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Lu, Yeow Chor. "Compensation grouting in clay." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1997. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/251618.
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Eisa, Khalid Osman Gafar Mohamed. "Compensation grouting in sand." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2009. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.611262.
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Ji, Heng. "Physical modelling of jet grouting process." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2008. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/252114.
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Tank experiment is carried out to investigate the mechanism involved in jet grouting. The observation shows the existence of both seepage and erosion at the intersurface between the injected fluid and the intact soil. The movement of the erosion front, which defines the radius of influence by the jet, can be best described by an exponential function. The influences of various operating parameters are studied, which agree with field observations. The pore water pressure profile measured during the experiment is closely linked with the progress of the erosion front. The pressure increases with the erosion distance, which is associated with the pressure required to drive the spoil back to the surface. A new model is constructed to estimate the ultimate cutting distance by the jet. The proposed model takes the spoil backflow into account in addition to the injected fluid/soil interaction. The jet behaviour is derived from the hydrodynamic characteristics of submerged jet. Based on the jet grouting mechanism, the failure of soil is checked in terms of the horizontal effective stress. The new model gives a more accurate estimation comparing to current models that only consider the soil resistance against the jet action. The new model is developed to cover jet grouting cases using single fluid and double fluid jet grouting systems.
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Sharpe, Colin James 1962. "Experimental effectiveness of rock fracture grouting." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 1990. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/291736.
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The objective of this investigation is to experimentally determine the effectiveness of fracture sealing in welded tuff using ordinary portland cement and microfine cement grouts. Fracture grouting will most likely be used to seal fractures intersecting high level nuclear waste repositories. Fractures are potential pathways for the migration of radionuclides. Laboratory experiments have been performed on seventeen tuff cylinders. (1) tension induced cracks, (2) natural and, (3) sawcut surfaces serve as fractures. Prior to grouting, the hydraulic conductivity of the intact rock and that of the fractures themselves are measured under a range of normal stresses. Grouts are injected through axial boreholes at pressures of 0.3 to 4.1 MPa while holding fractures under a constant normal stress. Five grout formulations have been selected. Minor amounts of bentonite (0 to 5 percent by weight) have been added to these grouts to increase stability. Water to cement ratios range from 0.45 to 1.0. Permeameter testing of grouted fractures is used to evaluate the effectiveness of fracture grouting.
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Chan, Shun-ming Raymond. "Application of permeation grouting in soils in Hong Kong /." View the Table of Contents & Abstract, 2005. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B36357595.
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Gothäll, Rikard. "Rock mass response during high pressure grouting." Licentiate thesis, KTH, Civil and Architectural Engineering, 2006. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-3853.
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The sealing of hard jointed rock by grouting involves several complicated mechanical systems. The result is a complex coupled system of hydro- logical and mechanical precesses. In order to determine the higher order effects of the resulting system the fracture deformations must be assessed. This requires a model that mimics the mechanical behaviour of not only fractures under normal load but also the entire rock mass system. This model indicates that there are two dominant regimes involved; a permeation regime and a high pressure regime.
The pressure limit that separates permeation grouting from high pressure grouting can then be found to be closely related to the in situ stress. In the high pressure regime the deformations may be large but very situation-dependent. The principal deformational eigenmodes of some boundary conditions are considered. The analysis indicates that the usage of high pressure grouting can be both benficial to the operation as well as increase the inflow of water to the excavation.
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Gothäll, Rikard. "Rock mass response during high pressure grouting /." Stockholm : Division of rock and soil mechanics, Royal Institute of Technology, 2006. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-3853.
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Schaffer, Andrew 1952. "PERMEABILITY TESTING AND GROUTING OF FRACTURED ROCK." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 1985. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/275420.
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Au, Si Kwong Alfred. "Fundamental study of compensation grouting in clay." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2001. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/272062.
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Ran, Chongwei. "Performance of fracture sealing with bentonite grouting." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1993. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/186118.
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A bentonite grouting technology has been developed to meet the requirements of fracture sealing for nuclear waste isolation and environmental engineering. The work reported presents an experimental evaluation of the performance of the bentonite fracture sealing in densely welded tuff. Included are the study of grout stability and resistance to erosion, theoretical and numerical analyses of the grout penetration process, pressure distribution in the fracture during grouting, grout delivery distance, breakthrough pressure and rheological characterization. Bentonite suspensions with solids content of 18, 20 and 22% by weight have been injected into single fractures in rock samples at 0.07 to 3.45 MPa pressure. Bentonite grouting reduces the fracture hydraulic conductivity by 7 to 9 orders in magnitude, to the level of 10⁻⁷ to 10⁻⁹ cm/s. Grout stability and erosion have been studied with long-term flow testing at up to 121 kPa hydraulic pressure. After 1,000 to 5,000 hours of flow testing, at pressure gradients of up to 91 cm/cm, the hydraulic conductivity of the grouted fracture does not increase with test time. The hydraulic conductivity of the grouted fracture decreases with increasing pressure gradient up to the wash-out pressure. Analytical solutions have been derived for pressure distribution during grouting in wedge shaped fractures and in fractures with constant aperture. Influence factors on pressure distribution in a fracture have been identified. They are yield stress, fracture shape, original aperture, deformation properties of the rock mass and the fracture, mixing of air in a grout and sample size. A mathematical solution of grout delivery distance under a given injection pressure has been developed. The breakthrough pressure has been studied, based on the mechanical deformation of the fracture applied by a normal stress across the fracture and by the grout pressure within the fracture during grouting. Results indicate that bentonite grouting is a promising fracture sealing technology. Bentonite grout has great hydraulic conductivity reduction and chemical physical stability. Some disadvantages of bentonite grout have been identified, such as the formation of hydraulic fractures in the grout and the washing away of grout particles when the applied pressure gradient is high enough.
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Wisser, Claus. "Numerical modelling of tunnel installation and compensation grouting." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2002. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.270185.
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Halai, H. "Compensation grouting to control deep excavation ground movements." Thesis, City, University of London, 2018. http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/20078/.
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The research conducted concerns the application of compensation grouting, particularly compaction grouting, as a method to reduce and control the ground movements generated in the soil by a deep retained excavation in firm to stiff clays. Compaction grouting involves the injection of grout into the soil to create a spherical or cylindrical grout bulb. This research investigates the effectiveness and limitations of the method to provide a preliminary understanding of the influence of the grouting volume, timing and position on the vertical settlements at the retained surface and horizontal displacements of the wall relative to the behaviour observed from the corresponding scenario in which only excavation occurs. Experimental data were obtained from a series of 10 successful centrifuge model tests undertaken at 100 g. The plane strain models consisted of a pre-formed 12 m deep (at prototype scale) retained excavation temporarily supported by the pressure of a dense fluid acting against the wall and formation surface and a relatively flexible retaining wall propped at the top. The dense fluid was removed and the subsequent soil movements at the retained surface, wall and the formation level were measured, using a combination of transducers and analysis of digital images taken of targets embedded in the front face of the model and wall. Three reference tests were conducted to establish the magnitude and pattern of soil and wall displacements generated by excavation alone. Idealised compaction grouting was modelled simultaneously with excavation in the remaining tests with the injection of ‘grout’ (water) into sealed latex tubes (supported by a perforated Nylon tube), inserted in the soil behind the excavation. The start of injection relative to the timing of the excavation varied amongst the tests. Grouting was continued until positive compensation of the local surface settlement was noted or significant horizontal displacements of the wall were observed. The tests showed that there appears to be no distinct relationship between the grout volume and the displacements at the retained surface above the injection and at a wall depth of 0.75 times the excavation depth, H due to injection. However, it was seen that for injections below a depth of 0.25H different critical volumes existed beyond which a positive compensation of the retained surface deteriorated or negative compensation increased at a greater rate. This was also reflected in the wall behaviour. The different injection initiation times showed that greater positive compensation effects could be achieved with injections up to a depth of 0.5H when conducted during the excavation, rather than in the period after. Timing had no influence on injections below this depth. The influence of injection timing was found to be secondary to the injection position. A linear relationship between the depth of injection and either positively or negatively compensated settlements was noted from the tests. Positive compensation of the ground surface is possible for injections conducted above a depth of 0.5H. However, below this depth a significant negative compensation effect on surface settlements and horizontal wall movements was noted regardless of timing or volume. Greater positive compensation effects and reduced negative effects on the wall were noted with increasing distance from the wall. Regions behind the wall have been identified where grouting provides positive compensation of the surface with minimal influence on the wall and where only negative effects are observed at both the surface and wall.
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Ran, Chongwei 1956. "Effectiveness of rock fracture sealing with bentonite grouting." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 1990. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/278016.
