Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Grinding circuits'

A 7.6 cm (3") Knelson concentrator was used to estimate free gold content in samples extracted from industrial grinding and gravity circuits. Its recovery was comparable with that of amalgamation and the Mozley Laboratory Separator (MLS). It was then used for a study on gold grinding and classification behavior.
Laboratory studies of monosized gold and silica showed that gold produces fewer fines upon grinding: 75% of the mass reports to the next Tyler class, as opposed to 45% for silica. Disappearance from the monosized class (840-1200 $ mu$m) follows first order kinetics for both minerals. However, the rate constant of gold was five to six times lower than that of silica, and folding predominated over actual breakage. Folding yields either spherical or cylindrical particles which flatten upon additional impacting.
Smearing of gold onto silica and embedding of silica into gold flakes were observed. It was postulated that gold smearing can lead to metallurgical losses in flotation circuits. A gravity circuit could then increase overall gold recovery.
The Knelson concentrator was used to study the behavior of gold in the Hemlo mill grinding circuit. The ratio of the selection function of ore to gold increased from 6 at 50-100 $ mu$m to 20 at 500-1000 $ mu$m. In the primary cyclones, gold's cut size was much finer than the ore, 20 vs. 57 $ mu$m.

Buzwagi Gold Mine (BGM) is operated by Acacia Mining and located in the Lake Victoria Goldfields of central Tanzania. The mine commenced its operation since April 2009 and treats a sulphide copper-gold ore to produce gold in form of doré bars and a concentrate containing gold, copper and silver. The BGM comminution circuit includes a primary crushing stage with a gyratory crusher and a two grinding circuits using a Semi-Autogenous Grinding (SAG) mill and a ball mill. The SAG mill circuit also includes a single-deck screen and a cone crusher while the ball mill circuit utilizes hydrocyclones. Currently, the grinding circuits are inefficient in achieving the aspired product fineness of xP,80 = 125 μm even at low to normal throughputs (450-600 t/h). An evaluation and optimization study of the circuit performance was conducted to improve the product fineness through circuit surveys, experimental lab work and simulations. In three full scale sampling campaigns, size distributions and solids contents of the samples were determined at selected points in the circuit. Further, several types of breakage tests were conducted; standard Bond tests to determine ore grindability and work indices, batch grinding tests to determine parameters for breakage and selection functions , and standard ball mill tests for mineral liberation characterization by an automated mineral liberation analyzer (MLA).The tests were conducted in a size range from 0.063 to 2 mm. Then, mass balance of the circuit was calculated and the models for mills, screens and hydrocyclones were employed in MODSIM (version 3.6.24). Firstly, simulations were conducted to optimize the existing plant. Several options were evaluated such as reduction of SAG screen aperture, adjustment of cyclone feed solids content and reduction of vortex finder and apex diameters. Moreover, simulations were also evaluated for a possible modification of the existing circuit and include; partial splitting of the cyclone underflow back to SAG mill, introduction of a second classification stage as well as introduction of a second ball mill. The evaluation of breakage tests and survey data revealed the following; the Bond work index obtained for the current ore ranges between 17.20 - 18.70 kWh/t compared to 14.50 - 16.50 kWh/t which was estimated during plant design.This indicates a change in hardness of the ore during the last 7 years. Harder ore means more energy requirement for an efficient operation, the consequence of which is increased costs. Thus, a periodic review of the ore hardness for ongoing mining operation is recommended. This will help in establishing better blends as well as prediction of appropriate tonnages for the existing ore types, so as to be efficiently treated by the available plant design. The work indices of the ore blends treated during survey were correlated with their quartz content and showed a strong linear relationship (R2= 0.95). Therefore, the work index for the BGM ore could be predicted based on known quartz content of the material. Further, the model could be used as a control tool for monitoring hardness variation of the SAG mill feed. The mineral liberation studies indicated that the valuable phase (pyrite-pyrrhotite) could be liberated at relatively coarser particle sizes (200-400 µm). This implies that, there could be no problem with the efficiency of the gravity circuit for the BGM operation, where the gold contained in pyrite-pyrrhotite could be easily concentrated. However, the efficiency of flotation and cyanidation processes will still require finer feed. In overall, the liberation characteristics of the ore blends treated during survey showed minor differences. The Bond efficiency factors of 48-61 % were obtained for the BGM grinding circuit, indicating an inefficient operation. This suggests that the operation could achieve targets by lowering the throughput. Further, the SAG mill circuit was characterized by fluctuating feed size of between xF,80 =102 to 185 mm. A need for control of the feed size as well as blending ratios was recommended for an efficient operation in terms of throughput and final product size. This could be achieved through closer monitoring of the primary crusher performance and proper control of the ratios for the SAG mill feeders drawing the ore from the stockpile. The ball mill grinding efficiency was poor and could be indicated by the fraction < 125 µm of only 5-9 % or xP, 80 : >400 µm in the mill discharge. This was deemed due to poor hydrocyclone performance which was characterized by higher feed solids content, coarser overflow xP,80: >200 µm as well as cut sizes, xT : > 200 µm. An improvement of product fineness up to 327 µm could be achieved during the simulation and optimization of the existing design. This could be achieved by modification of the operating conditions such as reduction of SAG screen aperture from 12 mm to 10 mm, reduction of vortex finder from 280 mm to 270.3 mm, reduction of apex diameter from 150 mm to 145.6 mm as well as adjustment of the cyclone feed solids content from 66.7 to 67.1 %. Based on this result, it was concluded that the current equipment could not achieve the target product quality (i.e. xP,80 = 125 µm ). Further simulations based on flowsheet modification options showed that a second ball mill (series configuration) can help to achieve the desired product fineness as well as an increase of throughput from 618 t/h to 780 t/h. Although the circulating load increases to approximately 500 % in this configuration, it is outweighed by the benefits. Importantly, this option is cost intensive and hence may be considered as a long term solution and especially after cost-benefit analysis. Finally, the results based on optimization of the existing design is recommended as short term solution for improvement of the BGM operation. Although the fineness achieved is still low (i.e. xP,80 = 327 µm) compared to the target (i.e. xP,80 = 125 µm), this gives additional advantage in the sense that, also better hydrocyclone performance is achieved in terms of overflow product (xP,80 = 105 µm vs. > 240 µm) , cut size (xT =133.1 µm vs. > 220 µm) and circulating load (CL =350 %). The improved overflow fineness will contribute to improved efficiency for the downstream processes.

