Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Greenhouse gas emission trading schemes'

Ethiopia is one of the sub-Saharan Africa countries whose energy depends on traditional use of biomass such as wood, charcoal, agricultural residues and animal dung. The traditional use of biomass mainly wood and charcoal leads the country to massive deforestation and forest degradation. Negative environmental impacts from poorly managed municipal solid waste are also serious problems in the country. Moreover, there is a wide range of fossil fuels demand in the country fully covered by importing which results to a significant expenditure from the country’s budget. This study investigates the long-term shifts in bioenergy use of the country and evaluates the expected social, environmental and economical implications. For this purpose, three scenarios are formulated within a timeframe that goes from 2013 to 2030. The baseline scenario assumes the existing energy practices of the country would undergo no significant change in the future while the moderate shift and high shift scenarios consider the long-term shifts in bioenergy use with and without considering constraints respectively. In this context, long-term shifts means: transition from traditional use of biomass to efficient and modern in the household sector, biofuels deployment in the transport sector, introduction of agricultural residues as a fuel for cement production, and electricity generation from bagasse and municipal solid waste. To model and analyze the scenarios, the long-range energy alternatives planning system (LEAP) software tool is used. Taking the results of high shift scenario by 2030, the use of improved wood stoves and fuel switch stoves could save 65 million tons of wood. The foreign currency saving from using biofuels and agricultural residues as fossil fuels substitute would reach to 674 million USD. The greenhouse gas emissions reduction is equivalent to 46 million tons of CO2e which is about 18.4% of the CO2e abatement target of the country for 2030. The corresponding revenue from carbon trading schemes would reach to 231 million USD. Electricity generation from bagasse and municipal solid waste would be 3,672 GWh that is around 3.7% of the total electricity generation target for 2030.

A fuel levy is one of the market-based measures (MBMs) currently under consideration at the International Maritime Organization. MBMs have been proposed to improve the energy efficiency of the shipping sector and reduce its emissions. This paper analyses the economic and environmental implications of two types of levy on shipping bunker fuels by means of an analytical model built on the cobweb theorem. A unit-tax per ton of fuel and an ad-valorem tax, enforced as a percentage of fuel prices, are examined. In both cases, a speed and fuel-consumption reduction equivalent to an improvement in the energy efficiency of the sector would be expected as a result of the regulation enforcement. The speed reduction in the unit-tax case depends on fuel prices and the tax amount, whereas in the ad-valorem case it relies upon the enforced tax percentage. Both schemes lead to industry profit decline, the extent of which depend on the structure of the levy and market conditions. Since there is concern that the costs resulting from the policy will be passed from shipping companies to their customers along the supply chain, the paper dwells on how the costs arising from the enforcement of the levy will be actually allocated between ship-owners and operators, and cargo-owners. In a market characterised by high freight rates and with no or limited excess capacity, a higher percentage of the total tax amount is transferred from ship-owners to shippers. In case of a recession the opposite happens.

This paper explores the conflicts of interest present in science policy and how claims being made for evidence based science can be used to suppress critical social science research. The specific case presented concerns the attempts to ban and censor my work criticising the economics of carbon emissions trading while I was working for the Commonwealth Scientific Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia. The role of management and the Science Minister are documented through their own public statements. The case raises general issues about the role of epistemic communities in the production of knowledge, the potential for manipulation of information under the guise of quality control and the problems created by claiming a fact-value dichotomy in the science-policy interface. The implications go well beyond just climate change research and challenge how public policy is being formulated in modern industrial societies where scientific knowledge and corporate interests are closely intertwined. (author's abstract)
Series: SRE - Discussion Papers