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A new fracture grouting technology has been developed to meet the requirements of high-level nuclear waste isolation. Bentonite fracture grouting tests are performed on a fracture model, made of circular acrylic plates with outer diameter of 30 cm and a central injection hole of 2.5 cm diameter. Suspensions with bentonite concentration of 9% to 31% have been injected into fractures with apertures of 9 to 39 microns under injection pressures less than 0.5 MPa. After grouting, the hydraulic conductivities of the fractures are reduced from the 10-1 to the 10-5 cm/s level. When the suspension is thin enough and the fracture is very small, channeling develops in the grouted fractures. Preliminary results indicate that the permeability of a grouted fracture does not increase with time in 125 days. The flow properties of bentonite suspensions, viscosity, shear stress, yield stress and gelation, are investigated. Water flow through ungrouted fractures and movement of water in bentonite grout are studied.
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CHIEREGATO, ALESSIO. "Permeation grouting of granular soils by innovative materials." Doctoral thesis, Politecnico di Torino, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/11583/2601354.
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The injection technique based on cement mixtures had a constant evolution since its first application in 1802 by Bérigny for the rehabilitation of masonry diving. Later it was implemented in France and England in the mid-1800s, but by the twentieth century it has started to spread and to globalize the method for applications related to the ground treatment. Initially it was used for the construction of hydraulic works mainly by injecting unstable cement suspensions, with which they could only deal fissured rocks and were therefore excluded granular soils. Then techniques moved to stable cement mixtures and finally to chemical solutions.
These technologies have been widely used in the construction of underground structures for roads, subways, as well as for the construction of underground structures in the proximity of existing buildings, where it is necessary the treatment of the soil in order to obtain an improvement of the mechanical and hydraulic characteristics of themselves. Nowadays, the research and experimentation are oriented towards innovative materials so as to broaden the application fields, in order to increase the penetration, and the achievement of high mechanical strength. This thesis has focused on performing injection tests on various soils with different characteristics. In the tests was set as a target, the study of two new materials such as colloidal nanosilica and microcements, through their characterization, their behavior during permeation in granular soils and consolidation that these materials can get. The application of these mixtures depends on several external parameters which vary from the characteristics of the soil, up to the used techniques of injection; for this reason, even today the fields of application are not well defined.
The tests carried out in the laboratory of Tunnel and Underground Space Center of the Politecnico di Torino, since there is no normative references, was based on procedures designed ex novo, or in some cases, on standards for geotechnical methods and to the concretes, depending of appropriate theoretical and practical considerations.
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譚樂夫 and Lok-fu Ralph Tam. "Grouting: a review on minimsing [sic] water inflow for subsea rock tunnel excavation." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2000. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B30425220.
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Tam, Lok-fu Ralph. "Grouting : a review on minimsing [sic] water inflow for subsea rock tunnel excavation /." Hong Kong : University of Hong Kong, 2000. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B22188599.
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Tuncdemir, Fatih. "A Laboratory Study Of Fracture Grouting Technique In Sand." Phd thesis, METU, 2008. http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12609768/index.pdf.
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In this study, fracture grouting technique of saturated, granular soils of different fine content were investigated. Model tests were carried out by using fluid particulate grouts namely micro fine cement and ordinary portland cement grouts. Basically, relationships were obtained between soil conditions (grain size distribution, relative density, overburden stress) and grouting parameters (type of grout, grouting pressure, amount of injected grout, rheological properties of the grout or water/solids ratio). At the end of the tests the soil specimens were exposed and the final grout shapes were observed and correlated with the grouting parameters. Response of soil specimens to grouting process under different grouting pressures and grout compositions was analyzed. Amount of heave occurred at the top of the specimen during injections was recorded at each test.
Micro fine cement grout and ordinary portland cement grout showed significant differences rheologically. Micro fine cement grout, with much higher Blaine fineness, lower specific gravity, lower viscosity and cohesion, lower bleed and filtration coefficients, made it possible to fracture the fine sandy soils of different fine content.
Results of tests performed with micro fine cement grouts show that fracturing pressure generally decreases with an increase in the water content of the grout but generally increases as the fine content of the soil increases.
A higher relative density of the soil increases the fracturing pressure significantly.
The volumes of grout injected into soil specimens until fracturing show an increasing tendency as the water/solids ratio decrease.
Ordinary portland cement grout, on the other hand, exposed to high pressure filtration during grouting in relatively clean sand and addition of some amount of kaolinite or fines is required to reduce the filtration percentages during grouting in order to fracture grout the sandy soil. Filtration due to high permeabilities results in accumulation of cement particles around the injection point and grouting tends to take a form similar to compaction grouting.
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Brynjolfsson, Brynjolfur. "Evaluation of the Grouting Methodology used in the Stockholm City Line Project." Thesis, KTH, Jord- och bergmekanik, 2014. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-147619.
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As part of the Stockholm City Line project a grouting design was conducted and documentedduring the planning phase, based on theoretical grounds. This comprehensive design is the first of its kind for a tunneling project in Sweden. Due to the scale of the undertaking, the general design was ordered by the Swedish Transport Administration (Trafikverket) to apply for the pregrouting operations at the City Line’s rock tunnels. During the local design however, the grouting work developed differently within each sub-project from what was prescribed by the original design. This thesis project was carried out in cooperation with Trafikverket and concerns subjects related to the general grouting design for the City Line. The emphasis is on describing the general design, its theoretical background, and further to investigate what modifications were made during the local design. It was also to discuss the reasons and justifications for the changes at each sub-project. A detailed analysis of the grouting results at chosen sub-projects of the City Line has been performed, including: Vasatunnel & Odenplan Norrmalmstunnel Norrströmstunnel Södermalmstunnel The evaluation of results featured a calculation of sealing effects for the track tunnels at the different sites, which were then compared to the inflow requirements set by the Swedish Environmental Court. Further, a section of each sub-project was analyzed with respect to both pumping time and grout consumption. In total 96 pre-grouting fans, including approximately 2900 grouting holes were analyzed for this purpose. The goal was to identify the most economical method of grouting at the City Line, which still met all the demands regarding inleakage. The performed study showed that for all sub-projects the local grouting proceedings evolved considerably, although to varying extents, from the originally designed grouting concepts. In general the designed concepts were quite conservative, and not entirely applicable for grouting at large parts in its unchanged form. However they were hugely beneficial as excellent basis for local modifications made considering site specific conditions.Performed calculations showed that the grouting works at all the sub-projects provided sealing which fulfilled the requirements set by the Environmental court. However the pumping times and material consumption were different between all of them, which provided a basis for a discussion on how economical the grouting was at each site.If documenting of grouting methods and designs is carried on in future tunneling projects, especially of similar scale as the City Line, the knowledge gained can be transferred from one project to the next. Thus consistently building up further understanding on the complexities of hard rock grouting.I anslutning till förprojekteringen av Citybanan-projektet i Stockholm genomfördes den första dokumenterade dimensioneringen av förinjektering för ett större tunnelprojekt i Sverige baserat på teoretiska grunder. Denna dimensionering beställdes av Trafikverket för att fungera som en utgångspunkt för förinjekteringen på Citybanans bergtunnlar. I samband med detaljprojekteringen och byggfasen av de olika delprojekten inom Citybanan, utvecklades förinjekteringen emellertid olika.Detta examensarbete genomfördes i samarbete med Trafikverket och behandlar frågeställningar relaterade till det injekteringskoncept som togs fram i samband med förprojekteringen.Tyngdpunkten ligger på att beskriva den ursprungliga dimensioneringen av förinjekteringen, dess teoretiska bakgrund samt vilka ändringar som genomfördes under detaljprojektering och byggfasen inom de olika delprojekten. Vidare diskuteras orsakerna och motiveringarna till de utförda förändringarna inom varje delprojekt. Därutöver genomfördes en detaljerad analys av resultaten från injekteringen vid de utvalda delprojekten inom Citybanan. Följande delprojekt ingick i analysen: Vasatunneln och Odenplan Norrmalmstunneln Norrströmstunneln Södermalmstunneln Utvärdering av resultaten innefattade en beräkning av tätningseffekterna för spårtunnlarna vid de olika delprojekten, vilka sedan jämfördes med tätningskraven som har fastställts av Miljödomstolen. Vidare analyserades en del av varje delprojekt med avseende på både pumptid och konsumtion av injekteringsbruk. Totalt analyserades 96 injekteringsskärmar som inkluderar cirka 2900 injekteringshål. Målet var att identifiera den mest ekonomiska metoden för injektering vid Citybanan som samtidigt uppfyller alla krav på inläckage.Den utförda studien visade att inom samtliga delprojekt vidareutvecklades det ursprungliga injekteringskonceptet i olika omfattning från det ursprungliga. Generellt var det ursprungligen utformade konceptet för förinjekteringen för konservativt och inte helt tillämplig för injektering på alla delar av Citybanan i oförändrad form. Men den utgjorde en bra bas för de lokala modifieringar som gjordes med avseende på platsspecifika förhållanden.Analysen av de utförda injekteringsarbetena visade att samtliga delprojekt uppfyllde de krav på tätning som fastställdes av Miljödomstolen. Pumptider och materialförbrukning mellan de olika delprojekten var emellertid starkt varierande. Resultaten från analysen utgjorde ett underlag för en diskussion om vilka injekteringsmetodiker vid de olika delprojekten som var mest kostnadseffektiva.Genom att dokumentera och analysera den dimensionering av injektering och injekteringsmetodik, såsom genomförts i detta examensarbete, i framtida större tunnelprojekt såsom Citybanan kan den erhållna kunskapen överföras från ett projekt till nästa. På så vis kan det konsekvent byggas upp en ökad förståelse och erfarenhet kring injektering i hårt berg.