This thesis presents a research program designed to evaluate the performance of the gold gravity circuit at Les Mines Camchib Inc.
A detailed sampling program was conducted on the grinding and gravity circuits. Samples were screened and each size class was processed on a Mozley Laboratory Separator to determine free gold content. The performance of pinched sluices, Knelson concentrators, and a riffleless table is characterized on the basis of particle size, shape and liberation of gold. The amount of total gold and free gold in each size class of grinding circuit streams was also determined.
The pinched sluices recover from 8 to 17% gold in 4.8 to 7.3% of the mass. The double sluice recovers slightly more gold at a higher yield than the single sluice. In addition, the double sluice performed better at a higher feed density.
The 76 cm (30") Knelson recovers 62 to 71% of the feed gold, at very high upgrading ratios (326 to 480). Free gold recovery is high, generally above 90% for all size classes. Gold recovery decreases when wash water pressure is lowered from 100 to 40 kPa; a 90 minute cycle time does not cause concentrate overload, i.e. decreased gold recovery.
The 19 cm (7.5") Knelson used in the gold room yielded 90% recovery. Reprocessing the tails in the same unit give only a marginal gold recovery, suggesting that a single pass is adequate. Fine gold losses on the riffleless table are significant, especially in $-$38 $ mu$m (400 mesh).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2005.
Ashok Saxena, Committee Member ; Carlos Santamarina, Committee Member ; Thomas Kurfess, Committee Member ; Hugo Ernst, Committee Member ; Steven Danyluk, Committee Chair ; David McDowell, Committee Member. Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

The SAG Power Index test (SPI) is a tool for forecasting autogenous mill performance. Much effort has been directed towards the development of the process models relating SPI to throughput estimates, but little has been directed towards ore body modeling. Blending studies are presented showing that the SPI is not additive, affecting the geostatistical procedures. A method is given to ensure that additivity is respected during geostatistical interpolation. A procedure for relating mean SPI precision to sample spacing is given. This procedure is combined with a study of the process model error to estimate the precision of the mean throughput forecasts. A case study from Chino Mines is discussed. The relative throughput error is between 20 and 26 percent for perfect knowledge of SPI. For 100 m sample spacing at Chino, one third of the error is due to the process models and the rest to the SPI estimates.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2005.
Steven Danyluk, Committee Chair ; Richard Salant, Committee Member ; Jeffrey Streator, Committee Member ; Michael Sacks, Committee Member ; Dennis Hess, Committee Member ; Leonard Borucki, Committee Member. Includes bibliographical references.

In this thesis, several significant contributions have been made towards the understanding of the flow behaviour of viscoplastic fluids and the settling behaviour of particles in these fluids. The attainment of this knowledge is highly crucial for the development of large-scale simulations of the movement of particles in tertiary grinding circuits, through which effective cost and resource saving strategies for the design and operation of these highly resource-demanding unit processes could be developed.To achieve the underlying objective of this thesis, the settling-sphere problem was approached using both experimental and numerical techniques. Experimentally, the flow behaviour of the viscoplastic slurries was represented by viscoplastic (aqueous) solutions of polyacrylamide. The settling behaviour of two spheres, using two different configurations of initial sphere positions, was then examined. In the first configuration, the two spheres are vertically-aligned, i.e. one sphere is released following the flow path of another sphere that has been released some time earlier into the fluid medium. In the second configuration, the two spheres are horizontally aligned, with a set distance apart, and released simultaneously into the viscoplastic solution. One of the major accomplishments achieved during the design of these experiments was the development of a stereo-photogrammetry sensor system, through which the 3D movement of spheres falling through the fluid could be determined to within ~ 1.5 mm accuracy.The numerical part of this study was conducted using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technique. Based on the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method, the settling particles were represented by fluids of very high viscosity (~ 400 – 1000 Pa.s). By implementing appropriate discretisation and approximation methods, the effects of numerical smearing and diffusion, as well as the level of deformation in the settling particles, could be minimised. A time-dependent estimation of the flow behaviour of the test fluids was then developed and implemented into this numerical scheme, using a series of User Defined Functions (UDFs).The development of the UDFs in the CFD analysis was based on the results of the rheometric assessment of the test fluids, through which it was found that these solutions possess a level of time dependency resulting from both thixotropy and elasticity. A new fluid model was thus developed, based on a scalar parameter that represents the integrity of the structural network configuration, resulting from the hydrogen bonding between the polyacrylamide and water molecules in the fluid. Although the resulting fluid model does not exclusively feature a yield stress value, the results of a series of dynamic analyses conducted on this model were found to be similar to those found experimentally, in which fluids that were initially ‘undisturbed’ or intact in structure have been found to require the application of stresses that are significantly larger in magnitude for the initiation of its deformation than in cases where the structure of the fluid is already deformed. Due to these dynamic characteristics, in which the fluid model seems to feature yield stress-like quality that dissipates once the ‘structure’ of the fluid has been deformed due to the application of shear, this fluid model was termed ‘semi-viscoplastic’.Using the analytical techniques outlined above, two significant contributions were made towards the understanding of the settling behaviour of particles in viscoplastic fluids. First, the settling velocity of particles falling in the fluid medium was found to be highly dependent on the structural condition of the fluid, i.e. whether it has recently been subjected to shear or whether sufficient time has been allowed for the fluid to recover its original viscous parameters. Based on this finding, a new generalised correlation was developed, through which predictions of the settling velocity of particles falling in fluids of various structural conditions can be made with much greater accuracy than before. The second contribution was in the understanding of the interaction tendencies between spheres that are settling in close proximity to each other. Through experimental and numerical analyses, it was found that the interaction tendencies of the particles are highly dependent on the elastic properties of the fluids. Correlations relating the tendencies of the spheres to interact with the elastic and viscous properties of the fluid were then developed. Through both of these contributions, aspects that are critical for the understanding of the motion of solid bodies in grinding circuits have been addressed.

This work investigated the application of interpretable machine learning methods for process control in the mineral processing industry. The thesis presents a methodology to extract intelligible rules from grinding circuit data using decision tree algorithms. The rule sets can aid process operators tasked with supervisory control of grinding circuits.

Boliden’s mineral processing plant in Garpenberg wanted to investigate their zinc-regrinding circuit. The re-grinding circuit had performed subpar when running as the total recovery of zinc was lowered and problem with the dewatering of the final concentrates was also noted. Therefore, the zinc re-grinding circuit is currently not being used. Furthermore, it was noted during investigations about silicate depressant that the zinc circuit had problems with coarse sized sphalerite particles locked with silica. Which could perhaps be liberated with the re-grinding circuit. The purpose was therefore to investigate how a re-grinding step could be used to liberate locked sphalerite particles from gangue. The practical part of the thesis involved lab-scale SMD-mill, re-grinding of the scavenger concentrate and cleaner tailings which are the two streams being fed to the SMD-mill in the plant. The re-grind was done in three fractions: bulk, +90µm and +125 µm fraction with subsequent lab-scale flotation afterwards to identify how the re-grinding effected the flotation results. Also, a small QEMSCAN analysis was performed for the +90 µm fraction to identify how liberation was improved by re-grinding. The flotation trials were performed with two references and two different intensities for the re-grinds.  The results showed an overall increase in grade of zinc in the concentrate with increased grinding for all the trials. SiO2 and MgO content (typical elements for silicate gangue) was also reduced in the zinc concentrate, showing that re-grinding helped liberate locked sphalerite particles. The QEMSCAN results showed that the liberation of sphalerite particles in the +90 µm fractions increased with re-grinding. For the bulk fraction scavenger concentrate the zinc recovery increased slightly, for the +90 µm fraction scavenger concentrate, a slight decrease in zinc recovery could be seen after re-grinding. The decrease in recovery was larger for the cleaner tailings (bulk and +90 µm) and was decreased further with increased grinding. However, for the +125 µm fraction tests, zinc recovery was increased for both scavenger concentrate and cleaner tailing. The references showed an overall high recovery but a zinc grade in the concentrate close to the feed grade of zinc and contained a high grade of SiO2. Indicating that without re-grinding the amount of free sphalerite is low. Overall, the re-grind and flotation tests pointed towards that value can be created for the plant by re-grinding the scavenger concentrate and cleaner tailing.

