Journal articles: 'Ground water – South Africa – Limpopo'

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Kativhu, Simbarashe, Marizvikuru M. Mwale, and Jethro Zuwarimwe. "Agricultural resilience under increasing water security threats: insights for smallholder farming in Limpopo Province, South Africa." Water Practice and Technology 15, no. 4 (July 24, 2020): 849–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2020.068.

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Abstract Smallholder farmers in South Africa are facing increased pressure to manage water use due to growing scarcity and environmental water demand. This prompts the need to build resilient irrigation systems particularly for smallholder farmers. Building resilience is more pertinent in Limpopo province, where crop and animal production is hampered by water scarcity. Currently, there is an array of generic adaptation strategies for attaining resilient irrigation schemes in South Africa and beyond. However, the effectiveness and feasibility of these resilience measures at farm level, particularly among smallholders in marginalised areas, are not well researched in Limpopo Province. The current paper draws lessons from adaptation mechanisms in Southern Africa, indicates areas that require further studies and recommends ways for enhancing smallholder resilience against water scarcity. The article contributes to efforts for enhancing water security and fulfil the targets set in sustainable development goal 2 of zero hunger, South Africa Vision 2030, and the government's food security mandate, particularly through suggesting ways for enhancing smallholder farmer resilience and water security.

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Majuru, Batsirai, Paul Jagals, and Paul R. Hunter. "Assessing rural small community water supply in Limpopo, South Africa: Water service benchmarks and reliability." Science of The Total Environment 435-436 (October 2012): 479–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.07.024.

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Molekoa, Mmasabata, Ram Avtar, Pankaj Kumar, Huynh Thu Minh, Rajarshi Dasgupta, Brian Johnson, Netrananda Sahu, Ram Verma, and Ali Yunus. "Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Surface Water Quality in Mokopane Area, Limpopo, South Africa." Water 13, no. 2 (January 18, 2021): 220. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13020220.

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Considering the well-documented impacts of land-use change on water resources and the rapid land-use conversions occurring throughout Africa, in this study, we conducted a spatiotemporal analysis of surface water quality and its relation with the land use and land cover (LULC) pattern in Mokopane, Limpopo province of South Africa. Various physico-chemical parameters were analyzed for surface water samples collected from five sampling locations from 2016 to 2020. Time-series analysis of key surface water quality parameters was performed to identify the essential hydrological processes governing water quality. The analyzed water quality data were also used to calculate the heavy metal pollution index (HPI), heavy metal evaluation index (HEI) and weighted water quality index (WQI). Also, the spatial trend of water quality is compared with LULC changes from 2015 to 2020. Results revealed that the concentration of most of the physico-chemical parameters in the water samples was beyond the World Health Organization (WHO) adopted permissible limit, except for a few parameters in some locations. Based on the calculated values of HPI and HEI, water quality samples were categorized as low to moderately polluted water bodies, whereas all water samples fell under the poor category (>100) and beyond based on the calculated WQI. Looking precisely at the water quality’s temporal trend, it is found that most of the sampling shows a deteriorating trend from 2016 to 2019. However, the year 2020 shows a slightly improving trend on water quality, which can be justified by lowering human activities during the lockdown period imposed by COVID-19. Land use has a significant relationship with surface water quality, and it was evident that built-up land had a more significant negative impact on water quality than the other land use classes. Both natural processes (rock weathering) and anthropogenic activities (wastewater discharge, industrial activities etc.) were found to be playing a vital role in water quality evolution. This study suggests that continuous assessment and monitoring of the spatial and temporal variability of water quality in Limpopo is important to control pollution and health safety in the future.

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Meyer, Johan, and Sune von Solms. "Solar Powered Water Security: An Enabler for Rural Development in Limpopo South Africa." IEEE Access 6 (2018): 20694–703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/access.2018.2805367.

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Mellor, Jonathan E., James A. Smith, Gerard P. Learmonth, Vhonani O. Netshandama, and Rebecca A. Dillingham. "Modeling the Complexities of Water, Hygiene, and Health in Limpopo Province, South Africa." Environmental Science & Technology 46, no. 24 (December 6, 2012): 13512–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es3038966.

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Pilusa, Kgoshi Kgashane Lucas, and Modimowabarwa Hendrick Kanyane. "Water Services Authorities Capacity in Providing Access to Water and Sanitation in Limpopo Province, South Africa." International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology 5, no. 6 (July 23, 2020): 1586–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt20jun741.

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There has been an on-going debate regarding the effectiveness and capacity of Water Service Authorities in providing quality water service in South Africa to local citizens. As Limpopo province was preferred as a case study, it is evident that the province has been experiencing several violent water service delivery protests in different localities. The methodological approach employed was a qualitative approach reinforced by documentary review as a data source in qualitative research. Purposively, 46 participants were sampled and interviewed. In addition, document analysis of literatures and audit performance of Water Service Authorities in Limpopo province were exploited. The employed data regression investigation to scrutinize the data, containing the Auditor- General of South Africa’s (AGSA) amalgamated annual report for municipal for the fiscal years 2009/10 to 2015/16. It gave observable elements which were subjected to regression analysis. The findings show that quality of governance significantly affects the achievement of a clean audit at a significance value which translates into poor service delivery to citizens. In reviewing the existing documents, a better understanding was realised which assisted in formulating questions for interviews or develop an observation guide. The challenges confronting the water service authorities are not limited to inadequate administrative capacity to function and manage finances, lack of skilled technicians, service delivery backlogs; aging of water infrastructure and lack of infrastructure maintenance. These findings underscored a need for Water Service Authorities to assess continuously the level of contentment to their beneficiaries concerning the basic provision of water and sanitation services.

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Ikeda, Takayoshi, Thandi Kapwata, Swadhin K. Behera, Noboru Minakawa, Masahiro Hashizume, Neville Sweijd, Angela Mathee, and Caradee Yael Wright. "Climatic Factors in Relation to Diarrhoea Hospital Admissions in Rural Limpopo, South Africa." Atmosphere 10, no. 9 (September 5, 2019): 522. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/atmos10090522.

