Journal articles on the topic 'Growth-defence balance'

In our hypothesis the defense budget must reduce the traditional threat and influence the economic. This research would like to see if the defense spending will influence the national economics through economic growth by demand side approach. By assuming the natural balance of power, the traditional threat come not only from military capabilities but also balanced by their economic power. The equation model formed to capture the influence of defense spending to economics growth. The regression describes that military spending had an impact on economic growth. Increase in the level of traditional threat is not reduce economic growth. The Indonesian defense budget give impact on the national economics, and the traditional threat is in small variation. But, the national defense budget still needs to be increased. This makes production could be stable, and the economic actors still feel safe doing the business.

ABSTRACTIn response to the invasion of microorganisms, plants actively balance their resources for growth and defence, thus ensuring their survival. The regulatory mechanisms underlying plant immunity and growth operate through complex networks, in which the brassinosteroid phytohormone is one of the central players. In the past decades, a growing number of studies have revealed a multi-layered crosstalk between brassinosteroid-mediated growth and plant immunity. In this Review, by means of the tango metaphor, we immerse ourselves into the intimate relationship between brassinosteroid and plant immune signalling pathways that is tailored by the lifestyle of the pathogen and modulated by other phytohormones. The plasma membrane is the unique stage where brassinosteroid and immune signals are dynamically integrated and where compartmentalization into nanodomains that host distinct protein consortia is crucial for the dance. Shared downstream signalling components and transcription factors relay the tango play to the nucleus to activate the plant defence response and other phytohormonal signalling pathways for the finale. Understanding how brassinosteroid and immune signalling pathways are integrated in plants will help develop strategies to minimize the growth–defence trade-off, a key challenge for crop improvement.

NF-κB (nuclear factor κB) plays a significant role in inflammation, immunity, cell proliferation, apoptosis and malignancy. ROS (reactive oxygen species) are among the most important regulating factors of NF-κB. Intracellular ROS are mainly regulated by an endogenous antioxidant defence system. Any disruption of redox balance leads to oxidative stress, which causes a number of pathological conditions including inflammation and malignancy. Increased metabolic activity in cancerous cells leads to oxidative stress, which is further enhanced due to depletion of the endogenous antioxidant defence system. However, the activation and signalling of NF-κB are reported to be inhibited by overexpression and induced activity of antioxidant enzymes. Therefore the present study focuses on the correlation between the endogenous antioxidant defence system, ROS and NF-κB activation during lymphoma growth in mice. The study highlights the anti-carcinogenic role of curcumin by modulation of NF-κB activation and oxidative stress via the endogenous antioxidant defence system. Oxidative stress was monitored by lipid peroxidation, protein carbonylation and antioxidant enzyme activity. NF-κB-mediated signalling was tested by DNA-binding activity. The results reflect that intracellular production of H2O2 in oxidative tumour micro-environment regulates NF-κB activation. Curcumin inhibits oxidative state in the liver of lymphoma-bearing mice by enhancing the transcription and activities of antioxidant enzymes, which in turn modulate activation of NF-κB, leading to a decrease in lymphoma growth. Morphological changes as well as cell proliferation and cell survival assays confirmed reduced lymphoma growth. Thus curcumin contributes to cancer prevention by disrupting the vicious cycle of constant ROS production, responsible for a high oxidative micro-environment for tumour growth.

DRDO is India’s major credible research and development organization that enables self-reliance and indigenisation of defence technologies and weapon systems to empower India in the emerging geo-political balance. The Organisation has its genesis in a technical inspection agency which over the years have transformed into a highly professional R&D organization with strong design and technology capabilities and skilled entrepreneurship to undertake development of state-of-the-art defence systems. DRDO driven R&D efforts have catalysed the growth of domestic defence and civilian industries in the country as well. The overarching endeavours of DRDO encompassing academia, private industry and Defence PSUs have helped in establishing a self-reliant defence industrial eco-system and collectively all have contributed in the Hon’ble Prime Minister’s vision of “skill development” and “Make-in-India”. Yet, DRDO’s struggle at the national level continues since Armed Forces continue to depend on imports for major acquisitions. Indigenous options have not always established themselves as the preferred options even when they are available. The acceptability of DRDO developed products remains at a low ebb. The question is what more DRDO should do to ensure the acceptability of the users? This study examines the evolution of the DRDO and whether over the years DRDO has done enough or should do more to increase its visibility, acceptability, credibility and respectability? And how DRDO should reposition itself beyond MoD/Armed Forces in the national and international context to fulfill the ambitions of the country to play global roles? This paper also discusses how building the brand “DRDO” may possibly help DRDO.

Abstract Background and Aims There are a number of disparate models predicting variation in plant chemical defences between species, and within a single species over space and time. These can give conflicting predictions. Here we review a number of these theories, before assessing their power to predict the spatial–temporal variation of thapsigargins between and within populations of the deadly carrot (Thapsia garganica). By utilizing multiple models simultaneously (optimum defence theory, growth rate hypothesis, growth–differentiation balance hypothesis, intra–specific framework and resource exchange model of plant defence), we will highlight gaps in their predictions and evaluate the performance of each. Methods Thapsigargins are potent anti-herbivore compounds that occur in limited richness across the different plant tissues of T. garganica, and therefore represent an ideal system for exploring these models. Thapsia garganica plants were collected from six locations on the island of Ibiza, Spain, and the thapsigargins quantified within reproductive, vegetative and below-ground tissues. The effects of sampling time, location, mammalian herbivory, soil nutrition and changing root-associated fungal communities on the concentrations of thapsigargins within these in situ observations were analysed, and the results were compared with our model predictions. Key Results The models performed well in predicting the general defence strategy of T. garganica and the above-ground distribution of thapsigargins, but failed to predict the considerable proportion of defences found below ground. Models predicting variation over environmental gradients gave conflicting and less specific predictions, with intraspecific variation remaining less understood. Conclusion Here we found that multiple models predicting the general defence strategy of plant species could likely be integrated into a single model, while also finding a clear need to better incorporate below-ground defences into models of plant chemical defences. We found that constitutive and induced thapsigargins differed in their regulation, and suggest that models predicting intraspecific defences should consider them separately. Finally, we suggest that in situ studies be supplemented with experiments in controlled environments to identify specific environmental parameters that regulate variation in defences within species.

The plant domestication process led to crops with strongly modified growth-defense tradeoff features, and crops that were much more pampered in terms of nutrition, irrigation and defense measures, showing less ability to trigger adaptation strategies with respect to their wild relatives. It is worth noting that plants are not alone, they share their environment with a myriad of microbes supporting them with many relevant functions. We have already demonstrated that an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) inoculum (formed by two AMF species, i.e., Rhizophagus irregularis and Funneliformis mosseae) is able to balance growth and defense responses in two grapevine rootstocks with opposite tradeoff features. In the present study, we evaluated the persistence of AMF-mediated balancing effects under field conditions, confirming the positive impact of the symbiosis in vineyards. In detail, some genes related to nitrogen (N) uptake and metabolism were specifically modulated by the presence of the symbionts, while others were not. Additionally, photosynthetic performances and stilbenes accumulation were influenced by the AMF presence. Overall, our results open new questions about the timing of AMF inoculation in grapevine to obtain a stable and functional symbiosis, suggesting that an early inoculation can facilitate the interaction between grapevine roots and these beneficial microorganisms.

Many studies have found that future predicted CO2 levels can increase plant mass but dilute N content in leaves, impacting antiherbivore compounds. Nitrogen-fixing plants may balance their leaf C:N ratio under elevated CO2, counteracting this dilution effect. However, we know little of how plants respond to herbivores at the higher CO2 levels that occurred when nitrogen-fixing plants first evolved. We grew Alnus incana ssp. rugosa was grown at 400, 800, or 1600 ppm CO2 in soil collected from the field, inoculated with Frankia and exposed to herbivores (Orgyia leucostigma). Elevated CO2 increased nodulated plant biomass and stimulated the nitrogen fixation rate in the early growth stage. However, nitrogen-fixing plants were not able to balance their C:N ratio under elevated CO2 after growing for 19 weeks. When plants were grown at 400 and 1600 ppm CO2, herbivores preferred to feed on leaves of nodulated plants. At 800 ppm CO2, nodulated plants accumulated more total phenolic compounds in response to herbivore damage than plants in the non-Frankia and non-herbivore treatments. Our results suggest that plant leaf defence, not leaf nutritional content, is the dominant driver of herbivory and nitrogen-fixing plants have limited ability to balance C:N ratios at elevated CO2 in natural soil.