L’objectif de cette étude est d’appréhender, à travers l’exemple du système européen d’échange des quotas d’émission de gaz à effet de serre, les conditions d’efficacité d’un instrument particulier de réalisation du développement durable : la technique de marché. Définie comme un instrument de police consistant en la poursuite d’un objectif de politique publique, préalablement défini par les pouvoirs publics, au moyen de la création volontaire d’un marché, c’est-à-dire l’organisation d’échanges d’« unités » entre opérateurs économiques, la technique de marché est utilisée de manière privilégiée en matière environnementale. La création ex nihilo d’un marché pour protéger l’environnement ne doit pas induire en erreur : la technique de marché ne conduit pas à une substitution de la liberté à la puissance publique. Au contraire, la technique de marché n’est efficace que si elle est sous-tendue par une action publique forte. Une intervention permanente – au stade de l’élaboration et de la mise en oeuvre de cet instrument – et multiforme – au niveau international, régional et national – de la puissance publique est nécessaire. La « main invisible » du marché ne produit ses effets que grâce à la « main visible » de la puissance publique
By taking the example of the European Union emission trading system, the objective of the present study is to understand the conditions of effectiveness of a specific tool: the market-based instrument. Market-based instrument is defined as a tool of policing aiming at the achievement of a public policy objective (pre-established by public authorities) with the creation of a market, i.e. the organisation of exchanges of “units” between economic operators. This tool is widely used in environmental law. The ex nihilo creation of a market in order to protect the environment must not mislead: the market-based instrument does not lead to a shift from public action to freedom. To the contrary, the effectiveness of the market-based instrument depends on a strong public action. A permanent (i.e. both during the preparation and the implementation of this tool) and multifaceted (i.e. at international, regional and national levels) public intervention is therefore required. The “invisible hand” of the market could only be effective with the “visible hand” of public authorities

La recherche d'une mesure mondiale et corrective des émissions de gaz à effet de serreafin de réduire l'impact de l'activité aérienne internationale sur les changements climatiques a étéconfrontée à l'émergence d'obstacles, sous forme de conflits de normes, liés au défi général del'interaction entre le droit international de l'aviation civile, le droit international des changementsclimatiques et le droit de l'Union européenne. La conciliation des normes matérielles etinstitutionnelles concernées, sur la base d'une interprétation évolutive de la convention de Chicago,est alors apparue comme l'unique solution pour remédier aux situations conflictuelles constatées.Le recours à cette démarche interprétative maintient néanmoins un climat d'insécurité juridique etpose la question des limites à l'adaptation du droit international de l'aviation civile au défi d'uneprotection du climat mondial. Ce travail d'analyse vise alors à démontrer qu'un recours à cettedémarche interprétative n'est pas toujours nécessaire et qu'une application rigoureuse de ladistinction intrinsèque au droit international de l'aviation civile séparant le domaine de lanavigation aérienne du domaine du transport aérien international est la clef du problème. Ellepermet en effet de proposer une solution corrective respectueuse des ordres juridiques fonctionnelsconcernés tout en rétablissant un climat de sécurité juridique indispensable au développementsoutenable de l'aviation civile internationale
Looking for a global and corrective measure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions frominternational civil aviation has been facing legal obstacles. These obstacles took the form ofconflicts of norms linked to the general challenge of the interactions between international aviationlaw, climate change law and the law of the European Union. Using evolutionary interpretation ofthe Chicago Convention in order to reconcile norms of substantive and institutional nature emergedas the best solution. However, this method perpetuates legal uncertainty and poses the generalchallenge of flexibly and elasticity of the Chicago Convention in response to the climate changechallenge. This study examines the above mentioned issues of interactions between legal ordersand provides recommendations to restore legal certainty needed to ensure sustainable developmentof international civil aviation. More specifically, this study reveals the underestimated relevance ofthe ongoing distinction between the legal regimes of air navigation and air transport, which is a keylegal element in the search for a global and corrective solution to the impact of international civilaviation on climate change

