emphasizes the adaptability of goats to ecological zones where presence of toxins and digestion reducing compounds in plants adversely affects survival and fitness of non-adapted herbivores.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The objective of this study was to evaluate Dohne Merino sheep and Boer goats in terms of the degradable parameters of a high-fibre diet, a low-fibre diet and two vegetable protein sources commonly used in South Africa. Differences between species were evaluated following the potential differences within species. The feedstuffs used were those for the following diets: low-fibre diet (LF); high-fibre diet (HF); sunflower meal (SFM) oilcake; and soybean meal (SBM) oilcake. In the first trial, the digestible characteristics of the HF and LF diets were determined by means of a digestibility study. A 6 × 6 Latin square design was used to determine whether Dohne Merino sheep or Boer goat wethers differ regarding the digestibility characteristics of low- and high-fibre diets. The diets were fed once daily at 1.24 kg to all the wethers, which had ad libitum access to fresh water. Each period consisted of 10 days of adaptation and seven days of faecal and urinary sampling. The results indicated that the intake and digestibility characteristics of nutrients did not differ between sheep and goats. However, the different diets differed in terms of the nutrient intake and digestibility range of sheep and goats. The second trial was an in sacco degradability trial to determine the dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) degradability of the LF, HF, SBM and SFM diets. Six Dohne Merino and six Boer goat wethers were fitted with rumen cannulae so that they could be used in the trial. All wethers received the same basal diet. The samples were incubated in the rumen in polyester Dacron bags, with the bags being removed at intervals of 0h, 3h, 9h, 12h, 24h, 48h, 72h, and 96h for the LF and HF diets. All the oilcake was removed at intervals of 0h, 2h, 4h, 8h, 12h, 16h, 24h, 36h and 48h. The sheep and goats were found not to differ from one another in terms of effective degradability of any of the feedstuffs concerned. However, within species differences were observed. To establish a fully integrated outcome of degradability, the study described in the current thesis was structured in such a way that the in vitro trial ran parallel with the in sacco trial, being performed with the aid of a Daisy Incubator (ANKOM Technology Corp., Fairport, NY). Such a procedure was only adopted in relation to the SFM and SBM diets in order to evaluate their in vitro data in relation to the in sacco data. The same oilcake was tested in the case of both trials, with the composite sample of rumen liquid of four sheep or goats, which was used in the in sacco trial, also being used in the in vitro study. In the study, DM disappearance values were determined and fitted to a single-compartment model by means of an iterative least-square procedure in order to determine the DM and CP degradability parameters. The DM used in vitro or in sacco was compared, using the actual values obtained after 8h incubation, due to only a limited amount of residue being left after incubation. In the study, the in vitro method overestimated the digestibility of SBM by 37% to 39% and the digestibility of SFM by 17% to 20% compared with that found to occur in the in sacco method. In vitro DM disappearance values for all SBM samples were found to be higher than those that were detected in the SFM samples. The percentage of in vitro true digestibility parameters was also calculated. No significant differences were found between species for effective degradability, though differences were observed within species between the two substrates concerned. In conclusion, the sheep and goats used in the study were not found to differ in terms of digestion parameters when they were compared on different types of roughage or protein sources. However, within species differences were, indeed, found to occur. Sheep and goats digested the SBM better than they did the SFM.