In recent years one of the largest growth areas of law in the criminal trial jurisdiction has been the development of the doctrine of abuse of process. As recently as the 1970s, submissions based on abuse of process were virtually unknown in the criminal courts. Now there is no competent defence advocate who does not come to court well armed with a quiver full of authorities ready to shoot down a prosecution as the opportunity arises. The underlying principle behind the doctrine of abuse of process is the concept that the court has a duty in criminal cases, to hold the balance between the interests of the state in maintaining order and the rights of individuals, and in exercising that duty the court retains a residual power to stay prosecutions which are vexatious or oppressive.

Sandy shores offer a multitude of ecosystem services; regulating- (e.g. protection against flooding), production- (e.g. drinking water) and cultural services (e.g. recreation), all depending on the quality of supporting services (e.g. natural balances of water, nutrients and sediment). For sandy shores especially, the long-term physical existence is depending on the sediment balance. Therefore, based on Building with Nature (BwN) principles, sediment balances and -dynamics represent essential components of any spatial design of sustainable urbanized sandy shores. Examples of such design are nourishments where the sand balance of the system is amplified and natural dynamics distribute sediment ashore. This approach is used in the Netherlands to compensate for coastal erosion with a total yearly nourishment volume of 12 million m3 of sand. Typical magnitudes of individual nourishments are 1 to 2 million m3, whereas the Sand motor is an experimental mega nourishment of 20 million m3. After nourishment, the sediment is transported by natural processes (waves, tide, wind etc) contributing to the growth of dunes. The question is how to support this dune development, not just to improve the coastal safety, but also the combined use with other urban & ecological programs in the coastal zone. In this contribution we discuss spatial design principles and their influence on the transport of sediment for the formation of dunes; supporting flood safety, urban and landscape qualities. This requires an interplay of nourishment, directed sediment transport in the beach-dune interface and the desired buffer capacity established by the dunes. Depending on the preferred defence strategy (seaward, landward or consolidating) different spatial interventions can be made to enhance dune formation after nourishment.Recorded Presentation from the vICCE (YouTube Link): https://youtu.be/fNnVkDS1Gig

The economy of politics and the politics of economy converge in interesting ways, sometimes with long-term consequences for a state. In a crucial and dynamic interface economy, community, (non-)diplomacy, defence posture, balance sheets, the hapless ‘citizen’ and ‘leaders’ are all precariously intertwined. It is often argued that the South African economy declined under apartheid as a result of the Border War and international sanctions, with the result that theNational Party had little choice other than to engage its contenders in political talks to ensure transition to democracy as a counter to the eventual economic and political collapse of South Africa. Some were of the opinion that the military over-extension of South Africa, especially in Namibia and Angola, became a core reason for the non-sustainability of apartheid. While this argument may hold, it does not mean that transition at the end of the Border War brought guarantees for future economic growth and political stability.

African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness is a zoonotic disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei, a protozoan parasite transmitted by Glossina spp. (tsetse fly). Parasite introduction into mammal hosts triggers a succession of events, involving both innate and adaptive immunity. Macrophages (MΦ) have a key role in innate defence since they are antigen-presenting cells and have a microbicidal function essential for trypanosome clearance. Adaptive immune defence is carried out by lymphocytes, especially by T cells that promote an integrated immune response. Like mammal cells, T. b. brucei parasites release extracellular vesicles (TbEVs), which carry macromolecules that can be transferred to host cells, transmitting biological information able to manipulate cell immune response. However, the exact role of TbEVs in host immune response remains poorly understood. Thus, the current study examined the effect elicited by TbEVs on MΦ and T lymphocytes. A combined approach of microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, multiparametric flow cytometry, colourimetric assays and detailed statistical analyses were used to evaluate the influence of TbEVs in mouse mononuclear cells. It was shown that TbEVs can establish direct communication with cells of innate and adaptative immunity. TbEVs induce the differentiation of both M1- and M2-MΦ and elicit the expansion of MHCI+, MHCII+ and MHCI+MHCII+ MΦ subpopulations. In T lymphocytes, TbEVs drive the overexpression of cell-surface CD3 and the nuclear factor FoxP3, which lead to the differentiation of regulatory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Moreover, this study indicates that T. b. brucei and TbEVs seem to display opposite but complementary effects in the host, establishing a balance between parasite growth and controlled immune response, at least during the early phase of infection.

Forest ecosystems are frequently exposed to abiotic stress, which adversely affects their growth, resistance and survival. For silver fir (Abies alba), the physiological and biochemical responses to water and salt stress have not been extensively studied. Responses of one-year-old seedlings to a 30-day water stress (withholding irrigation) or salt stress (100, 200 and 300 mM NaCl) treatments were analysed by determining stress-induced changes in growth parameters and different biochemical markers: accumulation of ions, different osmolytes and malondialdehyde (MDA, an oxidative stress biomarker), in the seedlings, and activation of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant systems. Both salt and water stress caused growth inhibition. The results obtained indicated that the most relevant responses to drought are based on the accumulation of soluble carbohydrates as osmolytes/osmoprotectants. Responses to high salinity, on the other hand, include the active transport of Na+, Cl− and Ca2+ to the needles, the maintenance of relatively high K+/Na+ ratios and the accumulation of proline and soluble sugars for osmotic balance. Interestingly, relatively high Na+ concentrations were measured in the needles of A. alba seedlings at low external salinity, suggesting that Na+ can contribute to osmotic adjustment as a ‘cheap’ osmoticum, and its accumulation may represent a constitutive mechanism of defence against stress. These responses appear to be efficient enough to avoid the generation of high levels of oxidative stress, in agreement with the small increase in MDA contents and the relatively weak activation of the tested antioxidant systems.

Drought stress requires plants to adjust their water balance to maintain tissue water levels. Isohydric plants (‘water-savers’) typically achieve this through stomatal closure, while anisohydric plants (‘water-wasters’) use osmotic adjustment and maintain stomatal conductance. Isohydry or anisohydry allows plant species to adapt to different environments. In this paper we show that both mechanisms occur in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Wheat lines with reproductive drought-tolerance delay stomatal closure and are temporarily anisohydric, before closing stomata and become isohydric at higher threshold levels of drought stress. Drought-sensitive wheat is isohydric from the start of the drought treatment. The capacity of the drought-tolerant line to maintain stomatal conductance correlates with repression of ABA synthesis in spikes and flag leaves. Gene expression profiling revealed major differences in the drought response in spikes and flag leaves of both wheat lines. While the isohydric drought-sensitive line enters a passive growth mode (arrest of photosynthesis, protein translation), the tolerant line mounts a stronger stress defence response (ROS protection, LEA proteins, cuticle synthesis). The drought response of the tolerant line is characterised by a strong response in the spike, displaying enrichment of genes involved in auxin, cytokinin and ethylene metabolism/signalling. While isohydry may offer advantages for longer term drought stress, anisohydry may be more beneficial when drought stress occurs during the critical stages of wheat spike development, ultimately improving grain yield.

After World War 2 defence considerations led to a great upsurge in the study of science and technology, a consequent emphasis on scientific literature, and a belief in the power of information technology to solve problems of information access. This led to a serious distortion in library collections, with disastrous consequences for provision in the humanities and social sciences. A report by the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences on the imbalance of literature provision in the research libraries of the Netherlands is the first clear articulation of a post-Cold War national library policy. While the establishment and growth of the network Pica has widened access, it has had no effect on the basic distortion in Dutch collections. National acquisition plans in several other countries having been dismissed as inappropriate in the Netherlands (as well as ineffective), the German Verteilungsplan is recommended as a model, with various adaptations. The system proposed would involve sixteen existing Dutch research libraries sharing the collection burden fairly equally; some libraries in Flanders would join in later. The Royal Library's role would be to take responsibility for recording, maintaining and preserving the Dutch cultural heritage in print, wherever located. Remote supply, electronic or otherwise, is not regarded as a substitute for direct access to large collections. It is suggested that knowledge production depends on the browsing function, which information technology works against, and calls for an end to prioritizing ‘access’ over ‘holdings’. The report, particularly its diagnosis of the present situation, has considerable relevance for other countries.