A generic plant-wide control structure is proposed for the optimal operation of a grinding mill circuit. An economic objective function is defined for the grinding mill circuit with reference to the economic objective of the larger mineral processing plant. A mineral processing plant in this study consists of a comminution and a separation circuit and excludes the extractive metallurgy at a metal refinery. The comminution circuit's operational performance primarily depends on the mill's performance. Since grindcurves define the operational performance range of a mill, the grindcurves are used to define the setpoints for the economic controlled variables for optimal steady-state operation. For a given metal price, processing cost, and transportation cost, the proposed structure can be used to define the optimal operating region of a grinding mill circuit for the best economic return of the mineral processing plant. The plant-wide control structure identifies the controlled and manipulated variables to ensure the grinding mill circuit can be maintained at the desired operating condition. The plant-wide control framework specifies regulatory and supervisory control aims which can be achieved by means of non-linear model-based control. An impediment to implementing model-based control is the computational expense to solve the non-linear optimisation function. To resolve this issue, the reference-command tracking version of model predictive static programming (MPSP) is applied to a grinding mill circuit. MPSP is an innovative optimal control technique that combines the philosophies of Model Predictive Control (MPC) and approximate dynamic programming. The performance of the proposed MPSP control technique, is compared to the performance of a standard non-linear MPC (NMPC) technique applied to the same plant for the same conditions. Results show that the MPSP control technique is more than capable of tracking the desired set-point in the presence of model-plant mismatch, disturbances and measurement noise. The performance of MPSP and NMPC compare very well, with definite advantages offered by MPSP. The computational speed of MPSP is increased through a sequence of innovations such as the conversion of the dynamic optimization problem to a low-dimensional static optimization problem, the recursive computation of sensitivity matrices, and using a closed form expression to update the control. The MPSP technique generally takes only a couple of iterations to converge, even when input constraints are applied. Therefore, MPSP can be regarded as a potential candidate for on-line applications of the NMPC philosophy to real-world industrial process plants. The MPSP and NMPC simulation studies above assume full-state feedback. However, this is not always possible for industrial grinding mill circuits. Therefore, a non-linear observer model of a grinding mill is developed which distinguishes between the volumetric hold-up of water, solids, and the grinding media in the mill. Solids refer to all ore small enough to discharge through the end-discharge grate, and grinding media refers to the rocks and steel balls. The rocks are all ore too large to discharge from the mill. The observer model uses the accumulation rate of solids and the discharge rate as parameters. It is shown that with mill discharge flow-rate, discharge density, and volumetric hold-up measurements, the model states and parameters are linearly observable. Although instrumentation at the mill discharge is not yet included in industrial circuits because of space restrictions, this study motivates the benefits to be gained from including such instrumentation. An Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) is applied in simulation to estimate the model states and parameters from data generated by a grinding mill simulation model from literature. Results indicate that if sufficiently accurate measurements are available, especially at the discharge of the mill, it is possible to reliably estimate grinding media, solids and water hold-ups within the mill. Such an observer can be used as part of an advanced process control strategy.
'n Generiese aanlegwye beheerstruktuur vir die optimale beheer van 'n maalmeulkring word voorgehou. 'n Ekonomiese doelwitfunksie is gedefinieer vir die maalmeulkringbaan met verwysing tot die ekonomiese doelwit van die groter mineraalverwerkingsaanleg. 'n Mineraalverwerkingsaanleg bestaan in hierdie studie slegs uit die vergruisings- en skeidingskringbane. Die ekstraktiewe metallurgie by die metaal raffinadery word uitgesluit. Die vergruisingskringbaan se operasionele werksverrigting is hoofsaaklik van die maalmeul se werksverrigting afhanklik. Aangesien maalkurwes die bereik van die maalmeul se werksverrigting beskryf, kan die maalkurwes gebruik word om die stelpunte van die ekonomiese beheerveranderlikes te definieer vir werking by optimale gestadigde toestand. Gegewe 'n bepaalde metaalprys, bedryfskoste, en vervoerkoste, kan die voorgestelde struktuur gebruik word om die optimale werksgebied vir die maalmeulkring te definieer vir die beste ekonomiese gewin van die algehele mineraalverwerkingsaanleg. Die aanlegwye beheerstruktuur omskryf die beheerveranderlikes en manipuleerbare veranderlikes wat benodig word om die maalmeulkring by die gewenste werksgebied te handhaaf. Die aanlegwye beheerstruktuur spesifiseer regulatoriese en toesighoudende beheer doelwitte. Hierdie doelwitte kan bereik word deur gebruik te maak van nie-lineêre model gebaseerde beheer. Die probleem is dat die bewerkingskoste om nie-lineëre optimeringsfunksies op te los 'n struikelblok is om model gebaseerde beheer op industriële aanlegte toe te pas. Ter oplossing hiervan, word die stelpunt-volg weergawe van model gebaseerde voorspellende statiese programmering (MVSP) toegepas op 'n maalmeulkringbaan. MVSP is 'n innoverende optimale beheertegniek, en bestaan uit 'n kombinasie van die filosofieë van model gebaseerder voorspellende beheer (MVB) en aanpassende dinamiese programmering. Die verrigting van die voorgestelde MVSP beheertegniek word vergelyk met die verrigting van 'n standaard nie-lineëre MVB (NMVB) tegniek deur beide beheertegnieke op dieselfde aanleg vir dieselfde toestande toe te pas. Resultate dui aan dat die MVSP beheertegniek in staat is om die gekose stelpunt te midde van model-aanleg wanaanpassing, steurnisse, en metingsgeraas te volg. Die verrigting van MVSP en NMVB vergelyk goed, maar MVSP bied duidelike voordele. Die bewerkingspoed vir MVSP word vinniger gemaak deur die dinamiese optimeringsprobleem in 'n laeorde statiese optimeringsprobleem te omskep, die sensitiwiteitsmatrikse rekursief uit te werk, en deur 'n geslote uitdrukking ter opdatering van die beheeraksie te gebruik. Die MVSP beheertegniek benodig normaalweg slegs 'n paar iterasies om tot 'n oplossing te konvergeer, selfs indien beperkings op die insette toegepas word. Om die rede word MVSP as 'n potensiële kandidaat beskou vir aanlyntoepasings van die NMVB filosofie op industriële aanlegte. Die MVSP en NMVB simulasie studies hierbo neem aan dat volle toestandterugvoer moontlik is. Hierdie is nie altyd moontlik vir industriële maalmeulkringbane nie. Om die rede is 'n nie-lineêre waarnemingsmodel van 'n maalmeul ontwikkel. Die model onderskei tussen die volumetriese hoeveelheid water, vaste stowwe, en maalmedia in die meul. Vaste stowwe verwys na alle erts wat klein genoeg is om deur die uitskeidingsif aan die ontslagpunt van die meul te vloei. Maalmedia verwys na rotse en staalballe in die meul, met rotse wat te groot is om deur die uitskeidingsif te vloei. Die waarnemingsmodel maak gebruik van die ontslaantempo en die opeenhopingstempo van vaste stowwe as parameters. Indien die meul se ontslagvloeitempo, ontslagdigtheid, en totale volumetriese aanhouding gemeet word, is alle toestande en parameters van die waarnemingsmodel lineêr waarneembaar. Alhoewel instrumentasie by die meul se ontslagpunt as gevolg van ruimte beperkings nog nie op industriële aanlegte ingesluit word nie, dui hierdie studie die voordele aan wat verkrygbaar is deur sulke instrumentasie in te sluit. 'n Verlengde Kalman Filter (VKF) word in simulasie gebruik om die model se toestande en parameters af te skat. 'n Bestaande maalmeul simulasie model vanuit die literatuur word gebruik om die nodige data vir die VKF te genereer. Resultate dui aan dat indien die metings akkuraat genoeg is, veral by die ontslagpunt van die meul, betroubare afskattings van die volumetriese hoeveelheid maalmedia, vaste stowwe, en water in die meul gemaak kan word. So 'n afskatter kan vorentoe gebruik word as deel van 'n gevorderde prosesbeheer strategie.
Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2016.
Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering
PhD
Unrestricted