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Chan, Shun-ming Raymond, and 陳順明. "Application of permeation grouting in soils in Hong Kong." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2005. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B45014267.
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Forbes, Ryan Heath. "Installing reinforced concrete piles using jetting and compaction grouting." [Gainesville, Fla.] : University of Florida, 2007. http://purl.fcla.edu/fcla/etd/UFE0021346.
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Eliasson, Cecilia. "Intensities as Tools in Grouting Evaluations - Using Data from the North Link and Stockholm City Line." Thesis, KTH, Jord- och bergmekanik, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-92557.
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Yew, Chin Chuan. "An experimental study of hydrofracture in soils." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.262869.
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Yaghoobi, Rafi Jalaleddin. "Study of Pumping Pressure and Stop Criteria in Grouting of Rock Fractures." Doctoral thesis, KTH, Jord- och bergmekanik, 2014. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-155323.
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Today practice of grouting is based on empirical approaches in that, pumping pressure and stop criteria are determined by benchmarking similar projects. Considering a maximum limit for grouting pressure would allow applying a relatively high pressure that may lead to jacking of the fracture or even uplift of the rock mass. On the other hand, keeping the pressure lower than the overburden, in order to avoid any deformation, will prolong grouting process. Determination of pumping pressure is more complicated considering the induced energy to the rock fracture due to combination of the injected volume and pumping pressure. In other word, pressurizing large volume of the injected grout with a low pumping pressure establish the same force inside the fracture as the high applied grouting pressure on small injected volume do. Therefore, an stop criterion to limit grouting volume along with grouting pressure, which is a hyperbola trimming maximum pressure-maximum volume limits and named as grout intensity number (GIN), has been defined. However, in using this stop criterion and at completion point, the state of the fracture and the distance that grout spread inside the fracture are unknown. As a theoretical approach, examining the flow of the Bingham fluid in network of fractures led to development of a numerical model and later an analytical solution, which enabled estimation of distance that grout spread in the fractures in real time. Finally, theoretical curves to limit elastic and ultimate jacking were established to limit grout pressure in correlation with depth of grout penetration by considering the state of the fracture. Despite empirical and theoretical developments, determination of optimum grouting pressure is still challenging. In this study, In addition to examining performance of the analytical solution in estimation of grout spread and distinguishing onset of fracture jacking, the goal is coming up with recommendations for selection of optimum grouting pressure, by examining mechanism of elastic jacking. For this purpose, negative aspects of fracture deformation, which are increase of grouting time and remaining transmissivity, were quantified and discussed against its positive effect on increase of penetrability. By that, application of a relatively high pressure was recommended in order to opening of the fracture to a permitted level, with purpose of increasing penetrability while considering negative effects of elastic jacking. The stop criterion is defined as the grouting time of achieving the required distance of grout spread at the highest applicable grouting pressure. In examining empirical methods, in grouting of fractures in deep levels, pressure-depth graph suggests usage of higher pressure in compare with the estimated pressure by theory while GIN method is conservative. In further studies GIN was estimated analytically and applying a relatively high grouting pressure in order to opening the fracture, up to attaining the hyperbola, and continuation of grouting with decreasing trend, in order to bringing the fracture back to its initial size at refusal, were proposed. Complexity of using this methodology in compare with theoretical approach was discussed. As the future work, there is a need to verify the results in the field, and to confirm well performance of this analytical solution in different geologies. Examining variation of grout mixture properties during grouting program as well as significance of simplification of geological pattern to a single horizontal fracture, in that grout flow radially, are among other future studies that can develop this theoretical application further.QC 20141106
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Meng, Bowen. "State of the Art Report on Cement Based Grout Properties and Dynamic Grouting." Thesis, KTH, Jord- och bergmekanik, 2021. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-302699.
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Dynamic grouting in rock mass has been studied since 1985 while desired penetration in rock masses with fine fractures is still a challenge because of uncertainty and complexity in the grouting process. This has attracted the attention of researchers in different countries and regions, especially in some Nordic countries such as Sweden. This study presents a comprehensive review of grouting relevant research, including factors that influence penetration, different evaluation systems (equipment, and methods), and a variety of grouting techniques. Filtration as the main obstacle is a tendency that particles of suspensions would gradually separate from the flow and block the flow path. Hence, the effects of various factors on filtration are discussed in detail based on previous research and experiments. Factors such as temperature, grain size, and w/c ratio were found to have a dominant influence on filtration stability and rheology. This means rheology and filtration are highly coupled and brings more difficulties in penetration investigation with dynamic grouting. Therefore, the influence of each factor on rheology and filtration was discussed to help with the understanding of the mechanism in different grouting techniques. Then a review of dynamic grouting methods from 1985 is made in chronological order to find the limitations on existing equipment and evaluation methods. Even it is difficult to conclude the most efficient grouting method in micro-fractures without the quantitative comparison of efficiency, this review paves the way to a more systematic exploration of novel grouting equipment and techniques. Meanwhile, a contradiction regarding the influence of high-frequency oscillatory pressure on viscosity was revealed. Rather than rapid dissipation of pressure in the slots, the thermal effect caused by high-frequency oscillatory grouting is introduced to explain its adverse impact on penetration in fractures (250 and 100μm). The potential reason is the faster hydration of grouts resulted from the increased temperature and the speed of molecular motion. In the end, by evaluating the benefits from different combinations of grouting methods. It was found that the ultrasound dispersing method along with low-frequency rectangular pressure impulse would contribute to the rheology and filtration stability in the mixing and grouting phase respectively. With the application of CDF simulation, this proposal and the assumption of the thermal effect of high-frequency oscillatory pressure can be better verified in future research.Dynamisk injektering i bergmassa har studerats sedan 1985. Önskad tätning av bergmassor med fina sprickor är dock fortfarande en utmaning på grund av osäkerhet och komplexitet i injekteringsprocessen. Detta har uppmärksammats av forskare i olika länder och regioner, särskilt i nordiska länder såsom Sverige. Denna studie presenterar en omfattande granskning av relevant forskning, inklusive faktorer som påverkar penetration, olika utvärderingssystem (utrustning och metoder) och en mängd olika injekteringstekniker. Filtrering som ett huvudsakligt hinder är en tendens att partiklar av cementsuspensioner gradvis separerar och blockerar flödesbanan, främst i små sprickor. Därför diskuteras effekterna av olika faktorer på filtrering i detalj baserat på tidigare forskning och experiment. Faktorer som temperatur, kornstorlek och vattencementtal har en dominerande påverkan på filtreringsstabilitet och reologi. Detta innebär att reologi och filtrering är starkt kopplade och medför fler svårigheter vid injektering. Därför diskuteras varje faktors påverkan på reologi och filtrering för att hjälpa till att förstå mekanismen i olika injekteringstekniker. Därefter görs en översyn av dynamiska injekteringsmetoder från 1985 i kronologisk ordning för att hitta begränsningarna för befintlig utrustning och utvärderingsmetoder. Även om det är svårt att avgöra den mest effektiva injekteringsmetoden vid mikrofrakturer, utan den kvantitativa jämförelsen av effektivitet, banar denna översyn vägen för en mer systematisk studie av ny injekteringsutrustning och teknik. Samtidigt påvisades en motsättning angående påverkan av högfrekvent oscillerande tryck på viskositeten. I stället för en snabb tryckförlust i sprickor introduceras den termiska effekten som orsakas av högfrekvent oscillerande injektering för att förklara dess negativa inverkan på penetration i tunna sprickor (250 och 100μm). Den potentiella orsaken är den snabbare hydratiseringen av injekteringsmedel som beror på den ökade temperaturen och hastigheten på molekylär rörelse. Genom att i slutändan utvärdera fördelarna med olika kombinationer av injekteringsmetoder. Det har visat sig att metoden med ultraljud för att dispergera injekteringsbruket tillsammans med lågfrekvent rektangulär tryckimpuls påverkar reologin och filtreringsstabiliteten i blandnings- och injekteringsfasen. Med tillämpningen av CDF-simulering kan antagandet om den termiska effekten av högfrekvent oscillerande tryck verifieras bättre i framtida forskning.
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Lagerlund, Johan. "Remedial Injection Grouting of Embankment Dams with Non-Hardening Grouts." Licentiate thesis, KTH, Civil and Architectural Engineering, 2009. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-9991.