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Diarrheal disease is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality globally, particularly in children under 5 years of age. Factors related to diarrheal disease incidence include infection, malnutrition, and exposure to contaminated water and food. Climate factors also contribute to diarrheal disease. We aimed to explore the relationship between temperature, precipitation and diarrhoea case counts of hospital admissions among vulnerable communities living in a rural setting in South Africa. We applied ‘contour analysis’ to visually examine simultaneous observations in frequencies of anomalously high and low diarrhoea case counts occurring in a season, and assigning colours to differences that were statistically significant based on chi-squared test results. Children under 5 years of age were especially vulnerable to diarrhoea during very dry, hot conditions as well as when conditions were wetter than usual. We saw an anomalously higher number of diarrhoea cases during ‘warmer than usual’ conditions in the dry winter season, with average winter temperatures in Limpopo being from about 5 to 10 °C. As for ‘wetter than usual’ conditions, we saw an anomalously higher number of diarrhoea cases during ‘drier than usual’ conditions for the winter and spring. The lagged association seen in cumulative rainfall could not be distinguished in the same way for temperature-related variables (indicating rainfall had a larger impact on higher cases of diarrhoea), nor for the older age group of 5 years and older. Dry conditions were associated with diarrhoea in children under 5 years of age; such conditions may lead to increased water storage, raising the risks of water contamination. Reduced use of water for personal hygiene and cleaning of outdoor pit latrines also affect sanitation quality. Rural communities require adequate and uninterrupted water provision, and healthcare providers should raise awareness about potential diarrhoeal risks, especially during the dry season as well as during wintertime when conditions are warmer than usual.

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Theron, N., D. Dalton, J. P. Grobler, R. Jansen, and A. Kotze. "Molecular insights on the re-colonization of the Limpopo Valley, South Africa, by Southern Ground-Hornbills." Journal of Ornithology 154, no. 3 (February 16, 2013): 727–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10336-013-0937-4.

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Molekoa, Mmasabata, Ram Avtar, Pankaj Kumar, Huynh Minh, and Tonni Kurniawan. "Hydrogeochemical Assessment of Groundwater Quality of Mokopane Area, Limpopo, South Africa Using Statistical Approach." Water 11, no. 9 (September 11, 2019): 1891. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11091891.

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Despite being a finite resource, both the quality and quantity of groundwater are under tremendous pressure due to rapid global changes, viz. population growth, land-use/land-cover changes (LULC), and climate change. The 6th Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) aims to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”. One of the most significant dimensions of the SDG agenda is the emphasis on data and governance. However, the lack of good governance coupled with good observed data cannot ensure the achievement of SDG6. Therefore, this study strives to evaluate water quality status and hydrochemical processes governing it in the data-scarce Mokopane area of South Africa. Groundwater is the main source of fresh water supply for domestic usage, intensive agriculture, and mining activities in Mokopane. In this study, hydrogeochemical analysis of groundwater samples was employed to calculate the water quality index (WQI) and evaluate factors governing water quality evolution in the study area. Statistical and spatial analysis techniques were carried out to divide sampling sites into clusters and delineate principal factors responsible for determining water quality of the sampled groundwater. Results suggest that most of the physico-chemical parameters are within permissible limits for drinking water set by the World Health Organization (WHO), except for high fluoride in some samples. Na-HCO3 is the most abundant water type followed by Mg-HCO3, which indicates dominance of Na+, Mg2+, and HCO3±. Rock-water interaction is the prime factor responsible for fluoride enrichment in water. The alkaline nature of groundwater favors the release of exchangeable F− from minerals like muscovite. The WQI suggests that 80% of water samples fall into the good and excellent categories. Poor management of untreated domestic sewage and agricultural runoff is a main factor for the bad/very bad categories of water samples. As the area lacks any credible scientific/government work to report water quality and its management aspects, the findings of this study will definitely help both scientific communities and policy makers to do what is needed for sustainable water resource management in a timely manner.

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Botai, Christina M., Joel O. Botai, Nosipho N. Zwane, Patrick Hayombe, Eric K. Wamiti, Thabo Makgoale, Miriam D. Murambadoro, et al. "Hydroclimatic Extremes in the Limpopo River Basin, South Africa, under Changing Climate." Water 12, no. 12 (November 24, 2020): 3299. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12123299.

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This research study evaluated the projected future climate and anticipated impacts on water-linked sectors on the transboundary Limpopo River Basin (LRB) with a focus on South Africa. Streamflow was simulated from two CORDEX-Africa regional climate models (RCMs) forced by the 5th phase of the Coupled Model Inter-Comparison Project (CMIP5) Global Climate Models (GCMs), namely, the CanESM2m and IPSL-CM5A-MR climate models. Three climate projection time intervals were considered spanning from 2006 to 2099 and delineated as follows: current climatology (2006–2035), near future (2036–2065) and end of century future projection (2070–2099). Statistical metrics derived from the projected streamflow were used to assess the impacts of the changing climate on water-linked sectors. These metrics included streamflow trends, low and high flow quantile probabilities, the Standardized Streamflow Index (SSI) trends and the proportion (%) of dry and wet years, as well as drought monitoring indicators. Based on the Mann-Kendall (MK) trend test, the LRB is projected to experience reduced streamflow in both the near and the distant future. The basin is projected to experience frequent dry and wet conditions that can translate to drought and flash floods, respectively. In particular, a high proportion of dry and a few incidences of wet years are expected in the basin in the future. In general, the findings of this research study will inform and enhance climate change adaptation and mitigation policy decisions and implementation thereof, to sustain the livelihoods of vulnerable communities.

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Mellor, Jonathan E., James A. Smith, Amidou Samie, and Rebecca A. Dillingham. "Coliform Sources and Mechanisms for Regrowth in Household Drinking Water in Limpopo, South Africa." Journal of Environmental Engineering 139, no. 9 (September 2013): 1152–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)ee.1943-7870.0000722.

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Rankoana, Sejabaledi Agnes. "Climate change impacts on water resources in a rural community in Limpopo province, South Africa: a community-based adaptation to water insecurity." International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 12, no. 5 (August 28, 2020): 587–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijccsm-04-2020-0033.

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Purpose The study explored the impacts of climate change on water resources, and the community-based adaptation practices adopted to ensure water security in a rural community in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Design/methodology/approach The study was conducted in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The participatory approach was used to allow community members to share their challenges of water scarcity, and the measures they have developed to cope with inconsistent water supply. Findings The study results show that the community obtains water for household consumption from the reticulation system supplied by Mutale River and the community borehole. These resources are negatively impacted by drought, change in the frequency and distribution of rainfall, and increased temperature patterns. The water levels in the river and borehole have declined, resulting in unsustainable water supply. The community-based adaptation practices facilitated by the water committee include observance of restrictions and regulations on the water resources use. Others involve securing water from neighbouring resources. Originality/value This type of community-based action in response to climate change could be used as part of rural water management strategies under climate change.