The purpose of the study was to analyse the life quality and changes in it throughout three different periods in Estonian injured war veterans’ life (before the injury, after the injury and after starting to play sitting volleyball). The main questions the veterans were asked concerned the positive and negative aspects of sitting volleyball, the effect of sitting volleyball on their health and social life, the motivating factors for participating in athletic activities, and whether the rehabilitation process followed the national strategies. The interviewees were nine male injured Estonian Defence Forces war veterans who play sitting volleyball. Veterans’ subjective assessments of life quality were examined with paired samples t-test in SPSS program to find the mean values of veterans’ assessments. The results of the study reveal that it is very important for the disabled to socialise through team sports. The support of family and friends, also setting smaller result-oriented goals help to keep discipline, contribute to a feeling of belonging and self-esteem, and all these help the veterans to get back on track after life-changing injuries. In conclusion, the analysis of the life quality of nine Estonian war veterans revealed that the decrease of mean values after the injury was significant [t = 6.825 (p < 0.001)], and the increase after they started playing sitting volleyball was also significant [t (8) = –8.083 (p < 0.001)].
 According to the study, Estonian war veterans found many positive aspects in playing sitting volleyball, which affected their quality of life. The main aspects were team spirit, feeling of usefulness, improvement of balance, physique and health, setting goals and achieving results in sports, sharing their problems with others involved and that other people respected their ability to play instead of looking at their injuries. The most important aspect was better social life. The factors that motivated veterans to continue their rehabilitation were support by family and friends, self-growth, teammates and other injured veterans. The Estonian Defence Forces support veterans thoroughly and introduce them to different sports including sitting volleyball during their rehabilitation. By doing that, the Defence Forces fill the requirements of national strategies to help veterans return to their regular lifestyle. The current study could be helpful for veterans for making better and more informed choices in rehabilitation after the injury and faster return to their desired quality of life. The results could also help to improve the restoration of health and social life. The results are helpful for the development and popularisation of sitting volleyball in Estonia.

Alterations of redox homeostasis leads to a condition of resilience known as hormesis that is due to the activation of redox-sensitive pathways stimulating cell proliferation, growth, differentiation, and angiogenesis. Instead, supraphysiological production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) exceeds antioxidant defence and leads to oxidative distress. This condition induces damage to biomolecules and is responsible or co-responsible for the onset of several chronic pathologies. Thus, a dietary antioxidant supplementation has been proposed in order to prevent aging, cardiovascular and degenerative diseases as well as carcinogenesis. However, this approach has failed to demonstrate efficacy, often leading to harmful side effects, in particular in patients affected by cancer. In this latter case, an approach based on endogenous antioxidant depletion, leading to ROS overproduction, has shown an interesting potential for enhancing susceptibility of patients to anticancer therapies. Therefore, a deep investigation of molecular pathways involved in redox balance is crucial in order to identify new molecular targets useful for the development of more effective therapeutic approaches. The review herein provides an overview of the pathophysiological role of ROS and focuses the attention on positive and negative aspects of antioxidant modulation with the intent to find new insights for a successful clinical application.

An extensive trial to examine physiological and biochemical changes in perch (Perca fluviatilis) inhabiting coastal waters polluted by bleached kraft mill effluents (BKME) has been carried out. The investigations were performed at four different times of year. Fish from a reference site and from sampling sites 2, 4.5, 8, and 10 km from the discharge point were examined. The results of the investigation show profound effects of BKME on several fundamental biochemical and physiological functions. Typical symptoms in perch from the polluted areas were reduced gonad growth, enlarged liver, and very strong induction of certain cytochrome P-450-dependent enzyme activities in the liver. Elevated levels of ascorbic acid in liver tissue and abnormal carbohydrate metabolism reflect the effluent's ability to cause metabolic disorders. Marked effects on the white blood cell pattern indicate a suppressed immune defence. Alterations in the red blood cell status and in the ion balance suggest that the demand for oxygen by certain tissues was increased and that gill function was impaired, respectively. The toxic effects were most pronounced in fish living up to 4.5 km from the discharge point, but some disturbances (e.g. cytochrome P-450 induction, reduced gonad size, and hematological alterations) were observed in fish caught as far as 8–10 km from the kraft bleach plant.

The analysis of numerous scientific publications demonstrates the great relevance of gender studies at the current stage of Ukrainian social development, in almost all spheres of social relations. As for ensuring equal participation of men and women in the functioning of the military organisation of the state, the implementation of such a gender balance contributes to improving civilian control over it through the possibility of developing the capacity of regulatory bodies in gender issues, promoting dialogue between the community and control bodies, and drawing public attention to the problems of accountability of institutions of this organisation. The main purpose of this study is to highlight the state of gender equality in the military organisation of the state through the lens of civilian democratic control. The study determined the state of legislative regulation of the concept of military organisation of the state and civil democratic control. The study analysed the introduction of a gender perspective in Ukraine in the subject matter and the dynamics of establishing a gender balance in the military organisation of the state; the impact on existing trends of legislative initiatives. It is stated that the modern Ukrainian army is mostly “male”. Despite the fact that women are allowed to serve in the military, they do not take part in making socially important decisions, they do not hold high military positions, and career growth is challenging for them. The study identified the main problems of implementing gender equality in the Armed Forces of Ukraine and other structures of the Defence Forces of Ukraine, which are more based on social stereotypes of pre-defined roles for men and women. Civil control over the Armed Forces is described as a socio-political process in this area

Health and wellbeing are challenged constantly by pathogens. A number of defence mechanisms exist to protect the body from pathogen colonisation and invasion, with an important role to play for the natural intestinal bacterial flora (mainly by bifidobacteria and lactobacilli). The present paper reviews the evidence on the effects of inulin and oligofructose on colonisation and translocation of pathogens and the prevention of intestinal diseases. In vitro experiments have shown that lactic acid-producing bacteria have antagonistic (antibacterial) activity against pathogens partly because of the production of organic acids which are the endproducts of inulin and oligofructose fermentation. In addition, studies with epithelial layers have shown that inulin and oligofructose inhibit pathogen colonisation and that endproducts of their fermentation have the ability to support barrier function. Furthermore, studies in various animal models have shown that inulin and oligofructose accelerate the recovery of beneficial bacteria, slow down pathogen growth, decreasing pathogen colonisation and systemic translocation. Finally, data from human intervention trials either in patients with intestinal disorders or disease, or prone to critical illness, found that inulin and oligofructose restore the balance when the gut microbial community is altered, inhibit the progression of disease or prevent it from relapsing and/or developing. To conclude, the dietary use of inulin and oligofructose offers a promising approach to restore microbial communities and to support barrier function of the epithelia by their prebiotic action. This may offer the host protection against invasion and translocation of pathogens (endogenous and/or exogenous) and in the prevention of gastrointestinal diseases.

While beach erosion and sand loss are typically of great concern to the tourism industry, managing rapid morphological changes linked to large amounts of moving sediments is the challenge facing Grado, an important seaside resort in the northern Adriatic, Italy. The cause of the unusual management conflict is the presence of the Mula di Muggia Bank, a nearshore depositional system made up of relict and active migrating sandbanks extending up to 2 km seawards from the touristic beachfront. A reconstruction of the morpho-sedimentary evolution of the coastal system over a 200-year period was done using a large dataset which includes historical cartography, topographic maps, aerial photos and topo-bathymetric surveys. The results show the growth of a significant urban development aimed at creating a tourist destination by occupying the waterfront along fetch-limited coastal tracts with very shallow water and scarce hydrodynamics. Furthermore, a number of sandy dynamic landforms (longshore migrating bars, a bypass corridor, an ebb-tidal delta) and accumulation zones attest to a sediment excess which can be mostly attributed to the eastern river supplies. The progressive constant migration rate of 12.6 my−1 allowed the bank to induce the expansion of the low-energy silty backbarrier environment, characterised by abundant seagrass meadows a short distance directly in front of the tourist beaches of Grado. As a result of historical analysis and more current observations, areas with diverse morphosedimentary features and with varying tourist/recreational, ecological, and conservation values have been identified. These can be considered as basic units for future accurate planning and re-evaluation of coastal management choices to balance environmental protection and tourist use. A soft coastal defence approach is proposed which includes either the preservation of specific environments or the proper use of excess sand for beach nourishment via periodic dredging or sediment bypassing.

Membership of the group is a balance between the benefits associated with group living and the cost of socially constrained growth and breeding opportunities, but the costs and benefits are seldom examined. The goal of the present study was to explore the trade-offs associated with group living for a sex-changing, potentially protogynous coral reef fish, the Ambon damselfish,Pomacentrus amboinensis. Extensive sampling showed that the species exhibits resource defence polygyny, where dominant males guard a nest site that is visited by females.P. amboinensishave a longevity of about 6.5 years on the northern Great Barrier Reef. While the species can change sex consistent with being a protogynous hermaphrodite, it is unclear the extent to which the species uses this capability. Social groups are comprised of one reproductive male, 1–7 females and a number of juveniles. Females live in a linear dominance hierarchy, with the male being more aggressive to the beta-female than the alpha-female, who exhibits lower levels of ovarian cortisol. Surveys and a tagging study indicated that groups were stable for at least three months. A passive integrated transponder tag study showed that males spawn with females from their own group, but also females from neighbouring groups.In situbehavioural observations found that alpha-females have priority of access to the nest site that the male guarded, and access to higher quality foraging areas. Male removal studies suggest that the alpha-females can change sex to take over from the male when the position becomes available. Examination of otolith microstructure showed that those individuals which change sex to males have different embryonic characteristics at hatching, suggesting that success may involve a component that is parentally endowed. The relative importance of parental effects and social organisation in affecting the importance of female queuing is yet to be studied, but will likely depend on the strength of social control by the dominant members of the group.