For over a decade this study followed designs for emissions trading schemes (ETS) that have emerged in response to global warming. An ETS is considered a cost-effective instrument to mitigate pollution (UNFCCC, 2006). Early in this study indications were that several operational ETSs struggled to achieve their emission reduction goals. Considering this problem, the study looks at the competing constraints of acceptance, effectiveness, and emissions reduction. The parameters of an ETS can be adjusted in relation to these constraints and the study also considers the alignment of nine design factors to these constraints. The design factors considered are legislation, governance, compliance, rules, compensation, targets, phasing-in, coverage and the distribution of allowances. It emerges that adjustments in terms of factor alignment may affect a schemes ability to reduce emissions. Other important factors sit outside the scope of this study, i.e. variations in greenhouse gas emissions as a result of the GFC and later COVID-19, also alternative mitigation policies, human adaptation, and innovative technologies. Viewed in a comparative manner the main case studies are the antecedent US Acid Rain Program (US ARP), the European Union Emission Trading System (EU ETS) and the US Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI). Other ETS designs that provide data for the study include the UK Emissions Trading Scheme (UK ETS), the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CRPS), which later became known as the Australian Carbon Tax, and the Californian Cap and Trade Program (CCTP). An effective ETS may perform adequately in relation to its’ goals for governance and compliance, although it can be shown that if the design leans too far toward acceptance the capacity for emissions reduction is diminished. According to the conceptual framework developed early in the study, over time the relationship between the constraints and the design factors should be revised toward reducing emissions.

The pressing global demand to transform to a low-carbon business community, which is required by the urgency of mitigating climate change, significantly alters the operating procedures for carbon emitters and carbon revenue generators alike. Although agricultural activities are not considered as heavy carbon emission source, the increased public focus on climate change has catapulted the exploitation of sustainable agricultural land management mitigating strategies as intervention by the sector. Additionally, the focus on market-based mechanism to address climate change, which has led to the evolution of cap-and-trade schemes, makes the agricultural sector become a source of low-cost carbon offsets. However, the fact that cap-and-trade schemes in the agricultural sector are voluntary has resulted into not only very diverse farming practices but also diverse accounting practices. The consequences of the diversity practices are that, the impacts on financial performance and position are not comparable. Therefore, the overall objective of this study was to investigate the recognition, measurement and disclosure for cap-and-trade schemes in the agricultural sectors This study was conducted through literature reviews and empirical test. A qualitative research approach utilising constructivist methodology was employed. Primary data was collected in Kenya by administering three sets of semi-structured questionnaires to drafters of financial statements, loan officers and financial consultants. Secondary data involved content analysis of financial statements and reports of listed entities across the globe. It was established that proper accounting for cap-and-trade schemes adaptation activities is critical to the success of an entity’s environmental portfolio. Additionally, a model for valuing an organisation's carbon capture potential as suggested by this study enables entities to better report the impact of the adaptation activities on the financial performance and financial position. The outcome of this study enables entities to integrate the carbon capture potential on an entity sustainability reporting framework.
Colleges of Economic and Management Sciences
D. Phil. (Accounting Science)

碩士
逢甲大學
財經法律研究所
99
Executive Yuan had submitted 「Reducing Greenhouse Gases Act」to LegislativeYuan in September 2006, meanwhile the Act is an important milestone for Taiwan to connect Emission Trading system. This thesis will introduce and compare with various emission trading systems in some countries, and through the result mentioned above to discuss the inadequate in the Act. This thesis finds three points out for the Act to improve：1、The Act does not clearly demarcate the responsibility of government organization to executive Emission Trading. 2、The Act about the details of managing trading market is not concrete enough. 3、Under Kyoto Protocol there are three kinds of reducing greenhouse gases systems to follow, and which one Taiwan should select to establish suitable system. There are three conclusions in this thesis, and then thesis will try to provide some advisements for amending「Reducing Greenhouse Gases Act」in the future.