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Gololo, Sechene S., Denga Nthai, and Motetelo A. Mogale. "Phytochemical Contents and Antioxidant Capacity of the Leaves of Aloe greatheadii var. davyana from Four South African Provinces." Asian Journal of Chemistry 31, no. 8 (June 28, 2019): 1830–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.14233/ajchem.2019.22019.

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The current study was aimed at the determination of the phytochemical contents and antioxidant capacity of the leaves of A. greatheadii from four provinces of South Africa. The leaves samples of A. greatheadii were collected at four different locations in South Africa; namely, Limpopo province (Polokwane), Gauteng province (Ga-Rankuwa), Mpumalanga province (Siyabuswa) and North-West province (Brits) during the summer season of the year. The ground samples were then extracted in a serial sequential procedure with different organic solvents using cold maceration extraction method. The extracts were then subjected to quantitative phytochemical analysis for the determination of total phenolic, total tannin, total flavonoid and total saponin content. In addition, the antioxidant capacity of the methanol extracts were evaluated through the DPPH assay. Quantitative phytochemical analysis showed variation in the total phenolic, total tannin, total flavonoid and total saponin contents of the samples from different locations, with specific phytochemicals found in higher amounts at different locations. However, upon calculation of the total phytochemical content the high amount was recorded with the Limpopo province sample. Variation in the antioxidant capacity (EC50 based) of the samples from different locations was demonstrated, with the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces’ samples showing high capacity. The results demonstrated that the variation in geographical locations has an effect on the phytochemical contents and antioxidant capacity of the leaves of A. greatheadii. Furthermore, the Limpopo province area with a high altitude appeared to be providing suitable growing conditions for high accumulation of phytochemicals and higher antioxidant capacity.

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Seward, Paul. "Challenges Facing Environmentally Sustainable Ground Water Use in South Africa." Ground Water 48, no. 2 (March 2010): 239–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2008.00518.x.

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Durowoju, Olatunde Samod, Mike Butler, Georges-Ivo Ekosse Ekosse, and John Ogony Odiyo. "Hydrochemical Processes and Isotopic Study of Geothermal Springs within Soutpansberg, Limpopo Province, South Africa." Applied Sciences 9, no. 8 (April 24, 2019): 1688. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app9081688.

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Geothermal springs and boreholes within the Soutpansberg Group were sampled and analysed for their major ion chemistry and stable isotope compositions in order to ascertain the possible sources and geochemical processes of the waters. The temperature of the geothermal springs ranges from 41 °C to 49 °C (thermal/hot waters) and 53 °C to 69 °C (scalding/hyperthermal waters). The major water types are Na-Cl and Na-HCO3, which are typical of marine and deep groundwaters influenced by ion-exchange processes. The hydrochemical parameters suggest that thermal gradient, carbonate weathering, mineral dissolution, ion exchange, and evaporation are the main geochemical processes controlling the geothermal springs. The δ18O and δ2H values vary from −5.82‰ to −4.82‰ for δ18O and −33.5‰ to −24.6‰ for δ2H for all the geothermal spring water. The isotopic ranges of the groundwater are relatively smaller and more depleted than those of rainwater (δ2H = −9.8‰ and δ18O = −2.7‰). The δ2H and δ18O signatures reveal a significant infiltration before evaporation. The δ2H and δ18O values further confirm that the waters are of meteoric origin, which implies that modern rainfall is the fundamental component of recharge derived from the infiltration of local precipitation with significant contribution of another type of water in the deeper part of the aquifer. These results provide further insight into this basement aquifer, which is a vital resource for the region.

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Potgieter, N., L. S. Mudau, and F. R. S. Maluleke. "Microbiological quality of groundwater sources used by rural communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa." Water Science and Technology 54, no. 11-12 (December 1, 2006): 371–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.890.

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A survey of the microbiological quality of water from 194 boreholes (97 privately owned and 97 communal boreholes) in the rural Thitale-Hlanganani area of the Limpopo Province, South Africa was carried out between August 2002 and August 2003. Very little information on the microbiological quality of privately-owned boreholes in rural communities is available raising concerns about the safety of these groundwater supplies. In this study, levels of total coliforms, thermotolerant (faecal) coliforms, faecal enterococci, Clostridium perfringens (vegetative cells and spores) and somatic coliphages were determined for community and privately-owned borehole water. The average counts for total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal enterococci and Clostridium perfringens exceeded the South African recommended guideline limits of 0–10 counts.100 ml−1 for total coliforms and 0 counts.100 ml−1 for faecal coliforms, faecal enterococci and Clostridium perfringens respectively. Comparisons between the levels of indicator bacteria present in private and communal boreholes during dry seasons indicated a statistical difference for faecal enterococci bacteria (p=0.005) and Clostridium perfringens (p=0.08). Comparisons between the levels of indicator bacteria present in private and communal boreholes during rainy seasons indicated statistical differences between total coliforms (p=0.05), faecal coliforms (p=0.03) and Clostridium perfringens (p=0.009) bacteria. No significant differences in the presence of somatic coliphages in both private and communal borehole water were see. The results indicated the need for environmental impact assessment studies to monitor the microbiological quality of groundwater sources in rural communities.

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Gololo, S. S., N. S. Mapfumari, and M. A. Mogale. "COMPARATIVE QUANTITATIVE PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LEAVES OF SENNA ITALICA COLLECTED FROM DIFFERENT AREAS IN LIMPOPO PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA." International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences 10, no. 2 (February 1, 2018): 67. http://dx.doi.org/10.22159/ijpps.2018v10i2.22950.

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Objective: The current study was aimed at comparative quantitative phytochemical analysis of the leaves of S. italica collected from four districts in Limpopo province, South Africa, in order to establish whether geographical location have an effect on the accumulation of phytochemicals within the leaves of the plant species under study.Methods: The leaves of S. italica were collected from four districts in Limpopo province of South Africa namely; Capricorn, Sekhukhune, Vhembe and Waterberg districts, dried, ground to powder and extracted using different organic solvents. The extracts of the leaf samples from different locations were subjected to quantitative phytochemical analysis for total phenolic content, total tannin content, total flavonoid content and total saponin content using spectrophotometric measurements. The resultant quantities were analysed for statistical differences.Results: The leaf samples of S. italica from the four districts in Limpopo province showed significant differences (*p<0.05) in their phytochemical quantities, with main data expressed as mean±SD. Total phenolic content was in highest amounts in leaf samples from Waterberg district compared to samples from other districts. Total tannin content was in highest amounts in the Vhembe district leaf samples compared to samples from other districts. Total flavonoid content was in highest amounts in the leaf samples from Waterberg district compared to samples from other districts. Total saponin content was in highest amounts in the Vhembe district leaf samples compared to samples from other districts.Conclusion: The findings of the study thus suggest that geographical location has an effect on the accumulation of phytochemicals in the leaves of S. italica.