In this review, we summarise factors contributing to plant availability of magnesium (Mg) in soils, the role of Mg in plant physiological processes related to yield formation and abiotic stress tolerance, and soil and fertiliser parameters related to Mg leaching in fertilised soils. Mg is a common constituent in many minerals, comprising 2% of Earth’s crust; however, most soil Mg (90–98%) is incorporated in the crystal lattice structure of minerals and thus not directly available for plant uptake. Plants absorb Mg from the soil solution, which is slowly replenished by soil reserves. Duration and intensity of weathering, soil moisture, soil pH, and root–microbial activity in soil are key factors that determine plant-available Mg release from soils. On the other hand, the amount of Mg released from soil minerals is generally small compared with the amounts needed to sustain high crop yield and quality. Thus, in many agro-ecosystems, application of Mg fertilisers is crucial. Magnesium is involved in many physiological and biochemical processes; it is an essential element for plant growth and development and plays a key role in plant defence mechanisms in abiotic stress situations. An early effect of Mg deficiency in plants is the disturbed partitioning of assimilates between roots and shoots because the supply of sink organs with photosynthetic products is impaired, and sugars accumulate in source leaves. Thus, optimal supply of Mg is required to improve crop tolerance to various stresses and to increase yield and quality parameters of harvested products. Unlike other cations, Mg is very mobile in soils because it is less bound to the soil charges. Therefore, Mg losses by leaching might occur in sandy soils with high water conductivity. Leaching of Mg in soils when applied with various water-soluble fertilisers may also vary depending on the fertiliser’s chemical composition, granule size, and effect on soil pH and cation balance, as we discuss in detail.

Plants are constantly threatened by pathogens, so have evolved complex defence signalling networks to overcome pathogen attacks. Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are fundamental to plant immunity, allowing rapid and dynamic responses at the appropriate time. PTM regulation is essential; pathogen effectors often disrupt PTMs in an attempt to evade immune responses. Here, we cover the mechanisms of disease resistance to pathogens, and how growth is balanced with defence, with a focus on the essential roles of PTMs. Alteration of defence-related PTMs has the potential to fine-tune molecular interactions to produce disease-resistant crops, without trade-offs in growth and fitness.

Current concerns about the growth of patent assertion entities (PAEs) are typically related to their presumed anti-competitive behaviour and negative impact on innovation in product and technology markets. Regulators, required to balance the legitimate interests of patent holders and licensees, call for evidentiary standards to efficiently appraise, and for the purpose of policy formulation, prejudge the reasonableness and welfare consequences of these undertakings. And yet, recent economic analyses still seem far from offering operational criteria that could translate into enforceable, let alone efficient, regulatory norms. And so, case analysis, particularly in the US context, turns into an ordeal trying to tweak the facts of these fairly new business models to suit time-honoured legal principles. Plainly, PAE efforts in general do not seem to be easily caught by US competition rules that assign antitrust liability based on harm to competition and the competitive process. This is not to suggest that they are pro-competitive per se but, rather, that any attack on them may give rise to ‘administratively hopeless, but generally exculpating, rule of reason defence’. It may be for that reason that US judicial, federal and state reforms – for better or for worse – have begun to target some of the leverage points and key drivers of the PAE business model.The welfare consequences of reduced IP enforcement will still need to be established. The EU Commission expects PAEs to be less active in Europe because of the loser pays principle in European courts, the smaller damage awards offered in successful cases, and because of the higher degree of predictability of outcomes in European specialist patent courts. Yet, similar to the US context, EU regulators are faced with the dilemma of devising standards that fit a variety of circumstances and yet can be easily applied. In both cases, regulatory delegation avoids the pitfalls of ordering complexities centrally. But it requires a set of simple meta-rules to guide lower-level decisions, adjust principles to circumstance and keep matters predictable. Delegation in the area of competition policy is limited by the adequacy of the economic reference that it employs. At this stage, in dealing with outsourced patent assertion and related licensing conditions, economic theory offers a wide yet insufficient menu of advice. The article has four parts: Section 1 discusses patent trends, actors, rights and obligations, and the nature of current regulatory concerns. Section 2 reviews the scant empirical analyses and model work on patent trolls. Section 3 examines regulatory concerns in view of US antitrust standards and lists alternative remedies. Section 4 concludes and offers some considerations related to the European context.

The world appears to be searching for a new, multipolar model of global security. In this context, the provision of impartial data on military capability formation to be used in disarmament proposals and balance of power negotiations will be critical to effective security management in the prevailing uncertain international environment. In their recent research paper on the relationship between military expenditure (milex), government spending and economic growth in the Indo-Pacific Asia region the authors argued that milex’ high level of aggregation often masked important changes in national military capabilities and proposed limited disaggregation of military expenditure data to highlight national spending on military force structure and preparedness so as to facilitate better understanding of military capability formation. In this paper the authors develop this perspective a step further by reviewing alternative approaches to the production of data on military capability formation. It is suggested that the milex data are disaggregated one level down to differentiate between investments in the future force and expenditure on the readiness and sustainment of the force in being.

To test the predictions of optimal territory size models, we attempted to manipulate the size of area that a dominant convict cichlid fish (Archocentrus nigrofasciatus) would defend around a food patch by placing simulated vegetation at three different distances from the edge of the patch (0, 11, and 22 cm). As expected, the size of area defended against four smaller intruders increased as the vegetation was moved farther from the patch. Consistent with optimal territory size models, both the costs of defence, measured as chase radius and chase rate, and the benefits of defence, measured as the amount of food eaten by the defender, increased with the distance of the vegetation from the patch. Growth rates of the defenders, however, did not differ among the treatments, perhaps because the benefits of monopolizing food were balanced by the costs of defending a larger area. Our data support the hypothesis that the size of a guarded area around an ephemeral resource patch affects both the costs and benefits of defence.

SynopsisIn Dutch coastal dunes, geomorphological and geohydrological processes have been adversely affected by intensive utilisation of the dunes. In the past, wide-scale stabilisation, notably for reasons of coastal defence, stopped nearly all aeolian activity. Rejuvenation did not take place and succession to mature-type ecosystems increased. Artificial infiltration with eutrophic river water and extraction of groundwater for drinking water catchment modified the geohydrology of the wet-dune environment.Today, actions are being taken to restore geomorphological and geohydrological processes. Managing authorities join forces with universities and policy makers to strike the right balance between conflicting interests. Applied research helps to develop management strategies.Two types of research are discussed: (a) geomorphological work on the development of blow-outs; (b) geohydrological work on the development of dune slacks. Questions considered are: do blow-outs grow to an unlimited extent or do they have optimum size and shape corresponding to aerodynamic conditions? Are there natural stabilisation mechanisms for blow-outs? What is the ecological impact of drinking water catchment? Which aspects should be considered to restore the dune slack environment in catchment areas?Our findings are that blow-outs in The Netherlands have an optimum length:width ratio of about 2 with a blow-out length varying between 20 and 30 m. After 10–15 years without artificial stabilisation measures, the areas studied present an average of about one blow-out per hectare. Natural stabilisation mechanisms include algae which colonise deflation sites inside the blow-out and low secondary dunes which develop at the immediate leeward side of the blow-out. Blow-outs situated at or near downhill slopes of 6–12° may easily extend into larger deflation surfaces. Water erosion, probably caused by the water-repellency of humus-rich top soil, often precedes wind erosion on south- and south-east oriented slopes.Drinking water production caused dessiccation of dune slacks and the disappearance of associated vegetation. In areas where infiltration with river water from outside the dunes is also applied, inudation and eutrophication drastically changed the dune environment. Nitrophilous plants appeared, especialy along banks of infiltration ponds, but also in seepage ponds. The plant cover depends on nutrient concentration of the (infiltrated) groundwater but especially on the flux of the groundwater. A high rate of flux leads to high nutrient loads, encouraging the growth and eventually dominance of nitrophilous plants. Restoration of dune slacks depends on the quality and the flux of the groundwater, on the streamlines of the groundwater flow in the dune body in relation to the orientation of the seepage ponds, on the presence of peaty or clayey adsorptive layers in the subsoil and possibly also on the presence of a rainwater lens occurring on top of the infiltration water.