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The focus of this thesis is to study the possibility of injection grouting of embankment dams affected by internal erosion. Internal erosion is a process where certain soil material from an embankment dam is removed. This phenomenon occurs in the central core of the embankment dam. If the internal erosion is allowed to continue over a longer period of time, the dam might face a fatal situation. Since the dam core is washed out, larger voids are created, thus lowering the geotechnical stability of the dam. If the voids become larger, more seepage is allowed to pass and if more seepage passes, the internal erosion process is accelerated. The central core in an embankment dam is preferably constructed with till. Till is a natural soil that origins from the ice age. The till contains a wide range of grain sizes, basically anything from clay to blocs. The mixture of grain sizes does however give the till characteristics that are highly desirable for a water retaining construction. It is cohesive, has a low permeability, a high angle of internal friction and can be found practically anywhere in Sweden. In an embankment dam the core is the water barrier. The core alone is however weak and cannot withstand the large external forces put on a dam construction. Because of this, several zones are constructed on both sides of the core. The first zone outside the core is the filter. The filter has no cohesion and is constructed with a coarser material than the core. Outside the filter, the shell is found. The shell is constructed with even coarser material than the filter and supports the entire dam structure. Outside the shell the riprap is found. The riprap protects the dam from erosive forces such as wave erosion, ice loads and heavy rainfalls. The filters main task is to protect the core from being washed out. Since the till in the core has a wide range of grain sizes, a constant rate of seepage may start to move its finer particles (clay, silt). If the filter doesn’t catch these moving particles, a loss of material will occur. This is the basis for internal erosion. If the till has a smooth particle size distribution curve it is less prone to internal erosion. The smoothness of the curve ensures that the different grain sizes involved are evenly distributed. The finer particles are mechanically locked in place by coarser particles, which in turn are mechanically locked by even coarser grains. Finally, the soil structure is more able to withstand the erosive forces provided by the seepage. If the finer particles aren’t mechanically locked and eroded by the seepage, the filter must be designed to catch them. Therefore, internal erosion occurs only if both the till and the filter flaws. If the internal erosion is continuous, the loss of material must be replaced. By doing so without dismantling the dam, injection grouting can be performed. The grout will replace the lost core material and restore the dam. The type of grout can basically be divided into two sub groups: 1. Hardening grouts; 2. Flexible grouts.
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Yaghoobi, Rafi Jalaleddin. "Design approaches for grouting of rock fractures; Theory and practice." Licentiate thesis, KTH, Jord- och bergmekanik, 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-122376.
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Currently, cement base grout is used widely for sealing of the rock fractures in order to decrease the permeability of rock mass. Grouting procedure is one of the main tasks in cycle of rock excavation. In addition, huge amount of grout should be used during dam construction in order to seal the bedding and embankment walls. Therefore, considering the effect of grouting in duration and cost of the project, improving the design methods seems essential. In successful grouting the goal is to achieve the required sealing of fractures while avoiding ground movement due to applied pressure. Empirical methods have been developed to decide the pumping pressure, grout mix properties and stop criteria in order to fulfill requirements of successful grouting but there are ambiguities in using them and performance of them have been questioned. In these methods, assumptions and criteria are based on rules of thumbs and experiences from previous projects. The main uncertainties connected to these methods are identifying amount of grout spread and state of the fracture. Theoretical approach is an analytical solution which provides the chance for estimation of penetration length of the grout in real time. Furthermore, void filling fracture aperture and trend of the grout flow are estimated. As the development of this theory, elastic and ultimate jacking limits have been established based on the estimated penetration length. Therefore, it is possible to identify jacking of the fracture and estimate the state of the fracture in real time. In this research work, performance of this theoretical approach which is called “Real Time Grouting Control Method” has been validated through case studies. Properties of the used material, data for pressure and flow in addition to geological characteristics have been gathered from projects in sedimentary rock (Gotvand Dam in Iran and THX Dam in Laos) and hard rock (City Line Project in Sweden). This theory made it possible to observe overflow of grout and jacking of the fractures in sedimentary rock. In place of hard rock with mostly vertical fractures, this theoretical approach confirms usage of higher pressure which will shorten the grouting time. In this research work, variation in properties of the grout mix during grouting has been neglected. moreover, orientation of the fracture and its deformation due to injection pressure are not considered. Despite these assumptions, the results were promising and performance this approach in estimation of grout spread and identifying jacking of the fracture has been verified.QC 20130520
Rafi, J, Stille, H, Bagheri, M, 2012. Applying “Real Time Grouting Control Method” in Sedimentary Rock, in 4th International Conference on Grouting and Deep Mixing. 16-18 February, New Orleans-USA.
Rafi J, Stille H, 2013. Controlling jacking of rock considering spread of grout and grouting pressure, Accepted in Journal of Tunneling and Underground Space Technology.
Rafi J, Tsuji M, Stille H, 2013. Theoretical Approaches in Grouting Fractures of the Rock Mass: Theories and Applications. Accepted in the 47th US Rock Mechanics / Geomechanics Symposium. 23-26 June, San Francisco, CA, USA.
Rafi J, Tsuji M, Stille H, 2013. Theoretical approaches in grouting design: estimation of penetration length and fracture deformation in real time in Bergmekanikdagen, 11 March, Stockholm-Sweden.
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Černiavska, Irena. "Pagrindų injekcijos metodų naudojimo pastatų rekonstrukcijai tyrimai." Master's thesis, Lithuanian Academic Libraries Network (LABT), 2008. http://vddb.library.lt/obj/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02~2008~D_20080626_161237-65581.
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Baigiamajame magistro darbe apžvelgiami pamatų ir pagrindų stiprinimo būdai. Laboratorijoje atliktas sustiprinto natrio silikato tirpalu grunto tyrimas, nustatyta jo mechaninių savybių priklausomybė nuo bandinių kietėjimo laiko. Nagrinėjamas pagrindų injekcijos metodų naudojimas pastatų rekonstrukcijai. Taikant COSMOS programinį paketą įražos apskaičiuotos šiais atvėjais: 1. Sudarius erdvinį grunto masyvo modelį, kai gruntas po pastato pamatu nesustiprintas; 2. Kai gruntas sustiprintas porų injekcijos (angl. Grouting) metodu; 3. Kai gruntas sustiprintas srautinės injekcijos (angl. Jet-grouting) metodu. Palyginamas įtempių sklidimas ir poslinkių kaita grunte (smėlis). Gautų atsakymų analizavimas.Foundations and grounds strengthening methods were reviewed in this Master thesis work. The test of soil strengthened with sodium silicate solution was accmlished in the laboratory. Dependence of soil mechanical characteristics from samples solidification time was ascertained. Usage of grounds injection menthods for reconstruction of buildings was investigated. Applying COSMOS program package the efforts were estimated in such cases: 1. forming the dimensional model of soil solid when the soil under the foundations of the building is not strengthened; 2. when the soil is sthrengthened using the Grounting method; 3. when the soil is strengthened using the Jet-grounting method. Spread of strains and vicissitude of shifts in the soil (sand) were compared. The analysis of obtained results was made.
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Nikolaev, Simon. "Evaluation of high pressures in grouting using RTGC - a case study." Thesis, KTH, Jord- och bergmekanik, 2015. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-175147.
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“Real time grouting control method” är ett koncept för att övervaka och bedöma spridningen av injekteringsbruk under injektering. Målet är att kunna använda penetrationsavstånd som stopkriterium och att kunna övervaka hur injekteringsarbetet fortskrider i realtid, vilket skulle göra injekteringsarbetet mer tids- och kostnadseffektivt. Teorin har prövats med data från ett tunnelprojekt i Sverige med kristallint berg från prekambrium-eran, och med data från dammprojekt i Iran och Laos med sedimentärt berg, samtliga med lovande resultat. RTGC-teorin har nyligen vidareutvecklats, där bedömningar och begränsningar angående jacking föreslås, utifrån en kombination av injekteringstryck och spridning av injekteringsbruk. Teorin har tvecklats både för elastisk jacking, där deformationer kan kompenseras för, och för plastisk jacking, där deformationerna är permanenta. Effekterna av höga tryck och jacking kan uppskattas och de eventuella negativa konsekvenserna kvantifieras. Mer specifikt ligger fokus på vilken påverkan sprickdeformationer kan ha på penetrationsavståndet och på transmissiviteten i en spricka. Syftet med detta examensarbete har varit att undersöka vilka effekter höga injekteringstryck har på injekteringsprocessen av en tunnel med avseende på jacking. I examensarbetet har teorin för RTGC använts för att analysera data från ett järnvägstunnelsprojekt i Norge, där betydligt högre injekteringstryck än i Sverige generellt sett används. Teorin har kunnat appliceras på data framgångsrikt, även om mindre anpassningar varit nödvändiga. Orsaken till anpassningarna är att teorin främst är utvecklad för ett mer eller mindre konstant injekteringstryck, samtidigt som ett varierande injekteringstryck i viss utsträckning använts i det norska projektet. Resultaten tyder på att det skulle vara möjligt att spara både tid och pengar med hjälp av RTGC, genom att minska åtgången av både tid och injekteringsbruk. Resultaten antyder även att höga injekteringstryck kan orsaka betydande jacking om geologin och sprickornas orientering och längd är ogynnsamma. Om och i vilken utsträckning jackingen påverkar den slutliga tätningen av bergmassan har emellertid inte kunnat studeras i detta projekt, då data kring inläckage ej varit tillgänglig vid genomförandet av analysen. Vidare visas, trots vissa antaganden och förenklingar i den geologiska modellen, att denna teoretiska modell möjliggör en bedömning av effekterna som injekteringstrycket har på det slutliga resultatet. Detta bör kunna användas för att välja ett optimalt injekteringstryck.The “Real Time Grouting Control Method” is a concept for governing the grout spread during a grouting operation. The goal is to be able to use the penetration length as stop criterion and to be able to monitor the progress of the grouting operation in real-time, which would make grouting operations more efficient in terms of time and cost. The theory has been tested with data from tunnelling projects in Sweden with pre-cambium rock, and with data from dam projects in Iran and in Laos with sedimentary rock, all with promising results. Recently there have been developments in the RTGC-theory that propose jacking limits based on a combination of grout pressure and spread of grout, both for elastic jacking, where deformations can be compensated for, and ultimate jacking, where deformations are permanent. With the theory, the effects of high pressures and elastic jacking can be assessed, and the negative consequences of elastic jacking can be quantified. Specifically, the focus is on the effect that fracture deformation may have on the distance that the grout penetratesinto a fracture, and on the transmissivity of a fracture. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate what effects high grouting pressures may have on the grouting process with respect to jacking. To obtain this, the theory is used to analyse data from a railway tunnel project in Norway, where considerably higher grouting pressures than in Sweden are used. The application of the theory has been successful, even though some minor adaptions have been necessary. The reason for the adaptions is that the RTGC-theory is developed for a more or less constant grouting pressure, while a varying pressure to some extent has been applied in the Norwegian project. The results suggest that using RTGC could save time and money by reducing grouting time and grout volume. The results also suggest that the high grouting pressures may cause considerable jacking if the geology and fracture situation is unfavourable. If and to what extent the jacking affects the final tightness of the rock mass has however not been possible to determine, given that data regarding measured leakage has not been available at the time for this analysis. It is shown that despite assumptions and simplifications in the geological model, using this theoretical approach enables the estimation of the effect that the grouting pressure has on the outcome of the performed grouting, arguably allowing for the optimum grouting pressure to be selected.