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Mndaweni, S. S. E., S. Naicker, and D. Blake. "Hydrostratigraphy of the Malmani Subgroup dolomites within the northeastern escarpment (Limpopo and Mpumalanga, South Africa)." South African Journal of Geology 122, no. 3 (September 1, 2019): 283–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.25131/sajg.122.0022.

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Abstract The Late Archaean to Early Proterozoic Malmani Subgroup comprises of dolomites and limestones forming part of the Chuniespoort Group within the Transvaal Supergroup, outcropping as an arc structure east of the Pretoria Group along the Limpopo and Mpumalanga escarpment. These rocks form a fractured karst aquifer in the area and have a high degree of heterogeneity and anisotropy. The aquifers are unconfined to semi-confined, with compartmentalisation by dolerite dykes being a possible effect (if the dykes are large and extensive enough) due to the dykes acting as aquitards or barriers to groundwater flow. The contact zones between the dolomite formations and dolerite dykes are usually fractured however, and along with any other faults and fractures result in preferential dolomite dissolution and the development of groundwater flow paths in the area. Borehole yields ranges between 2 to 5 l/s and potentially >10 l/s per borehole in the vicinity of large regional fractures or dolerite intrusions. Groundwater from the Malmani Subgroup generally meets the drinking water quality standards for major constituents and it is of Mg-Ca-HCO3 nature. Groundwater development within this particular hydrostratigraphy is linked to potential well field target zones that take cognisance of various surface water-groundwater interaction affecting surface water discharge rates as well as groundwater over-abstraction concerns. Preliminary results have indicated that given a groundwater potential of 44 hm3/a, the aquifer will be able to support abstractions of up to 29 hm3/a if systematically developed adaptively and could be used and managed conjunctively with surface water to alleviate the pressure on the already stressed Olifants Water Management Area.

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Khandlhela, Masingita, and Julian May. "Poverty, vulnerability and the impact of flooding in the Limpopo Province, South Africa." Natural Hazards 39, no. 2 (October 2006): 275–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-006-0028-4.

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Diko-Makia, Lawrence, and Rofhiwa Ligege. "Composition and Technological Properties of Clays for Structural Ceramics in Limpopo (South Africa)." Minerals 10, no. 8 (August 7, 2020): 700. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min10080700.

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This study evaluated the potential of raw clays from the Mukondeni region for structural ceramics and pottery based on traditional firing techniques. Physical properties were identified by particle size distribution, consistency limits, and clay activity. Mineralogical and chemical properties were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF). Extruded clay bodies were fired at 900 °C. Technological characteristics were measured by weight loss (WL), bulk density (BD), dry linear shrinkage (DLS), fired linear shrinkage (FLS), water absorption (WA), and flexural strength (FS). The clays were low in <2 µm fractions (≤19%) and of medium to high plasticity with a clayey silt texture. Smectite was the dominant clay mineral while quartz and feldspar were major non clay minerals. The most abundant oxides were SiO2 (63.57–68.73%), Al2O3 (13.9–15.61%), and Fe2O3 (4.86–6.18%), whereas K2O, CaO, MgO, Na2O, TiO2, and P2O5 were depleted. Characterization based on the clay workability chart, Winkler’s diagram, and compositional ternary diagrams revealed acceptable extrusion properties and suitability for structural ceramics and earthenware. The clays showed acceptable WL, BD, LS, and WA, but unsatisfactory FS (≤1.08 MPa). Low mechanical strength was attributed to presence of smectites and inert nature of feldspar at 900 °C. Beneficiation through mixing with carbonate-rich raw materials is recommended.

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BOTHA, J., E. T. F. WITKOWSKI, and C. M. SHACKLETON. "Market profiles and trade in medicinal plants in the Lowveld, South Africa." Environmental Conservation 31, no. 1 (March 2004): 38–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0376892904001067.

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Rising demand for medicinal plants has led to increased pressure on wild plant populations. This, combined with shrinking habitats, means that many species in South Africa are now facing local extinction. In 1997, a study was initiated to determine the extent of trade in medicinal plants in the South African Lowveld (the low lying plains to the east of the Drakensberg escarpment), and to investigate socio-economic factors influencing trade and resource management. Trade was not as extensive in the Lowveld as in major urban markets such as Durban or the Witwatersrand (Johannesburg and surrounding towns), either in terms of the quantity, number or range of species sold, or the numbers of people relying on the trade for an income. In markets assessed in Mpumalanga Province, 176 species were identified (71% of the vernacular names encountered in the market place), representing 69 plant families. In Limpopo, 70 different species were identified (84% of the vernacular names encountered in the market place), representing 40 families. Imports were significant in Mpumalanga (33% of the plants on offer), mainly from Mozambique. A detrended correspondence analysis showed substantial differences between species traded in Mpumalanga and those sold in Limpopo. There was little variation in the species stocked by vendors in Mpumalanga, regardless of the season, the attributes of the seller, or whether business was carried out in urban or rural areas. In contrast, there was considerable variation in the stock inventories of the Limpopo traders. Despite the lower levels of local trade, increased harvesting pressure is being experienced regionally, to meet demand in metropolitan centres such as the Witwatersrand. This study showed considerable local variation and complexities in the harvesting and marketing of medicinal plants, with both a national and an international dimension. This dual spatial scale presents both opportunities and challenges in the management of these plants, which need to be addressed simultaneously, particularly with respect to research requirements and development of predictive models and capacity. Cooperation in conservation strategies and policies is required at regional, national and international levels, while ensuring that management initiatives take into account local market conditions and the socio-economic realities facing both consumers and those who depend on the trade for their livelihoods.

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Madilonga, Rofhiwa T., Joshua N. Edokpayi, Elijah T. Volenzo, Olatunde S. Durowoju, and John O. Odiyo. "Water Quality Assessment and Evaluation of Human Health Risk in Mutangwi River, Limpopo Province, South Africa." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 13 (June 24, 2021): 6765. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136765.