博士
輔仁大學
法律學研究所
96
Abstract With the transformation of current environment problems, especially in the face of the global warming, it is not only confined but also has chances of contravening the principle of efficiency, if simply to use the command and control approach. The method of economic incentives have been gradually put an emphasis on, especially the emission trading, which have been adopted by Kyoto Protocol, a spotlight all over the world. The text is for the purpose of exploring various theory of the method of economic incentives and some related legal matter research. At the same time, some advantages and shortage of them can be discussed, including the Tokyo Protocol mechanism, the EU Emission Trading Scheme, Climate Change Policy in the UK as well as Sulfur Dioxide Emissions Trading Scheme in the U.S., hoping to establish the greenhouse gas transaction system through comparative study and attempt to estimate basic analysis system by the method of economic incentives. Furthermore, aiming at the Draft Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Act, which is shifted from the Executive Yuan to Legislated Yuan, Carrying on the appraisal and the analysis as legislation reference in the future. The study finds that system in America was testified to optimize the effect on the obedience. The reason of it is that the choices from the emissions become assorted, confirming to comply with the penalty, the efficiency of monitoring discharges, reducing the emission. England has obtained the great deduction and improvement on the system of climate change, which also let the local researchers obtain some related precious experiences of the bartering system on emissions. Moreover, the impact of the greenhouse gas on the product sects has been gradually alleviated. However, The policies on the climate change in England are not compulsive, which leads a fracture on the emission trading. The contents of the EU Emission Trading Scheme, for example, available Areas, allocation of allowance, confirming to comply with and so on. Those will examine Taiwan’s Scheme of emission trading giving the suitable enlightenment in the future. Especially the time is so urgent and due to a compromise in this process that reduced the usability of the scheme. Waits for us to think deeply with the attention. Key Words : Emission Trading, Economic Incentives, Kyoto Protocol, Allowance allocation, European Union.

Agriculture causes large parts of global Greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE), with livestock contributing the greatest share. Livestock-based foods are thus associated to higher GHGE than plant-based foods. Additionally, they are harmful to health when consumed in excess. The focus of this work lies on determining the potential to reduce agricultural GHGE when healthy diets and lower meat intakes were adopted in the EU. lt is also examined how much feed crops and pastures would become available for the production of biofuels. An emission tax and an emission trading system are also examined. To assess the complex interactions in the agricultural sector, a modified version of the European Forest and Agricultural Sector Optimization Model (EUFASOM) is used. The results show that a halved meat intake could reduce agricultural GHGE by a quarter and biofuel production could increase eightfold. The political instruments lack effectiveness though. The GHG tax has a low impact on nutrition and roughly 50% emission leakage. Emission trading has only a moderate effect on nutrition and over 100% emission leakage.:1 Introduction 2 Goal and scope definition 3 Methodology 3.1 Overview 3.2 Spatial resolution 3.3 Products under consideration 3.4 Base data 3.4.1 Base quantities 3.4.2 Base prices 3.4.3 Base areas 3.4.4 Demand elasticities 3.5 Production processes 3.5.1 Crop production 3.5.2 Pasture production 3.5.3 Plant oil production 3.5.4 Biofuel production 3.5.5 Sugar production 3.5.6 Livestock production 3.6 EUFASOM – Theoretical foundation 3.7 EUFASOM – Demand and supply functions 3.8 EUFASOM – Model description 3.8.1 Objective function 3.8.2 Identity and convexity constraints 3.8.3 Product balance 3.8.4 Land use restrictions 3.8.5 Nitrogen balance 3.8.6 Further accounting equations 3.9 Calibration 3.10 Integration of scenarios 4 Scenarios and results 4.1 Scenario 1: Technical potential of healthy diets 4.1.1 What are healthy diets? 4.1.2 Implementation of healthy diets 4.1.3 Scenario 1.1: Healthy diets with constant calorie intake 4.1.4 Scenario 1.2: Healthy diets with restricted calorie intake 4.1.5 Scenario 1.3: Healthy diets with restricted ruminant meat intake 4.1.6 Discussion on the potentials of healthy diets 4.2 Scenario 2: Greenhouse gas emission taxes 4.3 Scenario 3: Redistribution of emissions taxes as biofuel subsidy 4.4 Scenario 4: Emissions trading scheme for agriculture 4.4.1 Scenario 4.1: GHGE-cap on agricultural production 4.4.2 Scenario 4.2: Combined GHGE-cap on agricultural production and net-imports 4.4.3 Scenario 4.3: GHGE-cap on agricultural production and generation of allowances through producing biofuels 4.4.4 Scenario 4.4: GHGE-cap on agricultural production and imports and generation of allowances through producing biofuels 4.4.5 Discussion on ETS 5 Summary and conclusion References List of Figures List of Tables List of Abbreviations Annex 1 Base Solution Annex 2 Process parameters and associated information Annex 3 Lists of model variables, process parameters, equations and sets Annex 4 Demand elasticities Annex 5 Derivation of specific energy and protein demand of livestock Annex 6 Further assumptions for the livestock sectors