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McKinley, John David. "Grouted ground anchors and the soil mechanics aspects of cement grouting." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1993. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.483424.
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Rodrigues, Daniel Filipe Neves. "Jet Grouting - controlo de qualidade em terrenos do miocénio de Lisboa." Master's thesis, FCT - UNL, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/10362/1951.
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Dissertação apresentada na Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Geológica (Geotecnia)As técnicas de melhoramento de terrenos têm vindo a ser desenvolvidas e aplicadas com maior frequência no âmbito da crescente realização de obras de engenharia em locais de fracas características geotécnicas. A presente dissertação versa sobre uma dessas técnicas, o jet grouting, e aborda os seus aspectos mais relevantes. Neste contexto, efectua-se uma breve referência às aplicações mais frequentes da técnica, dos respectivos sistemas, das variáveis que a influenciam, bem como dos procedimentos executivos e equipamentos utilizados. Referem-se ainda as vantagens, desvantagens e condicionalismos do jet. É dado especial ênfase ao controlo de qualidade no contexto do processo executivo. A dissertação prossegue com a apresentação de um caso de obra, descrevendo-se o acompanhamento dos trabalhos de controlo de qualidade da execução de colunas de jet grouting, em terrenos miocénicos, no Metropolitano de Lisboa, na construção de um trecho, em túnel, do prolongamento da Linha Vermelha, entre a estação do Oriente e o Aeroporto da Portela. Finalmente, sumarizam-se as principais conclusões e sugerem-se alguns trabalhos futuros de investigação nesta temática.
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Alrtimi, Abdulbaset Ahmed. "Experimental investigation of thermal conductivity of soils and borehole grouting materials." Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10443/2723.
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Exploitation of thermogeology energy in heating and cooling of buildings starts to spread worldwide as an alternative renewable source of heat energy. The thermal conductivity of soils is among the critical parameters required to achieve a proper design of ground heat exchangers or any underground systems that involve thermo-active processes. This research is a part of study related to the laboratory measurements of thermal conductivity of soils and thermal grouts used for borehole heat exchangers. The first part of this project involves a design of a new thermal cell that can be used to measure the thermal conductivity of soils. The design of the apparatus is based on the application of Fourier’s law at steady state condition where unidirectional heat flux is generated through two identical specimens. A new concept of minimizing the radial heat losses that occur due to the ambient temperature interface (ATI) using a thermal jacket as a heat insulation barrier has been introduced in the design and experimentally performed. The obtained results and the analysis of the heat flow reveal that the longitudinal heat flow can be maximized and the radial heat flow can be minimized when the thermal jacket is used with proper temperature control. Also, it has been revealed that the measured thermal conductivity of soils is sensitive to further boundary conditions such as thermocouples and temperature of sink disks. In addition to its simplicity, the new cell can be used for undisturbed field samples (U100 samples) as well as laboratory-prepared specimens. The sample preparation and the test procedure for the two different soil conditions highlighted the simplicity of using the new apparatus in measurement of the thermal conductivity of soils. The second part of this research concerns a production of new thermal grout for borehole heat exchangers using unwanted industrial and domestic materials (PFA and ground glass-low cost) and the commodity fluorspar, all of which have relatively high thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity of different PFA based grouts that comprise different enhancing materials at different mix proportions has been measured dry and at saturation using the new thermal call. The results highlighted the effect of mineralogy and the particle size distribution of the mix constituents on the thermal conductivity of the grout. The results showed that a combination of fluorspar with coarse ground glass can provide good thermal enhancement in both dry and saturated conditions. The grout that consist of 20% cement, 30% PFA, 15% coarse ground glass and 35% fluorspar by weight with dry and saturated thermal conductivity of 1.283 and 1.985 W/m respectively can be considered as a suitable grout that can be used successfully in UK. Comparing with thermally enhanced bentonite (1.46 W/m.K), it is expected that with London Clay Formation optimal performance of borehole heat exchangers and cost savings would be achieved using the selected grout. The work done in the final part can be considered as an application of the new steady state thermal cell in the estimation of the thermal conductivity of sandy soils. Also, it can be considered as a case study where the thermal conductivity was measured for soils that have not been previously thermally tested (Tripoli sand). The effects of the porosity and degree of saturation on the thermal conductivity of Tripoli sand were investigated. The results of twenty experimental tests showed that the effect of the saturation degree is significant compared with the effect of dry density especially at saturation degree less that 10%. Also, the results revealed that the thermal conductivity is approximately linearly proportional to the dry density at all levels of saturation. The validation of some existing selected prediction models showed that none of the selected models is able to correctly match the thermal conductivity of Tripoli sand at all conditions. However, some models were more accurate than others in certain conditions. It is also concluded that all presented models failed to estimate the thermal conductivity of such soil in low or partially saturated conditions where convection started to play a role in the heat transfer mode. On the other hand, the variation of thermal conductivity of Tripoli sand can be fittingly described as logarithmic function of the water content at all levels of porosity with R2 value ranges between 0.9694 and 0.9732. As a result, an empirical model based on the experimental results expressing the thermal conductivity in terms of water content and porosity has been obtained and validated.
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Dillon, Patrick. "Shear Strength Prediction Methods for Grouted Masonry Shear Walls." BYU ScholarsArchive, 2015. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/4395.
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The research in this dissertation is divided between three different approaches for predicting the shear strength of reinforcement masonry shear walls. Each approach provides increasing accuracy and precision in predicting the shear strength of masonry walls. The three approaches were developed or validated using data from 353 wall tests that have been conducted over the past half century. The data were collected, scrutinized, and synthesized using principles of meta-analysis. Predictions made with current Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) shear strength equation are unconservative and show a higher degree of variation for partially-grouted walls. The first approach modifies the existing MSJC equation to account for the differences in nominal strength and uncertainty between fully- and partially-grouted walls. The second approach develops a new shear strength equation developed to perform equally well for both fully- and partially-grouted walls to replace and improve upon the current MSJC equation. The third approach develops a methodology for creating strut-and-tie models to analyze or design masonry shear walls. It was discovered that strut-and-tie modeling theory provides the best description of masonry shear wall strength and performance. The masonry strength itself provides the greatest contribution to the overall shear capacity of the wall and can be represented as diagonal compression struts traveling from the top of the wall to the compression toe. The shear strength of masonry wall is inversely related to the shear span ratio of the wall. Axial load contributes to shear strength, but to a lesser degree than what has been previously believed. The prevailing theory about the contribution of horizontal shear reinforcement was shown to not be correct and the contribution is much smaller than was originally assumed by researchers. Horizontal shear reinforcement principally acts by resisting diagonal tensile forces in the masonry and by helping to redistribute stresses in a cracked masonry panel. Vertical reinforcement was shown to have an effect on shear strength by precluding overturning of the masonry panel and by providing vertical anchorages to the diagonal struts.
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MUÑOZ, CHRISTIAN CLAUDE ELESCANO. "NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COMPACTION GROUTING TECHNIQUE IN A LOOSE SAND DEPOSIT." PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO, 2014. http://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/Busca_etds.php?strSecao=resultado&nrSeq=27809@1.