Soil salinity limits agricultural land use and crop productivity, thereby a major threat to global food safety. Plants treated with several phytohormones including cytokinins were recently proved as a powerful tool to enhance plant’s adaptation against various abiotic stresses. The current study was designed to investigate the potential role of 6-benzyladenine (BA) to improve broad bean (Vicia faba L.) salinity tolerance. The salt-stressed broad bean plantlets were classified into two groups, one of which was sprayed with water and another was sprayed with 200 ppm of BA. Foliar applications of BA to salt-exposed plants promoted the growth performance which was evidenced by enhanced root-shoot fresh and dry biomass. Reduced proline was strongly connected to the enhanced soluble proteins and free amino acids contents, protecting plant osmotic potential following BA treatment in salt-stressed broad bean. BA balanced entire mineral homeostasis and improved mineral absorption and translocation from roots to shoots, shoots to seeds and roots to seeds in salt-stressed plants. Excessive salt accumulation increased malondialdehyde level in leaves creating oxidative stress and disrupting cell membrane whereas BA supplementation reduced lipid peroxidation and improved oxidative defence. BA spray to salinity-stressed plants also compensated oxidative damage by boosting antioxidants defence mechanisms, as increased the enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase and ascorbate peroxidase. Moreover, clustering heatmap and principal component analysis revealed that mineral imbalances, osmotic impairments and increased oxidative damage were the major contributors to salts toxicity, on the contrary, BA-augmented mineral homeostasis and higher antioxidant capacity were the reliable markers for creating salinity stress tolerance in broad bean. In conclusion, the exogenous application of BA alleviated the antagonistic effect of salinity and possessed broad bean to positively regulate the osmoprotectants, ion homeostasis, antioxidant activity and finally plant growth and yield, perhaps suggesting these easily-accessible and eco-friendly organic compounds could be powerful tools for the management of broad bean growth as well as the development of plant resiliency in saline prone soils.

Wild relatives of wheat have served as a pool of genetic variation for understanding salinity tolerance mechanisms. Two separate experiments were performed to evaluate the natural diversity in root and shoot Na+ exclusion and K+ accumulation, and the activity of four antioxidant enzymes within an extensive collection of ancestral wheat accessions. In the initial screening experiment, salinity stress (300 mm NaCl) significantly increased Na+ concentration in roots and leaves and led to a significant decline in root and shoot fresh weights, dry weights, and K+ contents. Principal component analysis of the 181 accessions and 12 species identified three first components accounted for 63.47% and 78.55% of the variation under salinity stress. We identified 12 accessions of each species with superior tolerance to salinity for further assessment of their antioxidant defence systems in response to salinity. Both mild (250 mm NaCl) and severe (350 mm NaCl) levels of salinity significantly increased activities of four enzymes, indicating an enhanced antioxidant-scavenging system for minimising the damaging effects of H2O2. Some of the wild relatives—Aegilops speltoides (putative B genome), Ae. caudata (C genome), Ae. cylindrica (DC genome) and Triticum boeoticum (Ab genome)—responded to salinity stress by increasing antioxidants as the dominant mechanism to retain oxidative balance in cells. Further evaluation of salt-tolerance mechanisms in these superior wild relatives will help us to understand the potential of wheat progenitors in the development of more salt-tolerant varieties.

Abstract Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades transmit environmental signals and induce stress and defence responses in plants. These signalling cascades are negatively controlled by specific Ser/Thr protein phosphatases of the type 2C (PP2C) and dual-specificity phosphatase (DSP) families that inactivate stress-induced MAPKs; however, the interplay between phosphatases of these different types has remained unknown. This work reveals that different Arabidopsis MAPK phosphatases, the PP2C-type AP2C1 and the DSP-type MKP1, exhibit both specific and overlapping functions in plant stress responses. Each single mutant, ap2c1 and mkp1, and the ap2c1 mkp1 double mutant displayed enhanced stress-induced activation of the MAPKs MPK3, MPK4, and MPK6, as well as induction of a set of transcription factors. Moreover, ap2c1 mkp1 double mutants showed an autoimmune-like response, associated with increased levels of the stress hormones salicylic acid and ethylene, and of the phytoalexin camalexin. This phenotype was reduced in the ap2c1 mkp1 mpk3 and ap2c1 mkp1 mpk6 triple mutants, suggesting that the autoimmune-like response is due to MAPK misregulation. We conclude that the evolutionarily distant MAPK phosphatases AP2C1 and MKP1 contribute crucially to the tight control of MAPK activities, ensuring appropriately balanced stress signalling and suppression of autoimmune-like responses during plant growth and development.

Rapid progress in research on mineral functions in biological systems over the past 20 years has provided new and unexplored implications for health and production in grazing livestock. The strong interaction among calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), potassium (K) and vitamin D influences the absorption, utilisation and status of these nutrients, particularly Ca and Mg. An imbalanced intake of Ca, Mg, P, Na, K and vitamin D is common in ruminants grazing pastures and vegetative crops. The interaction may modify susceptibility to clinical hypocalcaemia, hypomagnesaemia and pregnancy toxaemia, or to subclinical and chronic deficiencies of Ca, Mg and Na. However, hypocalcaemia is also associated with endocrine failure. Whether this failure is susceptible to nutritional modulation or even whether supplements of Ca, Mg, Na and vitamin D reduce or exacerbate the risk of metabolic disease in sheep is unclear. Selenium, manganese, zinc, copper, sulfur, vitamin E and vitamin A play synergistic roles in the antioxidant defence mechanism and modulate the consequences of oxidative stress. In extensive grazing systems combined low intakes of these antioxidants are not unusual, particularly in seasonally dry environments and at a time coinciding with the increased oxidative stress that naturally occurs through the reproductive cycle. This oxidative stress is accentuated by heat stress and parasite infection. Oxidative stress in the short-term influences growth, reproduction, offspring survival and health. Long-term, oxidative damage to embryo DNA and changes in RNA expression, may influence lifetime performance of offspring. The high cost of providing mineral supplements to grazing sheep is a deterrence to addressing the implications of multiple mineral deficiencies. New herbaceous and shrub options to increase the botanical and nutritional diversity within pasture and crop-grazing systems may allow livestock to select a heterogeneous diet providing a more balanced mineral intake.

The article contains the results of the analysis of the investment behaviour of Ukrainian households in the crisis caused by external armed aggression. The financial potential of Ukrainian households in the pre-war period was assessed, and it was concluded that the expenses of most of the population were directed to the consumer rather than investment purposes. It was found that the investment potential of households was directed, first, to the purchase of currency, real estate, and deposits, as well as to risky crypto-currency assets, the active use of which Ukraine is one of the world leaders, instead of public investments in securities and other financial instruments remain extremely limited. The choice of the population of Ukraine in favour of investments in currency, real estate, deposits, and government bonds is currently quite rational since investments in private instruments of the local capital market (both directly and through pension funds and mutual investment institutions) do not provide high profitability and are associated with significant risks. It was revealed that in the conditions of martial law, the investment priorities of the population were most affected by the need to protect savings from depreciation, finance the country’s defence needs, and the corresponding rate of growth of the state debt, as well as high risks of real estate investments and strict restrictions of the National Bank of Ukraine on capital movement. It has been established that at a relatively high level of inflation, Ukrainian citizens do not receive a deposit offer from banks that is adequate to maintain the solvency of their savings. A situation in the banking system that is dangerous for financial stability has been identified, which is associated with the formation of a liquidity “canopy” due to the balances on the current accounts of the population. Emphasis is placed on the need to urgently increase the reserve requirements for demand deposits and current deposits to stimulate the growth of the value of hryvnia assets and change the banks’ liquidity surplus structure. Prospective directions and tools for the placement of household savings are justified, considering the needs of the post-war recovery of Ukraine’s economy and the prospects for European integration.

Abstract Plants compete with their neighbours for limiting resources such as light and nitrogen, which can promote competitive ability at the expense of other functions such as chemical defence against insect herbivory. This trade-off is strongly influenced by dynamic interactions with biotic and abiotic factors. Yet, understanding how these interactions influence the balance between growth and defence remains one of the key challenges in the field of plant evolutionary ecology. In this study, we investigated how resource availability, competition pressure and insect herbivore pressure drive selection on the balance between the acquisition and protection of resources. To this end, we developed a novel simulation model that combines a functional-structural plant (FSP) model of plant growth in a 3D light climate with a model of natural selection. This mechanistic modelling approach simulates plant growth, competition for above- and belowground resources, and natural selection to investigate selection pressures on traits related to growth and defence as imposed by different levels of plant density, nitrogen availability and herbivory. The model presented in this study was able to recreate the functional equilibria predicted by principal ecological theories on the effects of resource availability and resource-driven trade-offs. This illustrates the potential of mechanistic modelling approaches such as the one presented here for future research on plant responses to dynamic and variable environments. Our results further showed a three-way interaction between plant competition for light, competition for nitrogen and herbivory that determined the optimal balance between the acquisition and protection of resources. This shows that the value of investing in the acquisition or the protection of resources is a dynamic problem that is influenced by multiple ecological interactions, trade-offs and tragedies of the commons, and therefore requires an eco-evolutionary context to be fully understood.