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om te bepaal of Dohne Merino skape verskil van Boerbokke in terme van degradeerbaarheidsparameters van ‘n hoë vesel-, ‘n lae veseldieët en twee plantaardige proteïenbronne wat algemeen in Suid-Afrika gebruik word. Die verskille tussen spesies is ge-evalueer en daarna die potensiële verskille binne spesies. Die volgende grondstowwe is geëvalueer: ‘n laevesel-dieët (LF), ‘n hoëvesel-dieët (HF), sonneblom-oliekoekmeel (SFM) en sojaboon-oliekoekmeel (SBM). In die eerste proef is die degradeerbaarheidsparameters van die HF dieët en die LF dieët met behulp van ‘n verteerbaarheidstudie bepaal. Dohne Merino hamels of Boerbok kapaters was gebruik om te bepaal of skape en bokke verskil in terme van inname en degradeerbaarheid van voedingstowwe wanneer hul hoë- en lae vesel voere gevoer word. Al die hamels en kapaters het ad libitum toegang tot vars water gehad en hul was een keer per dag (1.24 kg) gevoer. Elke periode het bestaan uit ‘n 10 dag aanpassingsperiode en ‘n toegelate 7 dae vir mis- en urienmonster versameling. Die resultate het aangedui dat die inname- en degradeerbaarheidsparameters van nutriënte beinvloed word deur verskillende diëte binne spesies. Geen verskille is gevind tussen spesies wanneer daar hoë- en lae kwaliteit voere gevoer is nie. Die tweede proef was ‘n in sacco-degradeerbaarheidsstudie om te bepaal wat die droë materiaal (DM) en ruproteïen (RP) verteerbaarheidsparameters van die HF dieët, die LF dieët, die SBM en die SFM is. Ses Dohne Merino’s en ses Boer bokke met rumen kanullas is in die studie gebruik en al die diere het dieselfde basale dieët ontvang. Die monsters is in die rumen geïnkubeer in poliester dakronsakkies en die sakkies is verwyder na onderskeidelik 0 uur, 3 uur, 9 uur, 12 uur, 24 uur, 48 uur, 72 uur en 96 uur intervalle. Laasgenoemde intervalle was geldig vir die lae vesel- en hoëveseldieët. Die oliekoeke se intervalle het verskil en is verwyder na 0 uur, 2 uur, 4 uur, 8 uur, 12 uur, 16 uur, 24 uur, 36 uur en 48 uur. Daar was geen verskille tussen spesies in effektiewe degradeerbaarheid nie, alhoewel verskille voorgekom het binne spesies. Skape verteer veselagtige grondstowwe meer effektief terwyl bokke weer hoë proteïn bevattende grondstowwe beter verteer. Om ‘n volkome geïntegreede uitkoms van degradeerbaarheid te bewerkstellig is die in vitro proef en die in sacco proef gelyktydig gedoen. Die in vitro-degradeerbareheidstudie is met behulp van ‘n ANKOM Daisy Inkubeerder uitgevoer (ANKOM Tegnologie Korp., Fairport, NY) vir net die oliekoek behandelings. Gedurende die studie is dieselfde oliekoeke gebruik. ‘n Saamgestelde monster van die rumenvloeistof van vier van die skape of bokke wat vir die in sacco-studie gebruik was, is gebruik vir die in vitro-inkubasie van die monsters. DM verdwyningparameters is bereken en dan met ‘n interaktiewe kleinste kwadraat prosedure op ‘n een-kompartement model gepas om die in sacco DMdegradeerbaarheidsparameters te bepaal. Die DM verdwyning, na 8h inkubasie, was gebruik om die in vitro en die in sacco metodes met mekaar te vergelyk, weens ‘n beperkte residu na die afloop van die elke inkubasiestudie. Tydens die studie het die in vitro metode degradering oorskat in vergelyking met die in sacco metode. DM verdwyningswaardes vir al die SBM monsters was hoër in vitro as die SFM monsters. In die studie is die persentasie in vitro ware degradeerbaarheidswaardes bereken. Geen verskille is opgemerk tussen spesies vir effektiewe degradeerbaarheid nie. Daar was wel verskille binne spesies. Om af te sluit het dit voorgekom dat skape en bokke nie verskil aan degradeerbaarheidswaardes wanneer daar ‘n vergelyking was tussen verskillende vesels- en proteϊenbronne nie, alhoewel verskille voorgekom het binne spesies. Skape en bokke het SBM effektief beter verteer as SFM.