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Freshwater supply is essential to life on Earth; however, land use activities such as mining and agriculture pose a significant danger to freshwater resources and the wellbeing of aquatic environments. This study temporarily assesses the water quality characteristics of Mutangwi River. Physicochemical parameters (pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity, electrical conductivity (EC), and turbidity) were determined in situ using an Extech multimeter and turbidity meter. The concentration of the selected metals (Mg, Cr, Fe, Cd, Mn, Pb, Ca, and Na) were analysed using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Membrane filtration method was used to analyse microbiological parameters (Escherichia coli and Enterococci). The physicochemical water quality parameters as well as basic anions (fluoride, phosphate, sulfate, nitrate, and chloride) determined complied with the regulatory guideline of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the South Africa National Standards (SANS). Some of the trace metals (Mn, Ca, Fe, and Mg) were found below the guideline values, while others (Pb and Cd) exceeded the threshold limit. The counts for E. coli (814.5–2169 cfu/100 mL) and Enterococci (333–9396 cfu/100 mL) in the study did not comply with the regulatory guidelines. The water quality status using the water quality index (WQI) indicated that on the average, the water quality from Mutangwi River is poor (WQI > 100). The hazard quotient through ingestion exposure did not exceed the threshold limit of 1, for adults and children. This implies that there is no potential non-carcinogenic health risk from trace elements via ingestion of drinking water for children and adults. However, cancer risk for adults and children was computed in relation to Cd and Pb levels and exceeded the threshold limit 10−4, indicating a possible carcinogenic risk. Water from the river should be adequately treated prior to domestic and agricultural use.

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Murray, Tanya Y., and Maureen B. Taylor. "Quantification and molecular characterisation of human sapoviruses in water sources impacted by highly polluted discharged wastewater in South Africa." Journal of Water and Health 13, no. 4 (April 10, 2015): 1055–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2015.255.

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Sapoviruses (SaVs) were detected and quantified in 8/10 water samples collected from wastewater treatment works (WWTWs) and water sources impacted by these WWTWs in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The median SaV concentration was 2.45 × 106 copies/L and SaV genotypes I.2 and IV were characterised. This study provides new data on the high concentrations of clinically relevant SaVs in rivers and dams impacted by poor-performing WWTWs.

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Bulled, Nicola, Kara Poppe, Khuliso Ramatsisti, Londolani Sitsula, Geoffrey Winegar, Jabulani Gumbo, Rebecca Dillingham, and James Smith. "Assessing the environmental context of hand washing among school children in Limpopo, South Africa." Water International 42, no. 5 (June 26, 2017): 568–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2017.1335140.

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Makaya, Eugine, Melanie Rohse, Rosie Day, Coleen Vogel, Lyla Mehta, Lindsey McEwen, Sally Rangecroft, and Anne F. Van Loon. "Water governance challenges in rural South Africa: exploring institutional coordination in drought management." Water Policy 22, no. 4 (May 16, 2020): 519–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.234.

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Abstract Droughts have severe direct impacts on the livelihoods of rural populations. Thus, the management of water for communal agriculture and water supply should be well coordinated to enhance drought resilience. Notwithstanding the interrelations among water management institutions in South Africa, there are complexities in the way these institutions work together, both in preparation for, and during drought times. In this article, we examine the governance of water resources in South Africa with a view to understanding institutional coordination in drought management at different operational scales. Using a qualitative approach, the roles and relationships between water actors at the local and regional level were analyzed for their adequacy in building local level drought resilience in a village in the Limpopo province, South Africa. Key informant interviews conducted revealed operational drought management challenges that emanate from communication barriers, coordination inconsistences, and undefined, unclear actor roles and responsibilities during disasters. The top-down approach to disaster management, while of some value, currently constrains the effectiveness of the local-level institutions implementing local drought risk reduction efforts. Achieving more successful water and drought governance endeavors could be enhanced by greater and wider engagement with community-based actors and water management institutions.

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Nthunya, Lebea, Sebabatso Maifadi, Bhekie Mamba, Arne Verliefde, and Sabelo Mhlanga. "Spectroscopic Determination of Water Salinity in Brackish Surface Water in Nandoni Dam, at Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa." Water 10, no. 8 (July 27, 2018): 990. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w10080990.

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The problem of limited water supply in the Vhembe District (Limpopo Province, South Africa) is exacerbated by a preponderance of dissolved salts, which cause disagreeable taste and odour in the water as reported by the communities using this water for drinking. The water treatment plant that supplies the treated water to the communities in the District sources this raw water from the Nandoni Dam at the Luvuvhu river catchment. There are no scientific studies that have been reported in the literature that focused on determining the levels of water salinity from various water sources in the municipalities of the District. Water samples from various sites across the Nandoni Dam, a primary source of domestic water supply in the region, were collected through each season over a period of twelve months in order to ascertain the concentrations of dissolved salts in the dam. Onsite analyses of the water samples were conducted using the YSI ProDSS multimeter, while the laboratory water analyses were conducted using the spectroquant and atomic absorption spectrometers. Although salinity tests seem to indicate that the water sampled across most of the Nandoni Dam is brackish during all seasons of the year with the highest being 750 mg/L, water samples from the dam mid-outlet and the treatment plant are slightly below the World Health Organization (WHO) brackish water bracket of 500 mg/L with unfavourable taste for drinking. Results from this study indicate that the water sourced from the Nandoni Dam is not suitable for human consumption and therefore requires integrated water resource management, as well as robust and cost-effective water desalination treatment.

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Puech, Elysandre, Dunia H. Urrego, María Fernanda Sánchez Goñi, Lucinda Backwell, and Francesco d’Erricoc. "Vegetation and environmental changes at the Middle Stone Age site of Wonderkrater, Limpopo, South Africa." Quaternary Research 88, no. 2 (August 14, 2017): 313–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/qua.2017.42.