博士
國立臺北大學
經濟學系
95
The main purpose of this research is to explore greenhouse gas abatement strategy for Taiwan. The study focus on Kyoto mechanisms, such as International emission trading(IET) and clean development mechanism (CDM), to discuss the most cost effectiveness strategies of GHG abatement in Taiwan. In addition to, the issues of GHG abatement timing is concerned of this study as well. In Chapter 2, based on the conclusion of the GHG emission cap drawn from ‘National Energy Conference’ (1998), and the carbon intensity target proposed by the Bush Administration, nine scenarios are simulated to examine the policy implications of participation in international emission trading in Taiwan. We find that (1) Taiwan joint IET, the GDP loss and the average compliance cost of the emissions cap are, on the contrary, lower than those of carbon intensity target. In particular, the involvement of the non Annex-I countries adds to the potential for lower cost abatement, reflecting the cost effectiveness of global cooperation; (2) No matter what kinds of emissions cap are adopted in Taiwan, GHG abatement leads to an improvement in carbon intensity, average emission factor, and energy efficiency; (3) The cost of abating GHG crucially hinges on the abatement targets. In chapter 3, with the consideration of both R&D based and learning-by-doing based knowledge accumulation, this paper explores the proper design of domestic climate policy for the countries participating CDM. The insights which emerge from this paper are summarized as follows. (1) In the presence of R&D based knowledge accumulation, it is better to implement low carbon tax policy so as to induce the inter-temporal substitution effect of the GHG abatement. (2) Due to the existence of knowledge accumulation, the host countries still have CDM investment demand even if they don’t get any CERs from CDM project. (3) It is thanks to the more learning effect resulting from the CDM project that the host country could implement low carbon tax rate policy. In chapter 4, based on the model of Kennedy (2002), this paper examines the impact of both R&D based and learning-by-doing on the timing and costs of emission abatement. We find that the reasons for postponing aggressive emission reduction, such as cost saving, the smaller discount factor, the abatement target, the value of co-benefits, R&D and learning-by-doing. This study deeply discusses GHG abatement strategy in Taiwan, especially focus on the Kyoto mechanism, and provides lots of suggestions on GHG abatement policies and measures, which can support the decision of GHG abatement strategy of the government in the future.

Agricultural greenhouse gas emissions within New Zealand account for 48 percent of all national greenhouse gas emissions. With the introduction of the emissions trading scheme farmers will soon be liable for their emissions, introducing additional physical constraints and financial costs. Farmers that still operate within the sector will have two options to meet emissions targets; to purchase carbon credits from the open market, or mitigate farm level emissions at added costs to the farmer. This study examines the latter case of assessing farm level options for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, and quantifying the physical and financial costs associated with mitigation strategies. Results show that, based on the assumptions in the study, there are available options for dairy farmers to profitably meet Kyoto protocol emissions targets. Sheep and beef farmers can increase profit, but cannot meet Kyoto protocol emissions targets, through examined scenarios.

Ce mémoire décrit et analyse différents types de systèmes d'échange de droits d'émission utilisés dans le cadre de politiques de gestion de la pollution atmosphérique. L'objectif premier est de répertorier des enjeux juridiques étant liés à l'efficacité de ces systèmes. Dans un premier temps, nous nous attardons à la structure et aux mécanismes internes des systèmes d'échange de droits d'émission. Tout d'abord, nous soulignons le fondement théorique de ce type de système. Nous évaluons par la suite la structure et certains litiges liés au système d'échange américain dans le cadre des émissions de dioxyde de soufre. Dans un deuxième temps, nous continuons la description de systèmes en nous attardant plus spécifiquement aux interactions entre les systèmes d'échange de droits d'émission et les autres politiques et règlementations environnementales (incluant d'autres systèmes d'échange d'émission) visant la même problématique environnementale.
The present essay describes and analyses different types of emissions trading schemes as an instrument in air quality and environmental policy. The objective is to index legal stakes or risks relating to the efficiency of emissions trading schemes. ln the first part, we evaluate the structure and the design of emissions trading schemes. The knowledge of the economic theory transcending those schemes is necessary to understand ail the structural mechanisms. After this evaluation, this essay proposes an analysis of the U.S. sulphur dioxide program based on the U.S. Clean Air Act and sorne of the litigations that occurred in the application of the said program. ln part two, we are describing the structure and the design of emissions trading schemes with the specific goal of underlining the interactions between different types of environmental policies or regulations and emissions trading schemes when they are ail used for the same environmental problem.
"Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de Maîtrise en droit (LL.M.) option recherche". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 15% des mémoires de la discipline. Commentaires du jury ; "Le jury souligne la difficulté du sujet et l'importance des enjeux économiques, politiques et juridiques. Le candidat a bien déblayé le sujet et a su structurer son analyse de manière intéressante".