The broad objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of grazing and housing management systems on greenhouse gas emissions, blood profiles and meat quality of Nguni goats. A total of 64 castrated Nguni goats were used and a housing structure was designed to accommodate the goats as well as evaluate effects of type of floor on greenhouse gases, meat quality, blood metabolites and fatty acid profiles. In the first experiment: Forty-eight castrated Nguni goats, at 6-7 months old were used for herding (H) or tethering (T) management systems and randomly allocated to pens with earth (E) or slatted (S) floors. Gas sampling was done using static chambers and analysed using a SRI 8610C gas chromatography machine. The highest CH4 fluxes were from the manure of herded goats on earth floors (HE). The highest CO2 fluxes were from manure of herded goats that were housed on slatted floors (HS): The highest N2O fluxes were from the manure of tethered goats that were sheltered on slatted floors (TS). It was concluded from the first experiment that goat manure is an important source of GHG that is influenced by grazing and floor type management systems. The second experiment was done to evaluate greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from disused (DP) vs occupied goat pens (OP) with earth (EF) or slatted (SF) floors. Eight previously occupied pens were used in this study. Sixteen goats were randomly put in the pens labelled occupied pens with earth floors (OPEF) and occupied pens with slatted floors (OPSF) resulting in four goats per OP. There were month by pen use; month by floor type; and use by floor type interaction effects (P < 0.05) on CH4 production. Floor type, use (DP vs OP) and month affected (P < 0.05) CH4 production. Manure on earth floors of occupied pens (OPEF) emitted the highest (P < 0.05) methane followed by earth floors of disused pens (DPEF). The least CH4 was emitted from DPSF. There was pen use (DP vs OP) by floor type interaction effect (P < 0.05) on CO2 emission. Floor type and pen use affected (P < 0.05) CO2 production. Manure in occupied pens with slatted floors (OPSF) produced the highest CO2 and the least CO2 was from disused pens with slatted floors (DPSF). Floor type and month influenced (P < 0.05) N2O production. It was concluded that continued use of goat pens increased GHG emissions. However, disused goat pens with manure remain an important source of GHG as they continued to emit quantifiable levels of CH4, CO2 and N2O. The third experiment was done to determine the effects of grazing and housing management systems on the concentrations of blood metabolites, activity of creatine kinase, body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS) and carcass characteristics using 48 castrated Nguni goats. Tethered goats had higher (P<0.05): urea, creatinine, total protein, globulin concentrations and more activity of CK than herded goats. On the other hand, herded goats had higher (P<0.05) plasma glucose (H: 3.39±0.020 vs T: 3.23±0.020 mmol/L), serum albumin (H: 15.30±0.147 vs T: 14.82±0.144 g/L) concentration. It was concluded that serum concentrations of all the metabolites and the activity of CK were sensitive to grazing system. Herding of goats promoted more glucose concentration and preservation of muscle protein and hence superior body weights and BCS than tethered goats. The fourth experiment was done to determine the effects of grazing and housing management systems on the activity of creatine kinase (CK) and cortisol concentration, and chevon quality. Further, the effect of muscle type [Muscularis longissimus thoracis et. Lumborum (LTL) and triceps brachii (TB)] on chevon quality was also investigated. Forty eight castrated Nguni goats aged 6- 7 months were randomly allocated to tethering (n=24) and herding (n=24) treatments. Floor type affected meat (P<0.05) pH24. Tethered goats had higher (P < 0.05) L* and CL percent than herded goats. Muscle type had a significant influence (P < 0.05) on a*, WBSF and pH. It was observed and concluded that T resulted in higher L* and more CL percent whilst SF lowered the pH24 of chevon; at the same time meat from the TB muscle was more tender, despite having a higher pH24 and more CL percent relative to LTH cuts. The fifth experiment was done to determine the effect of grazing and floor type on fatty acid composition of chevon from tethered and herded Nguni goats. Floor type had no effect on fatty acid composition. Oleic, stearic, palmitic and linoleic were the major fatty acids. Chevon from tethered goats had higher (P < 0.05) proportions of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs): eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and more total SFA, total PUFA, total Omega- 6 and total omega 3 fatty acids than herded goats. On the other hand, chevon from herded goats had more (P < 0.05) C18:1c9, C18:2t9, 12 (n-6), C20:3c11, 14, 17 (n-3) and total MUFA than tethered goats. However, there was no difference (P > 0.05) in the PUFA: SFA and n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratios between the herded and tethered goats. It was concluded that tethering promoted higher proportions of beneficial PUFAs which were more in TB than LTH muscle. The overall conclusions from the whole study were that goat manure is an important source of GHG with high CH4 being emitted from earth floors of herded goats. High CO2 and N2O are emitted from SF of herded and tethered goats, respectively. There were no major differences in meat quality between herded and tethered goats. However, herding promoted more live weight gain than tethering. On the other hand, tethering promoted more beneficial fatty acids. Therefore depending on the objective of the enterprise, smallholder farmers can safely tether or herd their goats. Further, there is need to develop technologies to harness CH4 from goat manure.