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AbstractWonderkrater, a Middle Stone Age site in the interior of South Africa, is a spring and peat mound featuring both paleoclimatic and archaeological records. The site preserves three small MSA lithic assemblages with age estimates of 30 ka, >45 ka and 138.01±7.7 ka. Here we present results of the pollen analysis of a core retrieved from the middle of the peat mound, which covers, with hiatuses, the timespan between ca. 70±10 ka and 30 ka. Pollen percentages of terrestrial, local aquatic, and semi-aquatic plants reveal changes in the regional climate and in the water table of the spring. Results identify regional wet conditions at ca. 70±10 ka, followed by a dry and a wet period between 60 ka and 30 ka. Superimposed on these three phases, recurring changes in the size and depth of the water table are observed between >45 ka and 30 ka. Wet conditions at 70 ka and 30 ka are tentatively correlated here with Marine Isotope Stage 4 and Heinrich Stadial 3, respectively. A warm and dry savanna landscape was present during human occupation older than 45 ka, and a wet phase was contemporaneous with the final occupation, dated at ~30 ka.

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Rwanga, Sophia, and Julius Ndambuki. "Solving groundwater problems fraught with uncertain recharge: An application to Central Limpopo, South Africa." Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (April 2020): 100305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2019.100305.

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Mudzielwana, Rabelani, Mugera Wilson Gitari, Segun Ajayi Akinyemi, Abel O. Talabi, and Patrick Ndungu. "Hydrogeochemical characteristics of arsenic rich groundwater in Greater Giyani Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa." Groundwater for Sustainable Development 10 (April 2020): 100336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100336.

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Abiye, Tamiru A., Despina Tshipala, Khahliso Leketa, Karen G. Villholth, Girma Y. Ebrahim, Manuel Magombeyi, and Michael Butler. "Hydrogeological characterization of crystalline aquifer in the Hout River Catchment, Limpopo province, South Africa." Groundwater for Sustainable Development 11 (October 2020): 100406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100406.

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Kgopa, Pholosho Mmmateko, Phatu William Mashela, and Alen Manyevere. "Microbial Quality of Treated Wastewater and Borehole Water Used for Irrigation in a Semi-Arid Area." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 16 (August 23, 2021): 8861. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168861.

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The current study investigated the distribution of microbial populations and diversity in treated wastewater used for irrigation at the University of Limpopo Experimental Farm (ULEF), from different stages of post treatment disposal at Mankweng Wastewater Treatment Plant (MWTP) in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The study was arranged in a 4 × 5 factorial experiment, which studied the interactive effects of four collection points and five months of sampling, with borehole water used as a reference point. Water samples were analyzed for bacteria, helminths, and protozoa. All data were transformed and subjected to factorial analysis of variance. The site–time interactions were significant for Salmonella spp. and Ascaris lumbricoides, whereas collection point was significant for all variables. In conclusion, movement and storage of water post treatment at MWTP were able to improve the microbial quality of the treated wastewater disposed for irrigation at ULEF.

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Chikosi, Enerst Shingai, Shingirai Stanley Mugambiwa, Happy Mathew Tirivangasi, and Sejabaledi Agnes Rankoana. "Climate change and variability perceptions in Ga-Dikgale community in Limpopo Province, South Africa." International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 11, no. 3 (May 20, 2019): 392–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijccsm-01-2018-0004.

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Purpose Perceptions of climate change and its threats to rural communities are among major challenges faced by scientists around the world. A few studies prove that these communities are aware of change in climatic conditions and their impacts on people’s livelihoods. Climate change is usually perceived as increasing warming days, erratic rainfall patterns, ecological variability, biological change and their adverse effects on human beings. This study aims to assess Ga-Dikgale community’s perceptions on climate change and variability. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative research method was adopted and community members of age 60 and above in GaDikgale community were purposively selected as participants in the study. Data were collected through in-depth interviews, and thematic content analysis was used to analyse data. Findings The study found that the community perceives climate change and climate variability based on changes in temperature patterns, erratic rainfall patterns, seasonal change, depletion of biodiversity, decline in subsistence crop production, change in water quality and cessation of cultural activities. Originality/value The study concludes that community’s perceptions of climate change are largely centred on variations in temperature and rainfall patterns. It has been established that knowledge of climate change in rural communities is of paramount importance in as far as adaptation to climate hazards is concerned.

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Mekiso, F. A., G. M. Ochieng, and J. Snyman. "Water budget analysis for the Middle Mohlapitsi wetland in the Oliphants River Basin, Limpopo province, South Africa." International Journal of Environmental Engineering 8, no. 2/3 (2016): 179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijee.2016.082322.

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Snyman, J., F. A. Mekiso, and G. M. Ochieng. "Water budget analysis for the Middle Mohlapitsi wetland in the Oliphants River Basin, Limpopo province, South Africa." International Journal of Environmental Engineering 8, no. 2/3 (2016): 179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/ijee.2016.10003279.

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SPEELMAN, STIJN, STEFANO FAROLFI, AYMEN FRIJA, MARIJKE D'HAESE, and LUC D'HAESE. "The impact of the water rights system on smallholder irrigators' willingness to pay for water in Limpopo province, South Africa." Environment and Development Economics 15, no. 4 (July 15, 2010): 465–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355770x10000161.

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ABSTRACTWater rights are currently receiving increased attention from scholars and policymakers due to the growing understanding that ill-defined water rights impair efficient use. In South Africa, smallholder irrigation faces problems of low water use efficiency and cost recovery of government investments. This study uses contingent ranking to analyse the willingness to pay (WTP) of smallholder irrigators for changes in the water rights system. The results indicate that smallholders are prepared to pay considerably higher water prices if these are connected to improvements in the water rights system. By segmenting the population it was also shown that the importance attached to water rights dimensions varies in each segment. While lower institutional trust and lower income levels lead to a lower WTP for transferability, experiencing water shortage increases this WTP. Such information is valuable in guiding policy makers in the future design of water rights.

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Isla, Ramon A. Tamayo, Darlington Mapiye, Charles R. Swanepoel, Nadiya Rozumyk, Jerome E. Hubahib, and Ikechi G. Okpechi. "Continuous Ambulatory Peritoneal Dialysis in Limpopo Province, South Africa: Predictors of Patient and Technique Survival." Peritoneal Dialysis International: Journal of the International Society for Peritoneal Dialysis 34, no. 5 (July 2014): 518–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3747/pdi.2013.00334.