Determining whether or not a gold gravity circuit should be installed in a gold plant requires a prediction of how much gold will be recovered. This has always been a difficult task because recovery takes place from the grinding circulating load, in which gold's behavior must be described.
A population-balance model (PBM) to predict gold gravity recovery was developed at McGill University in 1994 (Laplante et al, 1995). The objective of this research was to make this PBM user friendly. This was achieved in two different ways. First, the behavior of gravity recoverable gold (GRG) in secondary ball mills and hydrocyclones was described by two parameters, tau and R-25mum, and these parameters were linked to the circulating load of ore and the fineness of the grinding circuit product, for easy estimation. Second, the database of simulations produced by the PBM was represented by two multilinear regressions (one for coarse GRG, the other for fine GRG) linking the predicted GRG recovery to the natural logarithm of tau, R-25mum , the size distribution of the GRG and the recovery effort (Re ), defined as the proportion, in %, of the GRG in the circulating load recovered by gravity. Re was found to be the most significant parameter, tau the least. The GRG size distribution, represented either by two (coarse GRG) or three (fine GRG) points on the cumulative passing curve, has a significant impact on recovery. A total of twenty different GRG size distributions were used to generate the simulation database.
The multilinear regressions were tested on four case studies, and found to predict GRG recovery well within the precision with which the GRG content can be measured, a relative 5%. Whenever size-by-size recovery data are available, the PBM itself would be used; if not, the simpler regressions would be preferred.

The application of High Pressure Grinding Roll (HPGR) in comminution circuits is well established in processing cement, diamonds and iron ore. Recently, the application of HPGR has been extended to high-tonnage precious and base metals operations with hard ore. This is due to the HPGR: being more energy-efficient than grinding mills, not requiring steel grinding media, and providing higher throughputs than cone crushers. Although HPGR circuits are being used in high-tonnage precious and base metals, there is limited quantitative knowledge to indicate the true benefits or drawbacks of HPGR compared to Semi-autogenous mill (SAG). This lack of knowledge restricts the ability of designers to determine the optimal circuit. To address this lack of knowledge the research in this thesis: • Reviews the basics of the HPGR machine, its benefits and shortcomings. • Details the development of the SAG circuits and explains how the new generation of crushing circuits, with HPGR for tertiary crushing, are starting to replace SAG circuits in hard-rock mining. • Presents a structured methodology for comparison of the energy requirements for HPGR versus SAG complete circuits. The process is based on industrial best practices and advanced modelling tools, and is demonstrated through the evaluation of two hypothetical mining projects (based on real ore data). • Investigates the feasibility of a novel AG-Crusher-HPGR circuit using rock samples from a large copper-gold mining project. The approach was to develop and evaluate the circuit design for high-tonnage operations with mixed hardness ores containing clay. Previously, HPGR was considered only suitable for very hard ores and the technology was rejected for other cases. A unique pilot-plant test program was developed as a basis for experimental simulation. As a result the suitability of the circuit was demonstrated. The development of this novel circuit along with the findings of this research have the potential to improve future mining operations dealing with similar orebodies that, in fact, are major sources of base metals worldwide. The potential for significant savings in energy and steel media have been demonstrated. This may also lead to the selection of more sustainable circuits for a broader range of orebodies.

Worldwide cement production is a high energy consuming industry; 90% is thermal and 10% is electrical energy. This is the third most anthropogenic related carbon dioxide emitting industry in the world. With a rising price of energy and a growing emphasis on environmental issues the cement industry is facing significant challenges to both remain a competitive and sustainable. Composite cement manufacturing is one alternative that is used reduce energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. The dry grinding process used for finished product represents 40-50% of electrical energy consumption. It is a very inefficient process generally ranging around 1% efficient. This research evaluated the process of a typical Portland cement grinding circuit in order to identify inefficiencies in the process and how the operating parameters may be changed in order to improve the system’s performance. Tests were conducted using samples from a B.C. cement producer and results analyzed in order to characterize and build a high accuracy model that can be used as a bench marking tool. Representative sampling and mass balance were performed on the circuit using real steady state operative conditions data provided by process plant managers. Major research findings are: • Air separator efficiency is rated 46.06% efficiency at fractions below 35 microns. • High dust load feed and agglomeration are the main reasons for this low separator efficiency. • Agglomeration effect is related to overgrinding, high energy impacts and the use of limestone. • Whiten model is an adequate tool to fit and correct experimental data on cement air separators and to provide quantification of operating factors to evaluate the separation process. • Low grinding kinetics at ball mill compartment 01, suggests improper size grinding media selection and high wear rate for the case studied (for media and liners).
Applied Science, Faculty of
Mining Engineering, Keevil Institute of
Graduate