Climate change is predicted to have a negative effect on the rangelands of sub-Saharan Africa, affecting the distribution, productivity and extent of these rangelands. Similarly, Subtropical Thicket vegetation in the Eastern Cape, South Africa is expected to experience a reduction in plant growth with conditions becoming similar to those experienced under desertification. The transformation of thicket results in a decrease in perennial plant species cover and richness, which is replaced by an ephemeral layer of grasses and forbs. Assessing the responses of herbivores to this transformation thus allows the testing of the hypothesis that climate change and desertification will lead to a broadening of diet and a decline in secondary productivity. In this study, the diet and productivity of Angora goats in intact and transformed thicket in adjacent paddocks was investigated from August 2005 to July 2006. Faecal analysis was used to compare the diets of the Angora goats in the intact and transformed thicket treatments. Goats in the transformed treatment consumed a higher diversity of plant species (94 species) compared to those in the intact thicket (42 species). The higher species richness per faecal sample and the larger seasonal variation in plant species utilized by the goats in the transformed treatment reflected the variability of this treatment in response to rainfall. Dietary shifts to include less palatable species not found in the intact treatment diet were clear, but due to the high rainfall year an abundant ephemeral layer, comprising grasses and forbs, was available in the transformed treatment. The diet quality of the transformed treatment goats was higher, as indexed by faecal lignin, than the intact treatment goats, although there was no statistical difference in the NDF and ash levels between the treatments. There was however, more variation in the nutritional quality of the transformed thicket diet, as indexed by dietary phosphorous, showing that intact thicket retains a more constant nutritional level. There was no difference in the body condition and mohair production of the goats in the two treatments. The hypothesis of broadening of the diet was thus supported, but there was no evidence for the predicted decline in secondary productivity. This study was undertaken during an above average rainfall period and large quantities of nutritious ephemeral grasses were available in the transformed treatment. This resource would not be available in a drought; therefore goats in the intact thicket will likely perform better over longer periods; providing stocking rates are realistic. This is the first study to measure the response of domestic herbivores to transformation either in terms of resource use or production.

This study was conducted on the grazing of West African Dwarf (WAD) goats managed by 41 farmers in Nigeria. The study focused on the use of "fodder banks" by small-scale farmers. The objective of the research was to determine the effect of seeding Stylosanthes hamata on herbage productivity and goat performance under three grazing management systems: tethering (conventional), free grazing natural pasture or free grazing legume-seeded pasture (fodder bank).
Irrespective of the system of management, goats grazing the various pastures had a weaning weight of 6.0 $ pm$ 0.3 kg. At 6, 9 and 12 months the body weights were 9.3 $ pm$ 0.41, 11.7 $ pm$ 1.36 and 12.6 $ pm$ 0.73 kg, resulting from an average daily gain (ADG) of 49.0 $ pm$ 4.0, 33.4 $ pm$ 4.0, 31.0 $ pm$ 0.1 and 25.0 $ pm$ 0.03 g day$ sp{-1}$ for the growth periods of birth to 3 months (pre-weaning) 3-6, 3-9, and 3-12 month (post-weaning) growth periods, respectively. There were no significant differences among the grazing systems with regard to birth weights and 3-month body weight (weaning weight). However, during the 3 to 6-month growth period, the ADG of goats tethered on natural pasture was higher than that observed for goats grazing S. hamata seeded pasture or fenced natural pasture, but this difference disappeared with time. At the 12-month period goats grazing fodder banks were heavier than goats tethered on natural pasture during the late wet season period, but the effect was not significant. Although animals lost weight during the late rainy season, animals grazing fodder banks seemed to have lost less weight than those grazing natural pasture. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Feeding behaviour of Xhosa lop-eared, Nguni and Nguni × Boer goat genotypes kept on rangelands of the False Thornveld By Archibold Garikayi Bakare The study was conducted at the University of Fort Hare farm to assess the feeding behaviour of three goat genotypes: Xhosa lop-eared (XLE), Nguni (NGN) and Nguni × Boer crossbred (NBC) genotypes. The time spent on different activities (grazing, browsing and other activities) on rangelands was recorded using stop watches. The micro-histological faecal analysis technique was used to identify and quantify the plant species that were consumed by the goats across the four seasons. Time spent browsing was high in post-rainy season for XLE (55.94 %) compared to NGN (52.97 %) and crossbred NBC (45.95 %) goats. The high browsing activity was also noted for XLE in hot-wet and cool-dry season (P < 0.05). The NBC goats on the other hand; devoted most of their time grazing compared to XLE and NGN goats across seasons (P < 0.05). Generally, time of day had no effect (P > 0.05) on foraging activities among the goat breeds. Grewia occidentalis, Panicum maximum and Diospyros lycioides were the most preferred plant species by all genotypes across seasons in the paddock. It was concluded that crossbreds spent more time grazing as compared to XLE, which are more of browsers. It could, therefore, be recommended that XLE complement with grazers (cattle and sheep) for efficient management of feed resources in rangelands.