This paper investigates the long-run relationship between fiscal policy and economic growth in Asia between 1982 and 2001 through the application of Pedroni’s Cointegration approach. It examines two different channels through which fiscal policy can affect long-run economic growth in Asian countries. The first channel is when components and aggregate government expenditure affect the real per capita GDP, and the second channel is when the distortionary taxation, budget balance, and aggregate of other fiscal variables affect the real per capita GDP. There is a positive and statistically significant impact of health and education expenditure, aggregate of government expenditure, and aggregate of other fiscal variables on real per capita GDP. It was found that the defence expenditure, distortionary taxation, and budget balance are significantly and negatively related to real per capita GDP. The Pedroni Cointegration result establishes a long-run relationship between fiscal policy and economic growth.

Convergences concomitant with the occurrence of modular growth among systematically remote plant and invertebrate taxa not only reflect similar optimal ways of exploiting resources such as space, but also common defensive requirements among such organisms. This paper analyses the kinds of unfavourable interspecific interactions, principally predation, epibiosis, and endobiosis, which are found among the major aquatic invertebrate groups that may be considered to be modular (Porifera, Bryozoa, and some of the Coelenterata and Tunicata). Most of the organisms are also non-locomotory, and in extreme cases, virtually immotile. The defence mechanisms of organisms exhibiting the opposing traits of (i) modular and unitary organization, and (ii) motility and immotility, are compared and contrasted. There is a more widespread occurrence of defence (i) by means of consolidated and unconsolidated skeletal reinforcement, and (ii) by actively and passively dispensed secondary substances, in less motile than in more motile organisms. These defensive modes represent alternatives to ‘fight’ and ‘flight’ responses seen within the more motile invertebrates. Lack of motility is of greater significance in correlating defensive modes than is modularity. The balance between physical and chemical mechanisms used in defence can vary, even among closely related taxa. A more particular pattern of significance is the more widespread occurrence of defence by the use of passively dispensed chemical substances within modular, rather than unitary non-locomotory invertebrate groups. This may be a response to the increased risks of pathogenic infection which modular biota face through their susceptibility to frequent large scale wounding and partial mortality.

The human gastrointestinal tract harbours a complex microbial community, which interacts with the mucosal immune system closely. Gut microbiota plays a significant role in maintaining host health, which could supply various nutrients, regulate energy balance, modulate the immune response, and defence against pathogens. Therefore, maintaining a favourable equilibrium of gut microbiota through modulating bacteria composition, diversity, and their activity is beneficial to host health. Several studies have shown that probiotics and pre-biotics could directly and indirectly regulate microbiota and immune response. In addition, post-biotics, such as the bioactive metabolites, produced by gut microbiota, and/or cell-wall components released by probiotics, also have been shown to inhibit pathogen growth, maintain microbiota balance, and regulate an immune response. This review summarises the studies concerning the impact of probiotics, pre-biotics, and post-biotics on gut microbiota and immune systems and also describes the underlying mechanisms of beneficial effects of these substances. Finally, the future and challenges of probiotics, pre-biotics, and post-biotics are proposed.

Paclobutrazol (PBZ) is a member of the triazole family of plant growth regulators and is known to protect crops from environmental stresses such as salinity and drought. It plays a role in maintaining water balance, photosynthesis capacity and enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities. Despite the well-documented effects of PBZ on antioxidant defence in soybean plants, the changes in non-enzymatic antioxidants and endogenous polyamines in the PBZ-treated plants grown under salinity stress are still not studied. Herewith, the study aimed to clarify the effects of PBZ on these molecules. For this purpose, the combined effect of salt (250 mM NaCl) and three different concentrations of PBZ (5, 10 and 20 ppm) on soybean (Glycine max L.) plants were studied. Proline, hydroxyl radical (OH.) scavenging capacity, non-enzymatic antioxidants (anthocyanin, flavonoid, phenolic and free thiol-containing compounds) and polyamines spermine, spermidine, and putrescine were investigated in the treated plants. We found that the PBZ (10 ppm) treatment was the most effective concentration to counteract oxidative stress due to NaCl in soybean seedlings. It significantly increased hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, proline, total phenolics, flavonoids, and conjugated polyamine content compared to those found in salt-treated plants only. For the first time, our study showed that PBZ could induce the non-enzymatic antioxidant defence in soybean plants grown under salt stress conditions.

Abstract Background Salinity is one of the major environmental threats to agriculture, limiting plant growth and reducing crop yield. The use of humic substances to alleviate salt stress in plants is well reported, but the mechanisms remain unclear. This work aimed to apply humic acids on seedlings to acclimate plants to tolerate further salt stress exposition as a pre-treatment. Materials and methods Two independent experiments with mono (maize) and dicot (tomato) seedlings were carried out. Maize was primed by humic acids (4 mM C) and further submitted to moderate salinity exposition (60 mM NaCl). The acclimation period of maize seedlings was characterized by ion balance and transcriptomic analysis of salt response genes. The tomato seedlings were also primed by humic acids (4 mM C) and exposed further to salinity (200 mM NaCl), and we measured only physiological aspect, including the activity of plasma membrane proton pumps and net photosynthesis rate. Results Seedlings primed by humic acids minimized the salinity stress by changing ion balance, promoting plasma membrane proton pumps activity and enhancing photosynthesis rate and plant growth. We showed for the first time that maize seedlings treated with humic acids had a high transcription level of salt responsive genes and transcription factors even before the salt exposition. Conclusion Humic acids previously activate cellular and molecular salt defence machinery, anticipating the response and reducing salinity stress. This is a key knowledge to manipulate manufactured biostimulants based on humic substances towards a maximized crop protection. Graphic abstract

AbstractOxidative stress, an alteration in the balance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and antioxidant buffering capacity, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of cardiometabolic disorders (CMD). At physiological levels, ROS functions as signalling mediators, regulates various physiological functions such as the growth, proliferation, and migration endothelial cells (EC) and smooth muscle cells (SMC); formation and development of new blood vessels; EC and SMC regulated death; vascular tone; host defence; and genomic stability. However, at excessive levels, it causes a deviation in the redox state, mediates the development of CMD. Multiple mechanisms account for the rise in the production of free radicals in the heart. These include mitochondrial dysfunction and uncoupling, increased fatty acid oxidation, exaggerated activity of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX), reduced antioxidant capacity, and cardiac metabolic memory. The purpose of this study is to discuss the link between oxidative stress and the aetiopathogenesis of CMD and highlight associated mechanisms. Oxidative stress plays a vital role in the development of obesity and dyslipidaemia, insulin resistance and diabetes, hypertension via various mechanisms associated with ROS-led inflammatory response and endothelial dysfunction.

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is viewed as a source of economic development, modernization, employment, and income growth for emerging economies like India. It acts as a significant catalyst and as the lifeblood of economic development by way of up-gradation of technology, managerial skills, capabilities, etc., The main advantage of FDI is that it supplements the available domestic capital without adding to the national debt. A steady and continuous inflow of foreign investments helps in boosting our Balance of Payments situations and strengthening the value of Indian currency against global currencies. India has liberalized its FDI regimes and pursued several other policies to make India an attractive destination for FDI. Government of India has taken strenuous efforts and initiatives in recent years like dispensing the need of getting approvals at various stages from the Government /other regulatory bodies and relaxing FDI norms across various sectors such as Defence, Public Sector Undertaking Oil refineries, Telecom sector, Stock exchanges, etc., Major initiative in this regard is the "Make in India" launched by the Prime Minister Shri. Narendra Modi in September 2014. Make in India is a powerful, galvanizing call and an invitation to potential investors around the world to transform India into a global design and manufacturing hub. Tackling the problems of unemployment by creation of new jobs, advancement of employability skills and fostering innovation are the major objectives of this initiative. Series of reforms launched by the Government of India to liberalize its foreign investment norms has enabled our country to be one of the world’s fastest-growing economies and a top market for foreign direct investments globally. This paper attempts to analyze the FDI in various sectors and the impact of Make in India scheme on FDI.