STRESZCZENIE PRACY DOKTORSKIEJ mgr Mai Czarzasty-Zybert pod tytułem „Koncepcja kwalifikacji prawno-podatkowej pozwoleń na emisję gazów cieplarnianych na przykładzie regulacji w prawie francuskim i polskim” Głównym celem pracy jest analiza modelu prawnego pozwoleń na emisję gazów cieplarnianych, kwalifikacja prawno-podatkowa pojęcia pozwolenia na emisję gazów cieplarnianych, w tym próba jego definicji niezbędnej dla obrotu prawnego w zakresie prawa finansowego. Tłumaczenie oryginalnej angielskiej wersji Dyrektywy 2003/87/WE na język polski pozwala na stosowanie zamiennie pojęcia „uprawnienia” do emisji gazów cieplarnianych z „pozwoleniem” do emisji gazów cieplarnianych. Podstawowe akty dotyczące zmian klimatu - Protokół z Kioto oraz Dyrektywa 2003/87/WE nie określiły charakteru prawnego uprawnień do emisji gazów cieplarnianych. To pominięcie wydaje się być celowe, aby państwa członkowskie mogły uregulować tę problematykę samodzielnie. Dyrektywa 2014/65/UE w sprawie rynków instrumentów finansowych („Dyrektywa MiFID II”) stanowi, że uprawnienia do emisji powinny być uznane za instrumenty finansowe. Zmiana ta została wprowadzona jedynie w drodze rozszerzenia Załącznika I, Sekcji C dotychczasowej Dyrektywy MiFID o nowy punkt 11, w którym dopisana została kolejna kategoria instrumentów finansowych obejmująca uprawnienia do emisji. Analiza natury prawnej uprawnienia na emisję z punktu widzenia historycznego stanowi rozdział I pracy. W tym rozdziale wskazano na to, jak wzrost emisji zanieczyszczeń do atmosfery doprowadził do nieodwracalnych zmian klimatycznych na skalę globalną, co spowodowało, iż rządy państw podjęły wspólną walkę na arenie międzynarodowej o ograniczenie emisji gazów cieplarnianych do atmosfery. W rozdziale II pracy zwrócono uwagę na istotną rolę Unii Europejskiej w międzynarodowych negocjacjach prowadzących do powstania Protokołu z Kioto w 1997 r. i Dyrektywy 2003/87/WE. Dyrektywa 2003/87/WE ustanowiła program handlu uprawnieniami do emisji gazów cieplarnianych na obszarze Wspólnoty. Celem jego jest promowanie zmniejszenia emisji gazów cieplarnianych w sposób opłacalny i ekonomicznie efektywny. Prawodawca europejski nie podjął się szczegółowego wskazania prawnego charakteru uprawnień do emisji. W związku z brakiem kwalifikacji prawnej uprawnień do emisji oraz ich podatkowych regulacji, same uprawnienia do emisji stały się przedmiotem oszustw podatkowych tzw. oszustw karuzelowych w krajach UE. Zjawisko oszustw karuzelowych w zakresie VAT stało się powszechne po zniesieniu barier celnych pomiędzy poszczególnymi państwami członkowskimi, tj. z dniem 1 stycznia 1993 r. Remedium na oszustwa karuzelowe miało być wprowadzenie fakultatywnego i tymczasowego stosowania mechanizmu odwrotnego obciążenia zawartego w Dyrektywie Rady 2010/88/UE. W związku z ominięciem w dokumentach międzynarodowych tematu kwalifikacji prawnej uprawnień do czasu wprowadzenia Dyrektywy MiFID II, francuski ustawodawca uznał za konieczne opracowanie definicji prawnej pozwoleń na emisję. Analizuję ją w rozdziale IV i V pracy. W większości państw członkowskich objętych systemem handlu emisjami, w tym w Polsce, nie ma prawnej definicji uprawnień do emisji. Dlatego też rozdział VI pracy poświęcony został polskiemu ustawodawstwu w zakresie systemu handlu emisjami. Specyfiką polską jest kwestia wykorzystania instrumentu uprawnienia do emisji gazów cieplarnianych, jako służącego wyłudzeniom zwrotu VAT, co szczegółowo jest opisane w rozdziale VII pracy. W rozdziale VIII pracy podjęto próbę określenia, do jakiej kategorii praw należy zakwalifikować uprawnienia do emisji lub przynajmniej cechy jakiej (jakich) kategorii praw uprawnienia do emisji wykazują w największym stopniu. To prawo nowego typu posiada następujące cechy: • jest dobrem; • jest zamienne; • jest zużywalne; • jest prawem imiennym jako przedmiot zarejestrowany na koncie otwartym w imieniu każdej osoby posiadającej uprawnienie do emisji. Ostatnie trzy podrozdziały zostały poświęcone kwalifikacji uprawnień do emisji jako quasi niematerialnemu dobru ruchomemu i wynikających z niej konsekwencji prawnych. Praca doktorska przygotowana została z uwzględnieniem stanu prawnego na dzień 1 stycznia 2019 r.