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Introduction and aimContinuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) is not a frequently used modality of dialysis in many parts of Africa due to several socio-economic factors. Available studies from Africa have shown a strong association between outcome and socio-demographic variables. We sought to assess the outcome of patients treated with CAPD in Limpopo, South Africa.MethodsThis was a retrospective study of 152 patients treated with CAPD at the Polokwane Kidney and Dialysis Centre (PKDC) from 2007 to 2012. We collected relevant demographic and biochemical data for all patients included in the study. A composite outcome of death while still on peritoneal dialysis (PD) or CAPD technique failure from any cause requiring a change of modality to hemodialysis (HD) was selected. The peritonitis rate and causes of peritonitis were assessed from 2008 when all related data could be obtained.ResultsThere were 52% males in the study and the average age of the patients was 36.8 ± 11.4 years. Unemployment rate was high (71.1%), 41.1% had tap water at home, the average distance travelled to the dialysis center was 122.9 ± 78.2 kilometres and half the patients had a total income less than USD ($)180 per month. Level of education, having electricity at home, having tap water at home, body mass index (BMI), serum albumin and hemoglobin were significantly different between those reaching the composite outcome and those not reaching it ( p < 0.05). The overall peritonitis rate was 0.82/year with 1-year, 2-year and 5-year survival found to be 86.7%, 78.7% and 65.3% (patient survival) and 83.3%, 71.7% and 62.1% (technique survival). Predictors of the composite outcome were BMI ( p = 0.011), serum albumin ( p = 0.030), hemoglobin ( p = 0.002) and more than 1 episode of peritonitis ( p = 0.038).ConclusionTreatment of anemia and malnutrition as well as training and re-training of CAPD patients and staff to prevent recurrence of peritonitis can have positive impacts on CAPD outcomes in this population.

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Dippenaar, Matthys A., Kai T. Witthüser, and J. Louis Van Rooy. "Groundwater occurrence in Basement aquifers in Limpopo Province, South Africa: model-setting-scenario approach." Environmental Earth Sciences 59, no. 2 (January 27, 2009): 459–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0044-2.

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Dankovich, Theresa A., Jonathan S. Levine, Natasha Potgieter, Rebecca Dillingham, and James A. Smith. "Inactivation of bacteria from contaminated streams in Limpopo, South Africa by silver- or copper-nanoparticle paper filters." Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology 2, no. 1 (2016): 85–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5ew00188a.

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Ferentinou, Maria, Wojciech Witkowski, Ryszard Hejmanowski, Hennie Grobler, and Agnieszka Malinowska. "Detection of sinkhole occurrence, experiences from South Africa." Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences 382 (April 22, 2020): 77–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/piahs-382-77-2020.

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Abstract. Sinkholes are alarming and dangerous events, they have a worldwide occurrence, and are imposing a potential risk to urban communities and the widely developed built environment. Losses due to catastrophic sinkhole collapse, foundation, pavement and structural repairs, occur more often, due to the increased pressure to develop even on sinkhole prone land, and the aging of existing water supply infrastructure in the majority of cities. Remote sensing earth observation methods have proved to be valuable tools during the last two decades in long-term sinkhole hazard assessment. Satellite air borne and ground earth observation methods have primarily facilitated the wide detection of continuous displacement on the earth's crust. National sinkholes catalogues are necessary for town planers decision makers, and government authorities. In many instances the ground collapse is the result of water ingress from old poorly maintained leaking pipelines, or extensive dewatering activities. In the current study a comprehensive review of the current literature is presented in order to show experiences from South Africa and present recent mapping using PSInSAR methodology in Centurion South Africa.

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Rankoana, Sejabaledi A. "Food security under unreliable rainfall: the case study of a rural community in Limpopo Province, South Africa." Journal of Water and Climate Change 11, no. 3 (March 12, 2019): 677–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2019.109.

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Abstract The present study assessed the use of a geothermal hot spring water flow as an adaptation practice to improve subsistence crop production. The aim of this study is to contribute towards natural resource use and management as an adaptation measure to the problem of rainfall scarcity in subsistence production. Focus group discussions with 45 subsistence farmers were conducted in a community garden in which subsistence crops are grown and maintained through a hot spring irrigation system. The study results show that the farmers are aware that rainfall in Sagole community is becoming scarce. The scarcity of rainfall is impacting negatively on subsistence crop production which is characterised by poor productivity. However, the farmers developed an irrigation system downstream of the geothermal hot spring in which the water is furrowed to the garden to irrigate vegetables and fruits throughout the year.

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Durowoju, Olatunde Samod, Georges-Ivo Ekosse Ekosse, and John Ogony Odiyo. "Occurrence and Health-Risk Assessment of Trace Metals in Geothermal Springs within Soutpansberg, Limpopo Province, South Africa." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 12 (June 20, 2020): 4438. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124438.

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Geothermal springs are natural geological phenomena that occur throughout the world. South Africa is blessed with several springs of this nature. Limpopo province contains 31% of all geothermal springs in the country. The springs are classified according to the residing mountain: Soutpansberg, Waterberg and Drakensberg. This study focused on the geothermal springs within the Soutpansberg region; that is, Mphephu, Siloam, Sagole and Tshipise. The study was aimed at assessing the occurrence and potential health risk associated with drinking water from geothermal springs within Soutpansberg. Geothermal springs and boreholes were sampled for a period of 12 months (May 2017–May 2018) to accommodate two major seasons in the study areas. The physicochemical and trace metal compositions of the geothermal springs and boreholes (tepid and hot) were analyzed using ion chromatography (IC) (Dionex Model DX 500) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS). Trace metal concentrations of the geothermal springs and boreholes were within permissible drinking water guidelines by the South African National Standards (SANS) and World Health Organisation (WHO), with exception of mercury (Hg), which is high in summer season. The bioaccumulation from regular consumption could, however, result in negative effects. Pearson’s correlation revealed that there is a direct relationship between temperature and pH, and some of the trace metals (V, Zn, Hg, Pb). This implies dissolution of minerals (rock-water interaction) under slightly high temperature. Multivariate statistics further elucidate the relationship and possible sources of the trace metals. Therefore, it can be inferred that the rock-water interaction is the main geochemical process governing the release of trace metals in groundwater. Hazard Index values for both children and adults were higher than 1, and this implies that the communities are at high risk of non-cancer health effects. Further, As, Cr and Cd were found to be the highest contributors to the potential cancer risk in the study areas, with children having a higher risk than adults. Therefore, there is a need for clinical/epidemiological study, and regular monitoring and control measures, to verify actual prevalence of cancer and protect human health, particularly the children, within the study areas.

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STEVENS, G. "Melting, carbonic fluids and water recycling in the deep crust: an example from the Limpopo Belt, South Africa." Journal of Metamorphic Geology 15, no. 1 (January 1997): 141–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1314.1997.00010.x.