Ball mill grinding is an important operation in the processing of most minerals, in that it may be used to produce particles of the required size and shape, to liberate minerals from each other for concentration purposes, and to increase the powder surface area. Grinding of minerals is probably the most energy consuming task and optimization of this operation has vital importance in processing plant operations to achieve the lowest operating costs. Predicting the complete product size distribution, mill specifications and power draw are important parameters of this optimization. In this study, a computer simulation program is developed in MATLAB environment to simulate grinding operations using the kinetic model in which comminution is considered as a process continuous in time. This type of model is commonly and successfully used for tumbling grinding mills having strongly varying residence time as a function of feed rate. The program developed, GRINDSIM, is capable of simulating a ball mill for a specified set of model parameters, estimating grinding kinetic parameters from experimental batch grinding data and calculating continuous open and closed-circuit grinding behavior with mill power input. The user interacts with the program through graphical user interfaces (GUI&rsquo
s).

Este trabalho analisou, comparativamente, os aspectos operacionais entre as configurações de circuito fechado de moagem em moinhos de bolas, quais sejam, os circuitos direto e inverso. Foram realizadas amostragens no circuito industrial de prémoagem e moagem primária do Concentrador I de Germano, da Samarco Mineração, ora operando sob a configuração inversa, ora sob a configuração direta. Os históricos de dados industriais entre os circuitos dos Concentradores I e II de Germano foram também comparados, para complementação desta análise. Por fim, foram realizados ensaios de moagem em escala de laboratório, simulando ambas as condições. As comparações entre diferentes índices de desempenho selecionou o consumo de energia por tonelada de material gerado abaixo da malha de controle como o mais adequado para avaliar o desempenho dos circuitos. A comparação entre os históricos dos dados industriais dos Concentradores I (operando sob circuito inverso) e do Concentrador II (operando sob circuito direto) mostrou um histórico consistente em que o circuito do Concentrador II apresenta menor consumo energético por tonelada de material gerado abaixo da malha de controle do circuito. Estes resultados foram diferentes daqueles obtidos a partir das amostragens realizadas no circuito industrial da Samarco, os quais indicaram melhor desempenho do circuito inverso. A diferença foi atribuída à etapa de classificação, cujo desempenho determina a alteração ou até mesmo anula os benefícios, conforme demonstram os resultados de simulação posteriores.
This work compared the performance associated to both direct and reverse ball mill closed circuit configurations. Survey campaigns were carried out in both Samarco Mineração industrial plants ie. Concentrator I and Concentrator II. The former includes reverse configured ball mill closed grinding circuit, while the latter is equipped with ball mills under a direct closed configuration. The study comprised laboratory jar tests as well as comparisons between historical data obtained for both industrial plants. The energy consumption per ton of generated product was selected as the most adequate parameter to access the circuit performance. Comparisons based on historical data indicated that the Concentrator II, configured in a direct mode, showed a better performance than Concentrator I. Such a conclusion contrasts with the results obtained from the survey campaign which indicated a better performance for the reverse configuration. Such a difference was associated to the performance of the classification, carried out in cyclones, as demonstrated by simulations conducted on the basis of previously calibrated models.

O circuito de moagem de Carajás foi originalmente projetado para moagem de sinter feed, obtendose como produto final pellet feed. O processo consiste em etapas de moagem e deslamagem para que se atinjam as especificações de granulometria e área específica. No processo, como um todo, há geração significativa de finos, que são então descartados, acarretando em perdas de material que poderia ser incorporado como produto. O melhor entendimento das características dos vários tipos de minérios, bem como a previsão do desempenho do circuito de moagem em função de tais características permite estabelecer cenários para promover aumentos na recuperação em massa e na produtividade do circuito. O presente trabalho tem por base a caracterização tecnológica dos principais tipos de minério de Carajás e o desenvolvimento de um método para previsão de desempenho do circuito de moagem, em função de tais características. Para o desenvolvimento do método foram realizados ensaios de moagem em bancada e amostragens no circuito industrial. Os resultados dos ensaios de moagem em bancada serviram para definição das condições operacionais em que o ensaio em bancada melhor representou o circuito industrial, denominado ensaio padrão. Os dados obtidos nas amostragens e na caracterização tecnológica serviram de base para a calibração dos modelos matemáticos dos equipamentos de processo. O modelo calibrado constituiu num excelente recurso para previsão de desempenho. O desempenho do circuito de moagem foi avaliado no que se refere à granulometria e área específica dos produtos obtidos. Ainda foram conduzidas simulações pelo ensaio padrão e pelo modelo calibrado integrado do circuito de moagem, que apontam potenciais dos minérios cujo comportamento na moagem era até então desconhecido. Os dois produtos aqui desenvolvidos são, portanto, de aplicação imediata como recursos para previsão de desempenho e melhoria operacional.
Originally designed for sinter feed grinding, the Carajas grinding circuit includes two ball mills in parallel lines in a closed configuration with cyclones. The ground product is further deslimed in hydrocyclone for achieving the final specifications regarding size distribution and surface area. In this process, there is a significant amount of high grade material, not recovered due to overgrind. Ore characterization was here selected for predicting the grinding circuit performance, which in turn was the basis for optimization. The aim of this work is the characterization of the main Carajas ore types as well as the development of a method that includes these characteristics for predicting the grinding circuit performance. Laboratory grinding tests and samplings in the industrial circuit were carried out to predict the grinding circuit performance. The grinding test results were used to set operational conditions in which the laboratory better represented the industrial circuit. Results from industrial sampling and characterization were the basis for fitting the mathematical models. The fitted model was an excellent resource for the prediction of the grinding circuit performance as well as for the grinding test. To assess the grinding performance, products size distribution and surface area were evaluated. Moreover, simulations of the grinding circuit indicated the potential of some ore types. The derived methods were validated as tools for predicting the grinding circuit performance and for operational optimization.