SUMMARY OF THE DOCTOR’S THESIS of Maja Czarzasty-Zybert, Master of Law under the title "The concept of legal and tax qualification of greenhouse gas emission allowances on the example of regulations in French and Polish law" The main purpose of the thesis is to analyze the legal model of greenhouse gas emission allowances, legal and tax qualifications of the concept of emission allowance, including an attempt to define it necessary for legal transactions in the field of financial law. The translation of the original English version of Directive 2003/87/EC into Polish allows the term "greenhouse gas emissions allowances" to be used interchangeably with "greenhouse gas emissions permits". Basic acts regarding climate change - The Kyoto Protocol and Directive 2003/87/EC did not specify the legal nature of greenhouse gas emission allowances. This omission seems to be expedient so that Member States can regulate this issue themselves. Directive 2014/65/EU on markets of financial instruments ("MiFID II Directive") provides that emission allowances should be considered financial instruments. This change was introduced only by extending Annex I, Section C of the current MiFID Directive by a new point 11, in which another category of financial instruments including emission allowances was added. An analysis of the legal nature of emission allowances from a historical perspective provided by chapter I of this paper. This chapter indicates how the increase in emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere had led to irreversible climate change on a global scale, which took the governments to undertake joint effort on the international scene to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere, by means of legal and financial mechanisms. The chapter II of the paper draws attention to the important role of the European Union in international negotiations leading to the creation of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and Directive 2003/87/EC. Directive 2003/87/EC established a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowances trading within the Community. Its purpose is to promote the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in a cost-effective and economically efficient manner. The European legislator has not undertaken a detailed indication of the legal nature of emission allowances. Due to the lack of legal qualification of emission allowances and their tax regulations, emission allowances themselves have become the subject of tax fraud the so-called carousel fraud in EU countries. The phenomenon of carousel fraud in the field of VAT became common case after the lifting of customs barriers between individual Member States, i.e. from 1 January 1993. The remedy for carousel fraud was to be the introduction of the optional and temporary application of the reverse charge mechanism contained in Directive 2010/88/EU. Due to the fact that the legal classification of allowances had been omitted in international documents until the MiFID II Directive was introduced, the French legislator considered it necessary to develop a legal definition of emission permits. I analyze it in chapter IV and V of the thesis. In most Member States covered by the emissions trading scheme, including Poland, there is no legal definition of emission allowances. Therefore, chapter VI was dedicated to Polish legislation in the field of the emissions trading system. The negative polish specificity is the issue of using emission allowances instrument as defraudation for VAT refunds, as described in detail in chapter VII of the thesis. The chapter VIII of the thesis attempts to determine to which category of law, emission allowances should be classified or at least the characteristics of what category/categories of law, emission rights are closest to. This new type of right has the following features: • is good; • is convertible; • is consumable; • is a registered right as an object registered on the account opened on behalf of every person with emission allowances. The last three subchapters have been dedicated to the qualification of emission allowances as quasi-intangible, movable property and the legal consequences resulting from. The doctor’s thesis was prepared taking into account the legal status as of January 1, 2019.