The effects of limited and infrequent drinking, and atropine administration on feed intake and utilization was investigated in South African indigenous goats. Sixteen goats with an average body weight of 29.1 kg were subjected to water restriction and deprivation with concurrent atropine administration. They were fed ad libitum with a mixture of lucerne (Medicago sativa) and eragrostis hay (Eragrostis curvula), blended with molasses. The diet contained 10.47% crude protein, 38% crude fibre and 17.5 MJ/kg gross energy. Fifteen goats were randomly divided into 3 groups and were watered ad Libitum, 50% of ad libitum and 30% of ad libitum water intake respectively (Trial 1). In trial 2, a group of 8 animals were deprived of water for 3 days while the other group had free access to water daily (phase1). During phase 2, another group of 8 were watered on the 5th day while others had water ad libitum. A subgroup of 4 goats each were injected with atropine in both phases. The results showed that these goats have high water efficiency. The limited and infrequent supply of water decreased feed intake but enhanced nutrient utilisation. The provision of water at the 50% ad libitum level or once in 3 days is economical and beneficial to goat production in water-scarce areas. There is a need for complimentary investigations using atropine at high doses to further elucidate the effects of this drug on the gastro-intestinal functions of ruminants.
Dissertation (MSc (Physiology))--University of Pretoria, 2007.
Anatomy and Physiology
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The fate of transgenic DNA (tDNA) and protein of feeds from Genetically Modified organisms (GMOs) in animals has been an important topic since their commercialization in 1996. Several studies have investigated about risks of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of tDNA and proteins to bacteria or animal cells/tissues, however, the reported data is at times controversial. Earlier reports showed that tDNA fragments or protein derived from GM plants have not been detected in tissues, fluids, or edible products of farm animals. Other researchers have come out to demonstrate that there is the possibility of small fragments leaking out into the animal tissues, fluids and organs. This motivated us to update our knowledge about these concerns. Therefore, this review aimed at assessing the likely transfer and accumulation of tDNA/ proteins from transgenic feeds to animal (ruminants and non-ruminants) samples through evaluating the available experimental scientific published studies. This study has found out that the tDNA or protein is not completely degraded during feed processing and digestion in the Gastro-Intestinal Tract (GIT). In large ruminants (Cattle), tDNA fragments/protein have been detected in the GIT digesta, ruminal fluid and feces. In small ruminants (Goats), traces of tDNA/proteins have been detected in the GIT digesta, blood, milk, liver, kidney, heart and muscle. In pigs, they have been detected in blood, spleen, liver kidney and in the GIT digesta. In poultry, traces have been seen in blood, liver and GIT digesta but not in meat and Eggs. Regardless of some studies that have shown the transfer of tDNA/protein fragments to animal samples, we cannot base on these few studies to give a piece of general evidence about their transfer into tissues/fluids and organs of livestock animals. However, this study clearly shows possible transfer, hence intensive and authentic research on GM crops should be done before they are allowed for commercial use, studying issues like the fate of tDNA or proteins and the effect of feeding GM feeds to livestock.

The fate of transgenic DNA (tDNA) and protein from feed derived from Genetically Modified organisms (GMOs) in animals has been a major issue since their commercialization in 1996. Several studies have investigated the risks of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of tDNA and protein to bacteria or animal cells/tissues, but some of the reported data are controversial. Previous reports showed that tDNA fragments or proteins derived from GM plants could not be detected in tissues, fluids, or edible products from livestock. Other researchers have shown that there is a possibility of small fragments entering animal tissues, fluids and organs. This motivated us to update our knowledge about these concerns. Therefore, this review aimed to evaluate the probable transfer and accumulation of tDNA/proteins from transgenic feeds in animal samples (ruminant and non-ruminant) by evaluating the available experimental studies published scientifically. This study found that the tDNA/protein is not completely degraded during feed processing and digestion in Gastro-Intestinal Tract (GIT). In large ruminants (cattle), tDNA fragments/proteins were detected in GIT digesta, rumen fluid, and faeces. In small ruminants (goats), traces of tDNA/proteins were detected in GIT digesta, blood, milk, liver, kidney, heart and muscle. In pigs, they were detected in blood, spleen, liver, kidney, and GIT digesta. In poultry, traces were detected in blood, liver and GIT digesta but not in meat and eggs. Notwithstanding some studies that have shown transfer of tDNA/protein fragments in animal samples, we cannot rely on these few studies to give general evidence for transfer into tissues/fluids and organs of farm animals. However, this study clearly shows that transfer is possible. Therefore, intensive and authentic research should be conducted on GM plants before they are approved for commercial use, investigating issues such as the fate of tDNA or proteins and the effects of feeding GM feed to livestock.