A simulação computacional de processos de beneficiamento mineral encontra- se totalmente consolidada como recurso confiável para as etapas de projeto e otimização de circuitos industriais. Programas computacionais de simulação e a representação matemática da operação de sistemas reais tem auxiliado profissionais da área de Tratamento de Minérios no projeto de novas instalações e na otimização do desempenho de circuitos industriais já implantados, permitindo a redução ou até a suspensão dos onerosos testes em escala piloto ou industrial. Este trabalho, após revisão da literatura sobre o assunto, descreve em detalhe a aplicação de conceitos de modelagem matemática utilizando o simulador JKSimMet aos equipamentos do circuito industrial de moagem e classificação de minério fosfático da Vale Fertilizantes em Araxá, MG. Com base em dados obtidos em amostragem do circuito de moagem, foram executados procedimentos de balanço de massas e ajuste de modelos individuais representativos das condições de operação dos equipamentos de processo envolvidos. Os ajustes envolveram modelos de moinhos de barras, moinho de bolas e ciclones. Os modelos individuais foram posteriormente integrados de forma a constituir plataformas robustas para simulações de processo (moagem primária e secundária). Tais simulações visaram à melhoria dos índices de desempenho do circuito de moagem da Vale Fertilizantes e a produção de um concentrado mais fino, dentro das especificações do chamado FCA Concentrado Apatítico Fino. Os resultados relacionados no trabalho indicaram potencial de melhoras significativas, quer seja em aspectos como incrementos de capacidade ou obtenção de produto mais fino por meio da moagem. As simulações permitiram também investigar ganhos potenciais com o aumento da eficiência de classificação e detectar a existência de gargalos no circuito. As conclusões do trabalho indicam os benefícios do emprego dos recursos de modelagem e simulação tanto no diagnóstico dos circuitos industriais como na investigação de alternativas de melhorias.
Computer simulation of mineral processing operations is fully consolidated as a reliable means for the project and performance improvement stages of industrial circuits. Computer programs for simulation and a mathematical representation of the operation of real system has helped mineral processing professionals to project new plants and to optimize the performance of industrial circuits already installed, allowing, therefore, a substantial reduction or suppression in the expensive testing in pilot and industrial scale. This work, based on a review of the literature on the subject, describes in detail the application of the concepts of mathematical modeling to using the JKSimMet to equipments for the industrial circuits of grinding and classification of phosphate ore of Vale Fertilizers, a company located in Araxá, MG. After one complete survey of the grinding circuit mass balance proceedings were performed and individual models representing the conditions of operation of the process equipment involved were adjusted. The above mentioned adjustment involved rod mills, ball mills and cyclones models. Such individuals models were integrated afterwards in order to make a solid platform for process simulations aiming the improvement of the performance figures of the grinding circuit of Vale Fertilizers and the production of the one concentrated thinner within the specifications of the call FCA Phosphate apatite Fine. The results presented in this work indicate a potential for potential improvements, whether in aspects such as capacity increase or improvement in energy utilization. The simulations also allowed the investigation of potential gains with the increase in the efficiency to classify and detect bottlenecks in the circuits. The conclusion broght to by the work clearly shows the benefits of employing modeling resources in the detailed diagnosis of the operation of industrial circuits as well as in the search for alternatives for performance improvement.

A run-of-mine (ROM) ore milling circuit is primarily used to grind incoming ore containing precious metals to a powder fine enough to liberate the valuable minerals contained therein. The ground ore has a product particle size specification that is set by the downstream separation unit. A ROM ore milling circuit typically consists of a mill, sump and classifier (most commonly a hydrocyclone). These circuits are difficult to control because of unmeasurable process outputs, non-linearities, time delays, large unmeasured disturbances and complex models with modelling uncertainties. The ROM ore milling circuit should be controlled to meet the final product quality specification, but throughput should also be maximised. This further complicates ROM ore grinding mill circuit control, since an inverse non-linear relationship exists between the quality and throughput. ROM ore grinding mill circuit control is constantly evolving to find the best control method with peripheral tools to control the plant. Although many studies have been conducted, more are continually undertaken, since the controller designs are usually based on various assumptions and the required measurements in the grinding mill circuits are often unavailable.
To improve controller performance, many studies investigated the inclusion of additional manipulated variables (MVs) in the controller formulation to help control process disturbances, or to provide some form of functional control. Model predictive control (MPC) is considered one of the best advanced process control (APC) techniques and linear MPC controllers have been implemented on grinding mill circuits, while various other advanced controllers have been investigated and tested in simulation. Because of the complexity of grinding mill circuits non-linear MPC (NMPC) controllers have achieved better results in simulations where a wider operating region is required. In the search for additional MVs some researchers have considered including the discrete dynamics as part of the controller formulation instead of segregating them from the APC or base-layer controllers. The discrete dynamics are typically controlled using a layered approach. Discrete dynamics are on/off elements and in the case of a closed-loop grinding mill circuit the discrete elements can be on/off activation variables for feed conveyor belts to select which stockpile is used, selecting whether a secondary grinding stage should be active or not, and switching hydrocyclones in a hydrocyclone cluster. Discrete dynamics are added directly to the APC controllers by using hybrid model predictive control (HMPC). HMPC controllers have been designed for grinding mill circuits, but none of them has considered the switching of hydrocyclones as an additional MV and they only include linear dynamics for the continuous elements. This study addresses this gap by implementing a hybrid NMPC (HNMPC) controller that can switch the hydrocyclones in a cluster.
A commonly used continuous-time grinding mill circuit model with one hydrocyclone is adapted to contain a cluster of hydrocyclones, resulting in a hybrid model. The model parameters are refitted to ensure that the initial design steady-state conditions for the model are still valid with the cluster. The novel contribution of this research is the design of a HNMPC controller using a cluster of hydrocyclones as an additional MV. The HNMPC controller is formulated using the complete nonlinear hybrid model and a genetic algorithm (GA) as the solver. An NMPC controller is also designed and implemented as the base case controller in order to evaluate the HNMPC controller’s performance. To further illustrate the functional control benefits of including the hydrocyclone cluster as an MV, a linear optimisation objective was added to the HNMPC to increase the grinding circuit throughput, while maintaining the quality specification. The results show that the HNMPC controller outperforms the NMPC one in terms of setpoint tracking, disturbance rejection, and process optimisation objectives. The GA is shown to be a good solver for HNMPC, resulting in a robust controller that can still control the plant even when state noise is added to the simulation.
Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2018.
National Research Foundation (DAAD-NRF)
Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering
MEng
Unrestricted

A prática de simulação computacional é tradicionalmente utilizada para a otimização de circuitos industriais de cominuição. Neste tipo de trabalho, a metodologia geralmente inclui as etapas de amostragem, modelamento e a simulação de diversas alternativas para a otimização do circuito. Esta prática se destaca por não envolver a necessidade de plantas piloto ou testes industriais. Com isso, configurase como uma opção de baixo custo e ágil, permitindo a análise detalhada de diversas opções de fluxograma e condições operacionais, exigindo, para tanto, mão de obra qualificada nesta metodologia e um computador com o software adequado. Este trabalho demonstra a aplicação da prática de simulação computacional no circuito de moagem do Sossego, da Vale, localizada na região sudeste do Estado do Pará. Tendo em vista o caráter pioneiro do circuito de moagem existente no Sossego, que inclui o primeiro moinho semi-autógeno de grande porte do Brasil, foi realizada também uma extensa revisão bibliográfica sobre a operação e a otimização desse tipo de circuito, visando contribuir para a consolidação deste conhecimento no país.
The practice of computer simulation is traditionally used for the optimization of industrial grinding circuits. The methodology usually includes surveying campaigns at the selected circuit, followed by data analysis, mass balancing and modeling. The latter consists in fitting mathematical models of each process equipment. Once the simulator is calibrated, a number of simulations may be carried out in order to explore different operating scenarios, related to optimization on the basis of selected performance indices. The simulation is thus an alternative for extensive and expensive pilot plant campaigns, as well as industrial tests. Accordingly, simulation is a low cost and low time demanding alternative, allowing the detailed assessment of several flowsheet options and/or operation conditions, even though it demands a qualified person and a professional software. This work presents an application of computer simulation program carried out at the Vale´s Sossego industrial grinding plant, located at the south-east part of Para state. As the Sossego circuit includes the first large diameter semiautogenous mill installed in Brazil, the literature review was largely focused on operating and optimization aspects of such a process, thus seeking to consolidate this kind of knowledge in Brazil.