Vitamins and minerals serve essential roles in cellular metabolism, maintenance and growth throughout life. They are also central components of many enzymes and transcription factors. However, the need for optimum amounts of key micronutrients at critical stages during the periovulatory period and subsequent embryonic and fetal life has become the focus of sustained research activity only recently. In addition to folic acid, the minerals zinc, iron and copper and the antioxidant vitamins A and E are of particular importance during pregnancy. Both excesses and deficiencies of these micronutrients can have profound and sometimes persistent effects on many fetal tissues and organs in the absence of clinical signs of deficiency in the mother. The consequences of micronutrient imbalance on the developing conceptus may not be apparent at the time of the nutritional insult, but may be manifest later in development. However, supplementary micronutrients provided later in gestation or during postnatal life cannot completely reverse the detrimental effects of earlier micronutrient imbalance. Importantly, deficiency of a specific micronutrient, such as zinc, during pregnancy can result in a greater incidence of fetal malformation and resorptions than general undernutrition. Given the range of micronutrients that affect development, the number of developmental stages susceptible to inappropriate micronutrient status and the diverse biochemical systems and types of tissue affected, it is challenging to propose a unifying hypothesis that could explain the effects of micronutrient imbalance on programming throughout gestation. Micronutrient imbalance can affect pregnancy outcome through alterations in maternal and conceptus metabolism, as a consequence of their essential role in enzymes and transcription factors and through their involvement in signal transduction pathways that regulate development. Micronutrient-induced disturbances in the balance between the generation of free oxygen radicals and the production of antioxidants that scavenge free radicals may provide an additional mechanistic explanation. The detrimental effects of many micronutrient deficiencies, particularly zinc and copper, can be alleviated by supplementary antioxidants, whereas deficiencies of antioxidant vitamins A and E are likely to reduce defence against free radical damage.

Trematode parasites of the genus Fasciola are the cause of liver fluke disease (fasciolosis) in humans and their livestock. Infection of the host involves invasion through the intestinal wall followed by migration in the liver that results in extensive damage, before the parasite settles as a mature egg-laying adult in the bile ducts. Genomic and transcriptomic studies revealed that increased metabolic stress during the rapid growth and development of F. hepatica is balanced with the up-regulation of the thiol-independent antioxidant system. In this cascade system thioredoxin/glutathione reductase (TGR) reduces thioredoxin (Trx), which then reduces and activates peroxiredoxin (Prx), whose major function is to protect cells against the damaging hydrogen peroxide free radicals. F. hepatica expresses a single TGR, three Trx and three Prx genes; however, the transcriptional expression of Trx1 and Prx1 far out-weighs (>50-fold) other members of their family, and both are major components of the parasite secretome. While Prx1 possesses a leader signal peptide that directs its secretion through the classical pathway and explains why this enzyme is found freely soluble in the secretome, Trx1 lacks a leader peptide and is secreted via an alternative pathway that packages the majority of this enzyme into extracellular vesicles (EVs). Here we propose that F. hepatica Prx1 and Trx1 do not function as part of the parasite’s stress-inducible thiol-dependant cascade, but play autonomous roles in defence against the general anti-pathogen oxidative burst by innate immune cells, in the modulation of host immune responses and regulation of inflammation.

Fish farming provides food and livelihood for many people around the world. The fact that trout is produced in many parts of the world and has a very rich content in terms of nutritional value increases the importance of trout. However, there are many problems in trout production due to bacterial factors, making fish production extremely difficult. Bacterial factors cause significant fish deaths and economic losses such as slowdown in growth. In addition to these, these factors also cause some damage to the DNA of fish and the formation of oxidations by disrupting the balance of free radicals in the tissues. Therefore, in this study; In the trout farms in our province, the trout with the main bacterial agents causing infection were determined and bacterial species (Staphylococcus epidermidis, Lactococcus garvieae and Bacillius subtilis) were determined by PCR. The brain and liver tissues of these fish were taken and the changes in antioxidant enzyme levels (SOD, CAT, GSH-Px), lipid peroxidation (MDA) and damage to their DNA (8-OHdG) compared to the control groups were investigated. In the study, it was determined that the antioxidant defense system enzyme levels in all three species of bacteria decreased in tissues, while lipid peroxidation and 8-OHdG levels increased.
 As a result; Staphylococcus epidermidis, Lactococcus garvieae and Bacillius
 subtilis bacteria caused changes in antioxidant enzyme levels, lipid peroxidation and 8-OHdG levels in trout brain and liver tissues.