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PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIROCOORDENAÇÃO DE APERFEIÇOAMENTO DO PESSOAL DE ENSINO SUPERIOR
PROGRAMA DE EXCELENCIA ACADEMICA
Bulbos de compactação é uma técnica de melhoramento de solos cujo objetivo consiste na injeção controlada de argamassa para deslocar e densificar o solo sem o fraturar. A principal aplicação desta técnica foi para a correção de problemas de recalques em estruturas, portanto, não estava voltada para a melhoria solo. Este estudo apresenta alguns resultados da melhoria do solo mediante injeção de bulbos em um depósito de areia fofa seca e saturada comparando soluções numérica e analítica. A análise numérica consiste em sequências de expansões de cavidade esférica do bulbo de compactação utilizando um modelo axissimétrico no Plaxis 2D e um modelo tridimensional no Plaxis 3D, em ambos representando o comportamento mecânico do solo com os modelos constitutivos de Mohr-Coulomb ou HSM, enquanto a solução analítica considera hipóteses de ruptura por cisalhamento cônico no solo acima do ponto de injeção. A eficiência da técnica dos bulbos de compactação é avaliada principalmente em termos do aumento da razão entre tensões radiais iniciais e finais e do módulo de cisalhamento ao longo da profundidade, assim como do aumento da densidade relativa Dr. O alcance da técnica de bulbos de compactação estendeu-se a uma distância radial aproximada de 1,5m a partir do eixo de injeção. As pressões limite obtidas no modelo axissimétrico estão nos intervalos recomentados pela literatura e mostram uma diferença importante com as obtidas com a solução analítica. A melhoria do solo verificada no modelo tridimensional resultou maior do que no modelo axissimétrico devido à influência das colunas injetadas previamente.
Compaction grouting is an improvement technique whose objective is to inject controlled grout masses to displace and compact the surrounding soil without fracturing it. The main application of this technique was for correction of settlement problems in structures, therefore, it was not specifically focused on soil improvement. This study presents some results on soil improvement by grout injection, in a deposit of dry or saturated loose sand, comparing numerical and analytical analyses. The numerical model consisted in a sequence of spherical cavity expansions of a grout bulb made by axisymmetric model with Plaxis 2D and tridimensional model with Plaxis 3D, both representing the soil mechanical behavior by either the Mohr-Coulomb or the HSM constitutive models, while the analytical consider the assumption of general shear failure of the soils overlying the injected masses in the form of a conical sheariThe efficiency of thaction grouting is evaluated mainly in terms of the increase in the ratio between initial and final radial stresses and shear modulus G with depth, as well as the increase of relative density Dr. The effective radius of compaction grouting extended to a radial distance close to 1,5m from the injection axis. The limiting pressures computed with axisymmetric model are all within the range of values reported in the literature and showed a significant difference with those obtained by the analytical solution. Another observation is that soil improvement analyzed by tridimensional model resulted greater than that obtained by the axisymmetric model due to the influence of the columns injected previously.
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Boxill, Lois E. C. "Foundation remediation of existing structures using ground densification methods." Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 1999. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/21792.
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Dalmalm, Thomas. "Choice of grouting method for jointed hard rock based on sealing time predictions." Doctoral thesis, KTH, Civil and Architectural Engineering, 2004. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-3791.
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This thesis concerns subjects related to the choice of agrouting method in a jointed hard rock mass. By calculating thetotal sealing time to reach the requested sealing level,different grouting methods could be compared and the mostfavourable chosen.
A methodology, to calculate the sealing time for differentgrouting methods in different rock masses has been developed.Five main activities are included in the methodology; drilling,grouting, waiting, probing and re-grouting, which to differingdegrees contribute to the total sealing time. In addition, anextra activity, post-grouting, is regarded separately, as thepost-grouting time normally is not included in the totalsealing time. Within the different activities, subjects such asrock mass properties, examination of rock mass, groutingtechnique, grout mix and the different waiting times have beenstudied.
In practice, the application of the methodology requiresthat the average time and variance for each activity on a fanlevel is expressed. The times for each activity are then addedtogether to achieve the total time for a fan. After which, thetime for each fan is added over the entire tunnel length tocalculate the total sealing time for a tunnel.
E.g. for the grouting activity, joints belonging to agrouting fan are randomly selected from a joint aperturedistribution for the appropriate rock mass. For each joint in afan, distributions are calculated for parameters such asinflow, time and grouting volumes as e.g. sealing time andsealing effect. Then a Monte Carlo simulation based on thesedistributions and for each grouting fan is carried out and theaverage grouting time and variance calculated.
To test the methodology, numerical calculations for threegrouting methods and in three rock masses have been carriedout. The most favourable grouting method is defined as themethod which fulfils the requirement in the shortest sealingtime.
By analysing the result of the numerical calculations, ithas been shown that other activities besides grouting oftenhave a large impact on the total sealing time. To choosebetween pre-grouting and post-grouting is regarded as adecision problem, which is strongly related to other activitiesof the tunnel production cycle. A strong relationship was shownbetween the possibility to seal and the chosen grouting methodand grout mix. A long grouting time is not always equivalent toa good sealing result and the opposite has shown to bepossible.
Further, calculations have shown that a correct combinationof hole spacing, grout penetration length and appropriatepumping time is essential for a good sealing result. Inaddition, this thesis has demonstrated a method as to how thiscorrect combination should be chosen in order to achieve anoptimal grouting solution. However, a decision regarding anappropriate grouting method, always needs to regard otheractivities of the tunnel production cycle.
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Yaghoobi, Rafi Jalaleddin. "Applying "Real Time Grouting Control Method" in sedimentary rock with gotvand dam data." Thesis, KTH, Jord- och bergmekanik, 2010. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-25800.
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“Real Time Grouting Control Method” is a pioneer idea informulating grouting works which provides possibility for monitoring groutingprocess in real time to optimize it to performance and cost. Currently this theoryhas been tested with data from tunnels in Stockholm. In this report the effort istesting the validity of this method in a kind of geology which is situated insouthwest of Iran. Data are taken from the Gotvand dam project which is underconstruction on Karoon River. To achieve this goal, Tests are performed inStockholm by using the cement collected from the dam site to obtain rheologicaland penetrability properties of the grout mix which is in use in Gotvand project.Pressure and flow values are recorded in during grouting and have beenemployed as input data in this report. By developing a proper application, resultshave been analysed and discussed in detail. It has been shown that in studiedcases the theory can provide promising results and this method is applicable inthis project although there is a need for site investigation and testing different kindof grout mixes to precise results and be able to drive a general conclusion.QC 20101009
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Ho, Chu Eu. "Turbulent fluid jet excavation in cohesive soil : with particular application to jet grouting." Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/32416.
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Thesis (Sc. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2005.Includes bibliographical references (p. 267-271).
This thesis reviews the jet grouting methodology, and the current state of practice and research. Current methods of prediction of jet grout diameters are highly empirical and site specific, and do not take into account the jet hydrodynamics and soil properties explicitly. A rational model to describe the jet excavation mechanism for cohesive soil is presented in this thesis, with the aim of providing an improved prediction tool that can be used in jetting design. The model is based on the assumption that the velocity distribution in the cutting jet is equivalent to that of a free jet with boundaries corresponding to the dimensions of the cavity excavated in the ground. The shape of the cavity formed depends on the erosional properties of the soil and jet expansion is limited by the resistance at the jet-soil interface. It is hypothesized that the shape of the cavity excavated follows the locus of the jet radius satisfying the condition of constant wall shear stress. The model predicts that the limit of jet penetration is reached when the dynamic pressure at the jet tip becomes equal to the ultimate soil bearing resistance. The model was validated by laboratory jetting tests, using soil specimens manufactured from powdered kaolin clay, cement and water. Cement-soil ratios (CSR) of 2.5 to 7.5% were used to produce specimens with undrained shear strength (Su) ranging from 5 to 45 kPa. A period of at least 3 days was allowed for the specimen to cure in the test tank before jetting was commenced. The tests were conducted using different nozzle diameters, jetting pressures, rotation speeds and soil strengths. The specimens were exhumed after completion of each test to map the shape of the cuts excavated.
(cont.) The insitu shear strength of the specimens was obtained using torvane and laboratory vane shear tests. Samples were also obtained for density and moisture content measurements. The experimental results showed that the measured and predicted shapes of cut were in reasonable agreement, with the predicted jet width being conservative in most cases. A strong linear correlation was found between jet penetration, nozzle diameter, nozzle pressure difference and soil bearing capacity. It was found that a bearing capacity coefficient (Sc) of 2.4 was applicable for failure at the jet tip. This value of Sc was corroborated by field trial data. Wall shear stresses back-calculated from the experiments were much smaller than the residual soil strengths obtained from laboratory vane shear tests and correspond more closely to the erosional strength of clays. The model enables the lift step of the jetting monitor to be computed directly. The present research demonstrated that valuable information regarding the excavation mechanism can be obtained by careful examination of the actual cut in a soil formed by a jet. It is recommended that further work be done to investigate the erosional process at the jet-soil interface and the properties of the grouted soil, using higher jetting pressures and soils with higher shear strengths. The effect of withdrawal rate on column formation and uniformity of mix is of interest. The brittleness of the grouted product and its effect on strength and deformation behavior is also important.