Atualmente, o circuito de moagem da Votorantim Metais Zinco Morro Agudo (VMZMA) inclui dois moinhos de bolas com capacidade combinada média de 145 t/h, sendo 95 t/h processadas na Linha 1 e 50 t/h na Linha 2. A alimentação de ambas as linhas provém de uma única pilha pulmão, formada pela fração passante em peneira de 10 mm, resultante dos estágios de britagem. As duas linhas de moagem operam de forma independente, cada uma sob circuito fechado com as respectivas baterias de ciclones de 10 polegadas de diâmetro. O produto nominal do circuito deve apresentar 75% passantes na malha 44 m. A operação atual do circuito apresenta carga circulante elevada, da ordem de 400%, bem como eventos regulares de curto-circuito (by-pass) de grossos para o overflow dos ciclones, o que resulta em produto mais grosso do que o estipulado para a moagem. Com o intuito de analisar a eficiência de moagem foram realizadas campanhas de amostragem no circuito industrial da VMZMA, cujo resultado apontou para um melhor desempenho de um dos moinhos. Os dados obtidos por meio das amostragens e de caracterização tecnológica serviram de base para a calibração dos modelos matemáticos dos equipamentos de processo. Simulações indicaram potencial elevado de aumento de capacidade do circuito mediante o emprego de peneiras de alta frequência em substituição ou combinação com ciclones existentes. Recomenda-se avaliar o potencial de melhoria de desempenho metalúrgico no processo de flotação de produtos de peneiramento, ante a produtos de ciclones.
Votorantim Metais Zinco Morro Agudo (VMZMA) grinding circuit has a combined capacity of 145 t/h i.e. 95 t\\h in Line 1 and 50 t/h in Line 2. The feed comprises crushed 10 mm obtained in a three-staged crushing circuit. The two ball mills operate in independent parallel lines configured in a closed circuit with 10 inch cyclones, resulting in a 75% passing in 0.044 mm nominal products. The operation shows a high recirculating load (~400%), as well as frequent oversize by pass to the products, which results in a relatively coarse product. Survey campaigns were conducted in the grinding circuit for assessing its overall performance, as well as for fitting the corresponding mathematical models. The results indicated a better performance associated with one of the two existing ball mill lines. The simulations indicate a high potential for increasing the circuit throughput by introducing high frequency screens in substitution or in combination with the existing cyclones. Further studies were recommended for assessing the metallurgical performance associated with the product, as compared with cyclone products.

Durante o período de operação de um empreendimento mineiro, oportunidades de aumento de capacidade produtiva podem gerar ganhos significativos para uma empresa. Para os casos em que se viabiliza maior capacidade de produção da mina deve-se avaliar a capacidade de processamento da usina de beneficiamento, que assim inclui melhorias de desempenho ou expansão mediante adição de equipamentos. Este trabalho contempla a descrição das etapas de amostragem, caracterização do minério, a modelagem do circuito existente e a simulação para aumento da capacidade do circuito de moagem da usina da Mineração Serra Grande da AngloGold Ashanti, situada no município de Crixás no interior de Goiás. Os cenários simulados foram (1) adição de um terceiro moinho de bolas em série aos moinhos existentes, (2) adição de um terceiro moinho de bolas em paralelo ao circuito existente, (3) adição de um moinho vertical para processamento do produto dos dois moinhos de bolas existentes e (4) adição de uma prensa de rolos após o circuito de britagem. O propósito das quatro simulações foi avaliar a viabilidade técnica dos circuitos selecionados mediante modelagem matemática e simulação de processos, assim como dimensionar os novos equipamentos para tal fim.
During operation of the mining cycle, increases the throughput would generate significant capital savings for a company. For cases that enables higher mine production capacity, it must be evaluated plant capacity and also performance improvements or expansion by adding new equipment. This study includes the description of the sampling methodology, the minerals analysis, modeling of the existing circuit and simulation for a possible expansion, specifically for the grinding circuit at Mineração Serra Grande plant of AngloGold Ashanti group, located in Crixás, Goiás. the studied scenarios were: (1) adding a third ball mill in series with existing two ball mills, (2) adding a third ball mill in parallel with existing mills, (3) adding a vertical mill in series with existing mills and (4) adding high pressure grinding rolls to existing mills. The four simulations intend assess the technical feasibility of the circuits selected by mathematical modeling and simulation of processes and design new equipment for this purpose.

The mining industry will be faced with new challenges as the need to develop lower grade ore deposits expands to meet the rising demand for raw resources. Low-grade deposits require a substantially increased tonnage to achieve adequate metal production and have caused the consumption of energy in mining practices such as comminution to rise dramatically. If improvements could be made in the processes employed for metal extraction, the mining industry could remain sustainable for future generations. This research focused on the development of a novel comminution circuit design to addresses these issues. The circuit design incorporated two, known energy efficient technologies, the High Pressure Grinding Roll (HPGR) and the horizontal high-speed stirred mill, and examined the technical feasibility of a circuit operating without the need for a tumbling mill. The main objectives of this research were to setup pilot-scale research equipment and develop the design criteria necessary to operate an HPGR / stirred mill circuit. Testing consisted of using a copper-nickel sulphide ore from Teck Limited’s Mesaba deposit to evaluate a circuit comprised of two stages of HPGR comminution followed by stirred mill grinding. To evaluate the potential energy benefits of this novel circuit arrangement, energy consumption related to comminution was calculated for the circuit using power draw readings off the main motor and the throughput recorded during testing. To provide a basis for comparison, the energy requirements for two conventional circuits, a cone crusher / ball mill and an HPGR / ball mill, were determined through HPGR pilot-scale testing, Bond grindability testing and JK SimMet® flowsheet simulation. Results from this research showed that operating the first-stage HPGR in open circuit and the second stage in closed circuit with a 710µm screen, resulted in a circuit energy requirement of 14.85kWh/t, a reduction of 9.2 and 16.7% over the HPGR / ball mill and cone crusher / ball mill circuits, respectively. To assist in future HPGR / stirred mill studies, a refined testing procedure was developed with a reduced sample commitment and the ability to perform an energy comparison with a Semi-Autogenous Grinding (SAG) mill / ball mill circuit.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Engineenug, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment. of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering,
A multi variable control strategy for a grinding circuit at East Driefontein has been implemented by others and has enabled it to operate under stable conditions. The next development needed was to find conditions under which tne efficiency of the circuit was the greatest. Optimum set points exist for the multi variable controller to keep the circuit at its most efficient state. This project was done to determine these set points, and how it affected the operation of the circuit. The strategy involved the collection of process data, the development of mathematical models and the determination of these optimum set points by simulation, This option reduced interference with routine production operations, which is often a prohibiting factor during any development work on an existing process. The optimum set points were successfully determined, and were compared with previous findings and current plant practice.
AC2017