Dans le cadre de la Western Climate Iniative, le Québec a déployé en 2012, un système de plafonnement et d’échange de droits d’émission de gaz à effet de serre (SPEDE). Il s’agit de l’un des premiers régimes de ce type en Amérique du Nord et celui-ci pourrait à terme, constituer l'un des maillons d’un marché commun du carbone à l’échelle du continent. Toutefois, le SPEDE appartient à une catégorie d’instruments économiques de protection de l’environnement encore peu connue des juristes. Il s’inscrit en effet dans la régulation économique de l’environnement et repose sur des notions tirées de la théorie économique, dont la rareté, la propriété et le marché. La thèse s’insère donc dans le dialogue entre juristes et économistes autour de la conception et de la mise en œuvre de ce type d’instrument. Afin d’explorer son architecture et de révéler les enjeux juridiques qui le traversent, nous avons eu recours à la méthode de l’analyse économique du droit. Celle-ci permet notamment de montrer les dynamiques d'incitation et d’efficacité qui sont à l'œuvre dans les règles qui encadrent le SPEDE. Elle permet également à donner un aperçu du rôle décisif joué par la formulation des règles de droit dans l’opérationnalisation des hypothèses économiques sous-jacentes à cette catégorie d’instrument. L’exploration est menée par l’entremise d’une modélisation progressive de l’échange de droits d’émission qui prend en compte les coûts de transaction. Le modèle proposé dans la thèse met ainsi en lumière, de manière générale, les points de friction qui sont susceptibles de survenir aux différentes étapes de l'échange de droits d'émission et qui peuvent faire obstacle à son efficacité économique. L’application du modèle aux règles du SPEDE a permis de contribuer à l’avancement des connaissances en donnant aux juristes un outil permettant de donner une cohérence et une intelligibilité à l’analyse des règles de l’échange. Elle a ainsi fourni une nomenclature des règles encadrant l’échange de droits d’émission. Cette nomenclature fait ressortir les stratégies de diversification de l’échange, d’institutionnalisation de ses modalités ainsi que les enjeux de la surveillance des marchés, dont celui des instruments dérivés adossés aux droits d’émission, dans un contexte de fragmentation des autorités de tutelle.
As part of the launch of the Western Climate Initiative, the province of Québec has implemented on January 1st, 2012, one of the first carbon emissions trading system in North America (CETS). Such a system could in time become part of the emerging regulated market for carbon on the continent. However, it belongs to a category of economic instruments still timidly explored in legal literature. The CETS forms part of the economic regulation of the environment and is based on concepts drawn from the economic theory such as scarcity, property and the market. The thesis aims at contributing to the dialogue between jurists and economists around the design and implementation of this type of instrument. In order to explore its architecture and uncover the legal issues at play, we applied the teachings of law and economics in order to reveal the underlying dynamics of incitation and efficiency built in the CETS regulations and highlight the pivotal role played by the formulation of legal rules in their operationalization. The exploration is conducted through a progressive modelling of the exchange of emission rights, which takes into account transaction costs. The resulting model brings to light friction points that are likely to occur at different stages of the exchange of emission rights and might negatively impact its economic efficiency. The thesis contributes to the advancement of knowledge by offering jurists a coherent and intelligible legal analysis of the rules governing the exchange of emission rights in the CETS. Thus, it provides a systematic arrangement of these rules structured around the diversification strategies of the exchange and the institutionalization of its terms. It also raises market surveillance issues, particularly of the carbon derivatives market, in a context of fragmentation of market authorities.