Chu Eu Ho.
Sc.D.
38
Syu, Jyun-ming, and 許峻銘. "Comparison on Grouting Effect of Permanent Grout Using ExPacker and Double Packer Grouting Methods." Thesis, 2010. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/16381646898144323479.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立臺灣科技大學
營建工程系
98
Among the techniques used to improve the liquefaction resistance of subsoil in urban area, grouting with low or high pressure is the most practiced one. Permanent grouting material together with low pressure grouting technique has been developed to serve this purpose in Japan. To evaluate the applicability of this grouting method in Taipei, a full scale grouting test was carried out in a Taipei MRT job site. Two grouting methods: ExParker and Double Parker methods were adopted. Grouting parameters were recorded during grout injection and grouted soil was excavated to examine visually the effectiveness of the permanent grouting practice. In addition, block samples were excavated from the grouted soil and tested in the laboratory to evaluate the effectiveness of in-situ grouted specimens based on the flowing parameters: grouting pressure, grouting rate, strength of grouted soil and particle size distribution of in-situ soil. Test results indicated that the performance of permanent grouting is highly related to the fines content of soil no matter it is grouted with Double Packer and ExPacker methods. 20% fines content of in-situ soil can be adopted as the fines content limit for low pressure permanent grouting with good control of grouting dimension and quality. In general, ExPacker method out-performs double parker method in terms of grouting rate and grouting dimension.
39
Jiang, Wei-Sheng, and 江偉聖. "Stabilization Grouting under Concrete Pavement." Thesis, 2010. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/7229dx.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立臺北科技大學
土木與防災研究所
98
Most of highways and rigid pavements in Taiwan are beyond their service life, which means overall maintenance is needed for strengthening their bearing capability. Undersealing may be utilized for improving their bearing capability under usage. The failure mechanism of rigid pavement is mainly because cyclic traffic loading to separate concrete slab from underlying base course. Regarding aging of the filling between slabs, this speeds up the separation between slab and base course because of narrower space for heated slab expansion. Seepage path is therefore generated between these bended slabs, and water may percolate through paths to stop by base course surface. On the other hand, for daytime heat energy cannot easily be transferred from slab to base course as a result of possible voids located underneath the slab. Then water spurts through paths to ground surface when load applies, the so-called “pumping” phenomenon, and this fact significantly voids the fine soils within base course. Slab cracks are therefore generated after repetitive traffic loading. This study mainly includes three major parts, 1) laboratory grout mix test, 2) field undersealing, and 3) field non-destructive test. A series of grout mix tests report that the grout, with bleeding percentage of less than 5% and Marsh funnel viscosity ranging between 29-33 sec as well as 7-day compressive strength of at least 120 kg/cm2, is recommended for undersealing. Ground penetration radar is utilized for detecting possible voids underneath slabs, and grout tubes, equipped with single packer, are thus installed to inject grout under grouting pressure of 0-5 kg/cm2 and lift of less than 1 mm. To examine and validate the grouting performance, the results from ground penetration radar and falling weight deflectometer are compared with those obtained before undersealing. To conclude, the bearing capability can largely be improved by undersealing because of good bonding between slabs and base courses, and its service life is thus significantly extended.
40
Lin, Chia Yung, and 林佳甬. "The Study of Permeation Grouting." Thesis, 2008. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/75zxuw.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立臺北科技大學
土木與防災研究所
96
This study establishes the facility of calibration chamber to perform the permeation and hydro-fracture grouting tests. Bleeding tests were conducted on the cement grout to find the suitable W/C ratio and bentonite content for grouting test. The poorly graded sand (SP) was rained into the calibration chamber to prepare a 45 cm diameter and 50 cm height specimen. A series of confining pressure and back pressure of 3.55 kg/cm2 and 3.5 kg/cm2 were used to saturate the specimen. Then two overburden pressures of 0.5 kg/cm2 and 1 kg/cm2 were applied to the specimen in the chamber before the water injection and the grouting test under constant injection rates were conducted. As a result, the relationships of injection pressure and injection rate （p-q curve）were analyzed to identify the critical injection pressure which separate the permeation grouting and hydro-fracture grouting. This mechanizes was further verified by open excavate the specimen and examine the shape and area of grout modification in the calibration chamber
41
Tsai, Ching-Lin, and 蔡青林. "A Study of Grouting Improvement with Electro-Osmosis Chemical Grouting Using the DC Harmonic Waves." Thesis, 2005. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/85572294426793562240.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立臺灣科技大學
營建工程系
93
The purpose of the research was to explore the strength of the soft clay improved by electro-osmosis Chemical Grouting through utilizing the voltage applied by the DC Harmonic Waves. The first step in the lab test was to consolidate the soft clay in the electro-osmosis chemical grouting cell to the in-situ condition. The next step was to let the soft clay get electricity in full or half the DC harmonic waves, and meanwhile to fill in (NA2．nSiO3) and (CaCl2) both at the anode injection poles and intermediate injecting pole . After the treatment, we inspected the strength by the laboratory CPT test. According to the result, the voltage outputted in two types of waves can improve the resistance of CPT cone at least 10 times as large as the original strength. Therefore, the research moved forward in order to exam the possibility of the in-situ treatment with the DC harmonic waves. The field test was carried out with DC Harmonic full waves. Several monitoring instruments was set before test. After the field test, the CPT test was performed to exam the result of improvement. According to the result, the strength of soft clay only increase at most 0.4 times more after improvement. It was because that the chemical thick liquid did not seep through the soft clay exactly. It was related to factors such as the surrounding environment and the injecting method. Therefore, the injection of chemical thick liquid must be considered with the factors considered above in order to achieve the effects of improvement.
42
Hsuen-Chen, Chien, and 簡璿宸. "The study of low pressure grouting." Thesis, 2002. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/85554410853128701952.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立臺北科技大學
土木與防災技術研究所
90
Low pressure grouting has been used to improve the soil condition. Since the complex nature of soil properties, the quality and quality control are likely beyond expectation. Therefore, an indoor grouting facility is established and grouting simulation can be conducted inside the chamber. This will help us to examine the grouting results and study the mechanism. In a long run, this procedure can be used to adjust the grouting work plan. All related information of low pressure grouting and indoor grouting are studies, constant head permeability feeling and sand raining testing are conducted to establish the relation of permeability and void ratio, and also set up the raining procedure and grouting procedure. In addition, pore pressure monitoring system is installed inside the chamber; this will help to trace the grouting nature and analysis. After the soil sample is made of raining procedure, water pumping is adopted to explore the permeable nature of sample, and then the bentonite grout is pump next. By excavation the results of grouting can be examined with eyes, the grouting record and excess pore water pressure records are analyzed to study the influence from the soil preparation, pumping pressure and pumping rate. In this study, bentonite grout initiates the fracturing grouting. The other similar researches from literature also show the fracture nature from suspension grout. Vertical stress is bigger than horizontal stress is valid in normally consolidated soil, so that the grouting results show a series of vertical fracturing planes.
43
Kuo, Lin-Yao, and 郭林堯. "Properties of Soilcrete Stabilized with Jet Grouting." Thesis, 2001. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/77351961569170483257.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立交通大學
土木工程系
89
In this thesis, the mechanical properties of jet-grouted soilcrete are investigated. In the first part of this paper, samples cored from Taipei sewerage construction were used to conduct the following experiments : ultrasonic test, uniaxial compression test, triaxial compression test, and Brazilian test. Base on the experimental results, the following conclusions are made : 1. The mechanical behavior of soilcrete is significantly affected by its dry density. The uniaxial compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, failure strain, tensile strength, compressive wave velocity, and shear wave velocity of soilcrete increased with increasing dry density. 2. The uniaxial compressive strength of soilcrete varied from 3.02 to 8.72 MPa. The modulus of elasticity of soilcrete varied from 1.11 to 4.77 GPa. The Poisson’s ratio of soilcrete varied from 0.05 to 0.29, which were close to the values for concrete ( 0.1 to 0.2 ). 3. Based on Brazilian tests, the tensile strength of soilcrete varied from 0.21 to 0.87 MPa, which were close to the values reported in many different articles published data ( σt,B = 0.20 ~ 0.95 MPa ). 4. Test data from triaxial compression tests indicated that the cohesion of the soilcrete is 0.73 MPa, and the internal friction angle is 38.70. In the second part of this paper, cases reporting of the mechanical properties of jet -grouted soilcrete were been collected. Base on the field data, the following conclusions are made: 1. The uniaxial compressive strength of soilcrete was significantly affected by the type of native soil. For soilcreted formed peat, the upper limit of qu was only 3 MPa. For soilcrete formed in clay, the range of qu varied from 0.4 to 12.0 MPa. For soilcrete formed in sand, qu = 0.4 ~ 26.0 MPa. 2. The uniaxial compressive strength of soilcrete can not be properly estimated only with the c/w ratio of the grout. 3. Most of the uniaxial compressive strengths of soilcrete reported in the literature were higher than that suggested by the JSG Association. It is clear that the qu values suggested by JSG Association are the minimum strengths required for quality control of construction. 4. The modulus of elasticity of soilcrete increases with increasing uniaxial compressive strength. The qu of soilcrete formed in gravel is higher than that formed in clay.