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Letsoalo, Mokgehle R., Taddese W. Godeto, Takalani Magadzu, and Abayneh A. Ambushe. "Quantitative Speciation of Arsenic in Water and Sediment Samples from the Mokolo River in Limpopo Province, South Africa." Analytical Letters 51, no. 17 (May 7, 2018): 2763–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00032719.2018.1450879.

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Monyai, Mpho, Rudzani A. Makhado, and Ntshenge O. Novhe. "Water quality of the Luvuvhu River and its tributaries within the Thulamela Local Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa." African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development 8, no. 5-6 (November 23, 2016): 439–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2016.1219504.

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Nefale, Avhashoni Dorcas, Ilunga Kamika, and Maggie Momba. "Non-Metropolitan Drinking Water Suppliers’ Response to the Diagnostic Tool for Non-Technical Compliance in Limpopo, South Africa." Water 9, no. 11 (November 3, 2017): 853. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w9110853.

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Meyer, David D., Courtney Hill, Kelly McCain, James A. Smith, Pascal O. Bessong, Elizabeth T. Rogawski McQuade, and Natasha C. Wright. "Embedding Usage Sensors in Point-of-Use Water Treatment Devices: Sensor Design and Application in Limpopo, South Africa." Environmental Science & Technology 55, no. 13 (June 16, 2021): 8955–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c08683.

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Tewari, D. D., and R. L. Kushwaha. "Socio-economics of groundwater management in Limpopo, South Africa: poverty reduction potential and resource management challenges." Water International 33, no. 1 (April 2, 2008): 69–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02508060801927630.

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Dabrowski, J. M., E. Masekoameng, and P. J. Ashton. "Analysis of virtual water flows associated with the trade of maize in the SADC region: importance of scale." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 13, no. 10 (October 23, 2009): 1967–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-13-1967-2009.

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Abstract. The concept of virtual water encourages a country to view agricultural crops in terms of the amount of water required to produce those crops, with a view to implementing trading policies that promote the saving of scarce water resources. Recently, increased attention has focussed on partitioning the virtual water content of crops into green and blue water (derived from rainfall and irrigation, respectively) as the latter has higher opportunity costs associated with its use and therefore impacts directly on scarcity. Maize is the most important crop traded within the SADC region. South Africa is the largest producer and exporter of maize, with the majority of its exports destined for other SADC countries. In comparison to other SADC countries, South Africa produces maize relatively efficiently, with a low virtual water content and a high green (868 m3 t−1) to blue (117 m3 t−1) water ratio. The blue water content is however higher than for maize produced in all other SADC countries, with the exception of Namibia (211 m3 t−1). Current trade patterns therefore result in a net expenditure of blue water (66×106 m3), almost all of which is exported by South Africa (65×106 m3). South Africa is one of the most water scarce countries in the region and analysis of virtual water flows indicates that current SADC maize trading patterns are influenced by national productivity as opposed to water scarcity. The virtual water content of maize was estimated for each of South Africa's nineteen Water Management Area's (WMA) and used as a proxy to represent water use efficiency for maize production. The virtual water content varied widely across all of the WMAs, ranging from 360 m3 t−1 in the Ustutu Mhlatuze to 1000 m3 t−1 in the Limpopo. A comparison of the virtual water content and production of maize (expressed as a percentage of the total national production) identified those WMAs where maize production is highly water inefficient (e.g. Lower Orange and Limpopo WMAs). Results suggest that, while a national estimate of the virtual water content of a crop may indicate a relatively efficient use of water, an analysis of the virtual water content at smaller scales can reveal inefficient use of water for the same crop. Therefore, analysis of the virtual water content of crops and trading of agricultural products at different spatial scales (i.e. regional, national and WMA) could be an important consideration within the context of water allocation, water use efficiency and alleviation of water scarcity.

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Dabrowski, J. M., E. Masekoameng, and P. J. Ashton. "Analysis of virtual water flows associated with the trade of maize in the SADC region: importance of scale." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 5, no. 5 (September 12, 2008): 2727–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-5-2727-2008.

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Abstract. The concept of virtual water encourages a country to view agricultural crops in terms of the amount of water required to produce those crops, with a view to implementing trading policies that promote the saving of scarce water resources. Recently, increased attention has focussed on partitioning the virtual water content of crops into green and blue water (derived from rainfall and irrigation, respectively) as the latter has higher opportunity costs associated with its use and therefore impacts directly on scarcity. Maize is the most important crop traded within the SADC region. South Africa is the largest producer and exporter of maize, with the majority of its exports destined for other SADC countries. In comparison to other SADC countries, South Africa produces maize relatively efficiently, with a low virtual water content and a high green (868 m3 tonne−1) to blue (117 m3 tonne−1) water ratio. The blue water content is however higher than for maize produced in all other SADC countries, with the exception of Namibia (211 m3 tonne−1). Current trade patterns therefore result in a net expenditure of blue water (66×106 m3), almost all of which is exported by South Africa (65×106 m3). South Africa is one of the most water scarce countries in the region and analysis of virtual water flows indicates that current SADC maize trading patterns are influenced by national productivity as opposed to water scarcity. The virtual water content of maize was estimated for each of South Africa's nineteen Water Management Area's (WMA) and used as a proxy to represent water use efficiency for maize production. The virtual water content varied widely across all of the WMAs, ranging from 360 m3 tonne-1 in the Ustutu Mhlatuze to 1000 m3 tonne−1 in the Limpopo. A comparison of the virtual water content and production of maize (expressed as a percentage of the total national production) identified those WMAs where maize production is highly water inefficient (e.g. Lower Orange and Limpopo WMAs). Results suggest that, while a national estimate of the virtual water content of a crop may indicate a relatively efficient use of water, an analysis of the virtual water content at smaller scales can reveal inefficient use of water for the same crop. Therefore, analysis of the virtual water content of crops and trading of agricultural products at different spatial scales (i.e. regional, national and WMA) could be an important consideration within the context of water allocation, water use efficiency and alleviation of water scarcity.

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Nguyen, Kathy H., Darwin J. Operario, Mzwakhe E. Nyathi, Courtney L. Hill, James A. Smith, Richard L. Guerrant, Amidou Samie, Rebecca A. Dillingham, Pascal O. Bessong, and Elizabeth T. Rogawski McQuade. "Seasonality of drinking water sources and the impact of drinking water source on enteric infections among children in Limpopo, South Africa." International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 231 (January 2021): 113640. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113640.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Ground water – South Africa – Limpopo'

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