A grinding mill circuit forms a crucial part in the energy-intensive comminution process of extracting valuable metals and minerals from mined ore. The ability to control the grinding mill circuit is of primary importance to achieve the desired product specification with regards to quality and production rate. In order to achieve control objectives an accurate dynamic model of the milling circuit is required. Phenomenological models are preferred over linear-time-invariant models since the latter cannot describe the non-linear behaviour of the process. However, the available phenomenological models of grinding mill circuits are usually complex, use large parameter sets and are mostly aimed towards steady-state design of grinding mill circuits. This study investigates simplified non-linear dynamic models of grinding mill circuits suitable for process controller design. In the first part of this study, the number of size classes in a cumulative rates model of a grinding mill circuit is reduced to determine the minimum number required to provide a reasonably accurate model of the circuit for process control. Each reduced size class set is used to create a non-linear cumulative rates model which is linearized to design a linear model predictive controller. The accuracy of a model is determined by the ability of the corresponding model predictive controller to control important process variables in the grinding mill circuit as represented by the full non-linear cumulative rates model. The second part of the study validates a simple and novel non-linear model of a run-of-mine grinding mill circuit developed for process control and estimation purposes. This model is named the Hulbert-model and makes use of the minimum number of states and parameters necessary to produce responses that are qualitatively accurate. It consists of separate feeder, mill, sump and hydrocyclone modules that can be connected to model different circuit configurations. The model uses five states: rocks, solids, fines, water and steel balls. Rocks are defined as too large to be discharged from the mill, whereas solids, defined as particles small enough to leave the mill, consist of out-of-specification coarse ore and in-specification fine ore fractions. The model incorporates a unique prediction of the rheology of the slurry within the mill. A new hydrocyclone model is also presented. The Hulbert-model parameters are fitted to an existing plant’s sampling campaign data and a step-wise procedure is given to fit the model to steady-state data. Simulation test results of the model are compared to sampling campaign data of the same plant at different steady-state conditions.
Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2012.
Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering
unrestricted

Optimisation of the control of an autogenous grinding circuit requires a better understanding of system dynamics than exists at present. To this end extensive operating data were acquired on an industrial semi-autogenous milling circuit and a model was developed to explain the circuit responses to changes in input variables. This model represents the trends in the data fairly accurately and showed that: • When an excess o f slurry was present in Me load (i.e. more than the volume of the voids) a pool of slurry forms st the toe of the load. • The complexity of the power dependence on the variables describing the mill load defied dynamic modelling with toe limited knowledge avail- • The key parameters determining grinding efficiency vary constantly as the grinding environment is disturbed indicating a need for adaptive con- • The flow through the mili is adequately modelled by a single well mixed Itwasalso clear that maximisation of the power with respect to themass alone was insufficient, and that control of the feed dilution water rate is essential. Mill discharge slurry theology was studied eo gain an insight into conditions in the load. An energy balance using temperature measurements around th t mill discharge sump provided a very reliable estimate of the mill discharge density. This estimate was not successfully used for control although this potential should be exploited. Attempts to commission an on-line measurement of discharge slurry viscosity failed. Several theories and ideas were tested in a production environment subject to a multiplicity of disturbances and conclusive qualitative results were obtained. An improved understanding of milling circuit dynamics and a rationalisation of where controi can be improved has resulted from this work.

A run-of-mine ore milling circuit is primarily used to grind incoming ore containing precious metals to a particle size smaller than a specification size. A traditional run-of-mine (ROM) ore single-stage closed milling circuit comprises of the operational units: mill, sump and cyclone. These circuits are difficult to control because of significant nonlinearities, large time delays, large unmeasured disturbances, process variables that are difficult to measure and modelling uncertainties. A nonlinear model predictive controller with state estimation could yield good control of the ROM ore milling circuit despite these difficulties. Additionally, the ROM ore milling circuit is an energy intensive unit and a controller or power optimizer could bring significant cost savings. A nonlinear model predictive controller requires good state estimates and therefore a neural network for state estimation as an alternative to the particle filter has been addressed. The neural network approach requires fewer process variables that need to be measured compared to the particle filter. A neural network is trained with three disturbance parameters and used to estimate the internal states of the mill, and the results are compared with those of the particle filter implementation. The neural network approach performed better than the particle filter approach when estimating the volume of steel balls and rocks within the mill. A novel combined neural network and particle filter state estimator is presented to improve the estimation of the neural network approach for the estimation of volume of fines, solids and water within the mill. The estimation performance of the combined approach is promising when the disturbance magnitude used is smaller than that used to train the neural network. After state estimation was addressed, this work targets the implementation of a nonlinear controller combined with full state estimation for a grinding mill circuit. The nonlinear controller consists of a suboptimal nonlinear model predictive controller coupled with a dynamic inversion controller. This allows for fast control that is asymptotically stable. The nonlinear controller aims to reconcile the opposing objectives of high throughput and high product quality. The state estimator comprises of a particle filter for five mill states as well as an additional estimator for three sump states. Simulation results show that control objectives can be achieved despite the presence of noise and significant disturbances. The cost of energy has increased significantly in recent years. This increase in price greatly affects the mineral processing industry because of the large energy demands. A run-of-mine ore milling circuit provides a suitable case study where the power consumed by a mill is in the order of 2 MW. An attempt has been made to reduce the energy consumed by the mill in the two ways: firstly, within the nonlinear model predictive control in a single-stage circuit configuration and secondly, running multiple mills in parallel and attempting to save energy while still maintaining an overall high quality and good quantity. A formulation for power optimization of multiple ROM ore milling circuits has been developed. A first base case consisted not taking power into account in a single ROM ore milling circuit and a second base case split the load and throughput equally between two parallel milling circuits. In both cases, energy can be saved using the NMPC compared to the base cases presented without significant sacrifice in product quality or quantity. The work presented covers three topics that has yet to be addressed within the literature: a neural network for mill state estimation, a nonlinear controller with state estimation integrated for a ROM ore milling circuit and power optimization of a single and multiple ROM ore milling circuit configuration.
Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2015.
Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering
Unrestricted