44
曹俊文. "Design and operation checklist for chemical grouting." Thesis, 1999. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/57017310612045043350.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立臺北科技大學
土木與防災技術研究所
87
In the chemical grouting, many factors such as complexity of soils, properties of grouts, penetrability of grouts in the stratum and groundwater will have impact on the grouting design. As a result, the design of chemical grouting will rely more on the experience. This uncertainty causes many unexpected results during field work and may not meet the original design requirement. The effectiveness of chemical grouting will remain doubt to many engineers. The study will first review the chemical grouting technology in the past, and then the checklist for design and operation of chemical grouting will be attempted. This study will serve as a basis for furture research work along the line. This thesis is divided into three sections. First, the property of chemical grouting, such as cement, sodium silicate and polymer is reviewed in details. Second, the study also review the grouting design including field investigation, selection of grouting materials and methods, quantity of the grout, layout of the grouting, the range of grouting pressure and the flow discharge of grout. In addition, the relationship between pressure and flow, and environmental management are also studied. The procedures of the design and operation are analyzed to reform into checklists for the application in industry. Last, the verification of the effectiveness for chemical grouting is discussed.
45
WU, CHI-LI, and 吳啟利. "Evaluation of Compaction Grouting Iduced Strength Improvement." Thesis, 1995. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/05569298661014543238.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立臺灣科技大學
營建工程技術學系
83
A theoretical model for evaluating the compaction grouting induced soil strength improvement has been developed based on the initial void ratio, the compression index, and the material parameter (Eui/(1+ν)Sui) of the soil before grouting. The soil strength improved around the compaction grout bulb increases with the decreasing distance, the increasing void ratio, the decreasing compressinon index, as well as the decreasing material parameter. This model has been satisfactorily verified with the laboratory test sata obtained in this study and from other independent investigation.
46
陳弘益. "The study of injection grouting to avoid liquefaction." Thesis, 2001. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/52079245951129413920.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立臺北科技大學
土木與防災技術研究所
89
Many soil improvement methods are studied to evaluate the most suitable way to treat the potentially liquefiable soil deposit under existing structures. After detailed evaluation, permeation grouting is the most promising one. Therefore permeation grouting is the main subject for this research. The grouts are mixtures of tap water and bentonite with various mix ratios. This grouts are Non-Newtonian fluid, its relationships between viscosity, spindle (rotor) and rotational speed are evaluated by three types of viscometers. A calibration chamber is designed and manufactured along with four pressurized tanks, namely water pressure tank, overburden pressure tank, sodium silicate tank and reactant tank. A sand raining device is used to prepare the loose saturated sand deposit in the chamber filled with water. The water and overburden pressure tanks are used to simulate in situ groundwater pressure and overburden pressure, the grout is pressurized through the open end of rig to the sand deposit. The pressure and discharge are recorded. This procedure simulates the grouting process which is in the potentially liquefiable soil. From the result of this model experiment, the relations between grouting pressure, discharge and grouting extent is obtained, this way be used to evaluate the result of soil improvement. A layer of grout is found at the level of grouting point, and is not like a radial formation in a uniform, isotropic granular soil. This discrepancy is caused by the layered deposit due to the sedimentation process of soil grains in the water.
47
He, Guan-Jie, and 何冠杰. "Jet Grouting Diameter Measurement Using Electrical Resistivity Tomography." Thesis, 2016. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/93644370416597446949.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立交通大學
土木工程系所
104
Jet grouting method is currently among the common ground improvement technique, which performance is closely related to the integrity of improved columns (diameter and continuity). Therefore, column integrity assessment is necessary for quality control. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) imaging method is capable of detecting or monitoring spatial distribution of resistivity in 2D or 3D stratum. Considering detection accuracy, economy, workability and other aspects, in-hole ERT which has high application potential, was selected as integrity assessment of the improved column in terms of qualitative and quantitative evaluation. In this research, a 3D numerical model was constructed to simulate ERT measurement profile for improved columns. Axial-symmetrical 2D resistivity imaging profile of the improved columns under different circumstances was analyzed. In order to accurately identify the variation of column diameter, diameter quantification method was proposed and its accuracy and restriction was appraised. Results showed that in case the improved column is highly asymmetrical, only qualitative analysis is reliable and effective column diameter cannot be measured precisely. For those axial symmetrical columns, column integrity can be examined accurately and is shown feasible. However, for hollow improved columns, the resistivity variation of the material under test around the electrodes is too large, leading to quantification misjudgment as the effective resistivity is not of geometrical average, yet ERT can still realize this averaged resistivity phenomenon. To verify the feasibility of this approach and the result of numerical simulations, both laboratory sandbox experiment and field test were conducted. Both experimental result verified that column integrity assessment using in-hole ERT is feasible for columns that are near axial symmetrical. The position and appearance of the improved columns were clearly detected by this approach and the column diameters were also accurately quantified. Currently, there is lack of commercial electrode cable designated for in-situ borehole ERT. Therefore, this study aimed at developing a modularized portable electrode cable for in-situ borehole ERT, which would meet the requirements of durability, functionality, convenience, versatility and others. The feasibility of this cable design concept is tested feasible through a series of experiment in this study.
48
Whitaker, Todd B. "Sewer system rehabilitation and the effectiveness of chemical grouting /." 1990. http://hdl.handle.net/1957/11826.
Full text
49
Liu, Cheng-Hsiung, and 劉正雄. "Effect of Compaction Grouting on Mechanical Properties of Soils." Thesis, 1993. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/62793229827510661864.
Full textAbstract:
碩士國立臺灣科技大學
營建工程技術學系
81
A 2-D laboratory model test and a full scale field test were adopted to study the deformation characteristics of soil around the grout bulb generated by the compaction grouting method. It was found that if the soil was not homogeneously deposited, the grout bulb tended to develop first toward the soil with lower strength before a more homogeneous soil mass has been achieved. This phenomenon was confirmed by the field test. The degree of strength improvement of the soil tended to decrease with the dis- tance from the injection point. The weaker the original shear strength, the higher the degree of strength impro- vement can be obtained. However, the UUU triaxial test results also indicated that the area of influence did not increase unlimitedly with the volume of grout being injected into the soil. No obvious increase in the grout bulb in- fluenced area was observed when the radius of the influenced area was more than three times as large as that of the grout bulb. However, the degree of strength improvement for the soil within the influenced area was found to increase with the volume of injected grout. Field test results showed that the SPT blow counts for the soil in between the neighboring injecting points could be increased as much as 150~200% if the infecting points were properly layouted and certain the water pressure dissipation pipes were installed.
50
Chi, Chien Shao, and 簡紹琦. "A Study of Ground Improvement Using Electroosmotic Chemical Grouting." Thesis, 2003. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/86611359241005788187.
Full textAbstract:
博士國立臺灣科技大學
營建工程系
91
ABSTRACT To enhance electroosmostic result of improvement and to shorten time of treatment, this reserach make use of between chemical salinity and soil interaction such as cation exchanged, adsorbed, and cemented. A new ground improvement method which named elctroosmostic chemical grouting was developed. A specially designed elctroosmostic chemical grouting cell was developed to grout chemical salinity from anode, to drain from cathode, and to apply axial load simulated field stress. A series of experimental investigation on the electroosmostic chemical grouting strengthening of Taipei silt clays was performed. According to results of laboratory tests, field test was preformed to assess the effectiveness of treatment and to study the mechanism of the process. Results of this research show that after electroosmostic additive calcium chloride (CaCl2) treated 9 days, the undrained shear strength of soil averagely increased 450% to initial strength and averagely increased 220% to electroosmostic no additive salinity treated 9 days. However, after electroosmostic additive calcium chloride (CaCl2) treated 1 day, the undrained shear strength of soil near anode is 1.36 times to electroosmostic no additive salinity treated 9 days. So, elctroosmostic additive salinity can enhance certainly electroosmostic result of improvement and shorten time of treatment. The proposed electro-osmosis prediction model can accurately predict the strength for the area without the electrochemical effects. On the other hand, the electro-osmosis prediction model underestimated the improvement strength if the electrochemical effects are observed. These electrochemical factors cannot be described only using conventional parameters of soil mechanics. To accurately predict ground improvement strength, electrochemical effects must be included. Therefore, the three phase behavior mechanism of electro-osmosis is established based on the change of electric resistance in the soil induced by electro-osmosis improvement, according to the results of laboratory tests and field test. Electroosmotic chemical grouting can make ues of change of electric resistance to predict ground improvement strength.