(Views of Major General S B Asthana,SM,VSM, (Veteran), Questioned by Jiangtao Shi of South China Morning Post on 29 August 2017.Question 1 (SCMP)Are you surprised that the over 70-day military standoff ended all of a sudden just days ahead of PM Narendra Modi’s trip to China for the BRICS summit? The deliberate ambiguity in both sides’ statements seems to indicate that both sides were willing to make some kind of concessions in a bid to end the dispute in a mutually acceptable face-saving manner. What are the main reasons and factors behind the seemingly peaceful solution for China and India respectively? (For China , BRICS and the 19th party congress? For India, domestic political support and economic reform?)Answer 1 by Major General S B AsthanaI am not really surprised that the over 70-day military standoff ended all of a sudden just days ahead of PM Narendra Modi’s trip to China for the BRICS summit. As you have rightly pointed out, both sides (China and India) were looking for an opportunity for a face saving resolution, without appearing to be weak domestically. The likelihood of absence of PM Modi in BRICS Summit, and its resultant political and diplomatic cost, triggered that opportunity. In my opinion, the main reasons behind such a sudden resolution were:-Any escalation beyond the point of standoff as on 28 August could have been cost prohibitive in terms of economical engagement, political and diplomatic cost, human casualties, without any worthwhile gains for both sides. Prolonging it was not in the national interest of either of the country.Success of BRICS is important for all member countries including China. China refusal to talk without precondition of Indian withdrawal and repeated provocative statements was exhibiting its arrogance. This wasn’t going well with global community, besides giving an indirect message to all including BRICS, about its hegemonic intentions and poor diplomatic acumen. Even US and Japan, who were not involved with Doklam, chose to state that both must talk to resolve it. The fact that China did not accept ICA verdict, continued aggressive posturing in South China Sea, violated 2012 Agreement in Doklam Triangle, and was seen as not doing enough to implement UN obligation against North Korea. It was affecting its global image adversely, hence some midcourse correction was needed, which has been done through this adjustment.An India China conflict, besides shattering dreams of economic prosperity of both countries, could have escalated to international dimensions, more so with ongoing problems of North Korea and South China Sea, and turbulence in Af- Pak Region. The fact that both are nuclear states cannot be discounted in strategic calculus of escalation dynamics.Militarily the escalation dynamics was not thought through. If war gamed properly, the escalation would have resulted in stalemate, which would have damaged the image of President Xi Jinping and reduced his chances for getting favourable people in 19th Party Congress in his second term and any possible prospects of his third term.From Indian perspective also, escalation of this standoff wasn’t in its National Interest. India needs China’s market for its growth in future, even if the balance of trade is not in its favour today. Now that India is on ‘Make in India’ path, as fastest growing economy to bring prosperity to its people,it may not like to slow down due to such meaningless disruptions.There was no domestic pressure on Indian Government, as all political parties,Security forces and public were determined to check Chinese encroachment and arrogance, at any cost.Question 2(SCMP)While an “expeditious disengagement” in Doklam brought an end to the border standoff and ease tensions between the two countries, do you think it could fuel nationalist sentiment, mistrust and hostility in both nations and cast a long shadow over the longstanding border dispute between China and India and their relations? What are the immediate and long-term implications of the border standoff on bilateral relations, especially considering the strategic competition and rivalry for dominance in the region between the nuclear-armed Asian giants? Will it have a long-term impact on the regional geopolitical landscape?Answer 2 by Major General S B AsthanaDoklam standoff is neither the first, nor the last, and not even the longest standoff between India and China. Many strategists argue that Chinese President Xi Jinping and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi are strong leaders, leading their nations with patriotic sentiments. The nationalist self-confidence from both sides may ignite a heated rivalry in which bilateral relations could deteriorate, because an “expeditious disengagement” in Doklam is only a temporary answer to the bigger problem of longstanding border dispute between both.Out of 14 countries with which China had border issues, it has resolved with 12 except India and Bhutan. With India, China has been delaying settling the border issue on some pretext or the other, and with Bhutan it has been shifting its claim lines many times. I understand that permanent resolution of Border Dispute is the ultimate solution, which needs to be expedited. It is a complex problem, as both sides read history in a manner that it supports their claims. This was the reason for both countries to have signed various agreements to ensure peace and tranquillity along the borders, which have been reasonably successful, as no bullet has been fired amongst both Forces in last four decades.Even if resolution of boundary is considered to be a complex problem, the demarcation, delineation and defining of Line of Actual Control (LAC), (which is not a mutually accepted line as of now), is an inescapable necessity. This is do-able by cooperative political intent, to be followed by intense diplomatic efforts. This action cannot be postponed further if the two neighbours have to live peacefully in future without further standoffs’. It needs to be understood that with un-demarcated LAC, troops of both sides will patrol as per their own perceptions of LAC; some areas will be common which both sides will patrol to be its own. Every such patrol will be called as intrusion by the other side, hence such face-offs will continue tillit’s demarcated, and the identification of its demarcation is made known to troops manning the borders. The short term impacts of standoffs were the anxiety among people, possible temporary setback to trade, tension on borders, non attendance of important events like BRF/BRICS if not resolved. The long term impact could have been hardening of varying stand on border resolution, aggressive strategic competition, and growth of interest based strategic partnerships to balance each other.Being neighbors, most populated, developing countries and significant trading partners of future, China and India have convergence of interests in many areas.Our economical engagements, mutual cooperation can proceed with strategic divergences, and this has been demonstrated adequately in past.Question3(SCMP)What are messages for other Asian nations caught between the increasing rivalry between China and India? What are the main takeaways for countries like Bhutan , Sri Lanka , Vietnam , Myanmar , Japan , Singapore and Mongolia ?Answer 3 by Major General S B AsthanaI do not subscribe to the idea of growing rivalry between China and India. The extension of economical and strategic space by large growing countries like China and India, to fulfil their genuine needs is natural and may not necessarily be a rivalry. In case some Asian nation is caught between contradictory needs of China and India, in my opinion it should look after its own national interest.The main message which comes out loud and clear from Doklam episode is that in today’s world no country can afford to be arrogant to bully smaller sovereign nation, if the smaller Nation is determined to stand up for its national interest. If Cuba could stand up to US, Bhutan could stand up to China, Vietnam could stand up to China as well as US, then smaller countries should also look after their national interest, without worrying about the size and might of any power, trying to push them or manipulate their genuine strategic choices.In my perception, the DoklamPlateau was presumably chosen by China for road construction to violate 2012 Treaty at this point of time because:-India and Bhutan boycotted Belt and Road Forum (BRF) for International Cooperation, the Doklam ingress could embarrass both the countries simultaneously.Stressing on 1890 Treaty by China takes away the logic of Tibet, as a player in dealing with India, thus a subtle message to Dalai Lama that he is not a stake holder in Tibet.Test the depth of Indo- Bhutanese security relationship.The area being too close to Siliguri Corridor/Chicken’s Neck, India had to be concerned and had to decide whether to intervene or otherwise in India’s own national interest, thereby conveying a message of standing up or not standing up to a challenge from Beijing in future too.As the construction activity was in Bhutanese Territory, a strong Indian reaction was not expected.In case India takes action, China can proclaim itself as an innocent victim and blame India to be an aggressor.China was however surprised by an unexpectedly strong Indian reaction, and then it realized that the point chosen was such, where it had strategic and tactical disadvantages for her in escalating it. China was also surprised that in multiparty democracy like India, all parties are on the same page as far as stand on sovereignty and Doklam Issue was concerned.The end result was that China was extremely disturbed about it, and churning out fresh provocative statements almost on daily basis, launching psychological and propaganda war, war of words, and resorting to every possible means short of war to put pressure on India to withdraw its troops. The Indian side on the other side has been relatively balanced, but firm in its stance, making very few statements, and was globally appreciated for its diplomatic maturity. No one bought the idea of India being an aggressor. India proved that it could physically resist China when its national interest demands so, and it also honors the security arrangement promised to Bhutan by physical action.Chinese efforts to establish bilateral talks with Bhutan, including financial allurement (Purse Diplomacy) did not materialize. India and Bhutan stood by each other and could resist Chinese aggressive activity. Chinese efforts to involve Nepal also resulted in response from their Deputy Prime Minister expressing unwillingness to take sides. Japanese Ambassador in New Delhi also said that there should be no attempt to change status quo on the ground by force.Vietnam has stood up earlier against China as well as US for its national interest. The Doklam episode will encourage countries like, Mongolia (Visit of Dalai Lama), Singapore( trade issues), Srilanka ( Hambantota Port), Myanmar( Dam construction), and Japan( East China Sea/Senkakuislands) to stand up to China for various issues of divergences, and cause others like Philippines, to reconsider their options to give away their strategic choices.China in last few years has been on island grabbing spree using ‘Incremental Encroachment’ as part of ‘Active Defence’ Strategy’, with its economic and military clout, using ‘Purse Diplomacy’ with some countries and ‘Infrastructure Diplomacy’ with others. In some cases the disagreements amongst some countries have become quite pronounced due to unfair deals. Singaporehad a strong interest in ensuring navigation in South China Seas is not restricted. Mongolia displayed the temerity of hosting the Dalai Lama, despite Chinese opposition.The bigger lesson is that no sovereign country should be pushed to take sides, and if it is done aggressively by any stronger power, the nation which is being pushed will be forced to seek security and other interests elsewhere, in terms of various other partnerships.Question 4 (SCMP)With India insisting that China should respect the 2012 understanding on tri-junctions, which specifically said “the tri-junction boundary points between India, China and third countries will be finalised in consultation with the concerned countries,” do you think it will further delay the border talks between China and Bhutan? Does it mean India will have to be directly involved as the third party in Sino-Bhutanese border talks in the future?Answer 4 by Major General S B AsthanaAs per the lay of the ground, the resolution of border dispute of China and Bhutan especially at triangle/ junction points, is closely linked and cannot be done in isolation. At Doklam plateau the location of Tri-junction as per India supported by Bhutan is Batang La, whereas China contends it to be at Gyemochenon Jampheri Ridge, which amounts to an encroachment of 7-8 km. These issues cannot be resolved in isolation. If there is political will to resolve it, then meeting of three delegation will not take any time. The delay is only in making political decision and directing the diplomats to resolve it in time bound manner.Additional PointAlthough there is a contradiction in the manner in which each country has reported it perhaps to amuse their domestic audience, and both sides can claim it to be a diplomatic achievement. It is a welcomed step towards peace and tranquilityalong the borders, hence which side blinked first or had an upper hand is not relevant, although both will claim it. This resolution has ensured that there has been no exchange of bullets, and India and China as responsible nations have been able to resolve their differences peacefully on Doklam Standoff. It also ensured that both the countries found a peaceful solution, with a face-saving gesture to ease tension, without disturbing the core interest of either.


 
 
 Political activity is expected to be of interest to a knowledgeable electorate, citizenry or ‘public’. Performance and entertainment have, on the other hand, been considered the domain of the ‘audience’. The line between active electorate and passive audience has been continually blurred, and as more political communication is designed along the lines of entertainment, the less likely it seems that the distinction will become clearer any time soon. The following article will attempt to thoroughly evaluate the contemporary implications of terms related to ‘public’ and ‘audience’, and to suggest a path forward in understanding the now intertwined roles of these two entities. In political commentary of all kinds, the term ‘audience’ has come to be regularly used in place of the more traditionally political terms ‘public’, ‘electorate’, ‘constituency’ or even ‘mass’, ‘mob’ and ‘multitude’. (Bratich 249) This slight alteration of language would seem to suggest an ongoing, and occasionally unintentional debate as to whether or not our increasingly mediated society has become incapable of true political discourse – an audience to be courted and won solely on the basis of visual and aural stimulation. In some instances, the debate goes unacknowledged, with authors using the term interchangeably with that of voter or public. Others seem to be making a more definite statement, as do the authors of Campaign Craft, wherein the term ‘audience’ is often used to refer to the voting population. (Shea and Burton) In either case, it is clear that the ‘public’ and the ‘audience’ are no longer to be considered two entirely separate entities. To understand the significance of this shift, it is necessary to identify the traditional distinctions of these sometimes problematic terms. To do so we must look briefly at how the original and contemporary meanings have developed. Herbert Blau writes that “audiences, such as they are, are nothing like a public, certainly nothing like the capitalised Public of another time” (Blau 22). That “capitalised Public” he refers to is perhaps the ideal state envisioned by Greek and Roman philosophers in which the community, as a whole, is maintained by and for its own members, and each individual plays a significant and specific role in its maintenance. The “audiences”, however, can be popularly defined as “the assembled spectators or listeners at a public event such as a play, film, concert, or meeting” or “the people giving attention to something”. (Soanes & Stevenson) The difference is subtle but significant. The public is expected to take some active interest in its own maintenance and growth, while the audience is not expected to offer action, just attention. The authors of Soundbite Culture, who would seem to see the blurring between audience and public as a negative side effect of mass media, offer this description of the differences between these two entities: Audiences are talked to; publics are talked with. Audiences are entertained; publics are engaged. Audiences live in the moment; publics have both memory and dreams. Audiences have opinions, publics have thoughts. (Slayden & Whillock 7) A ‘public’ is joined by more than their attendance at or attention to a single performance and responsible for more than just the experience of that performance. While an audience is expected to do little more than consume the performance before them, a public must respond to an experience with appropriate action. A public is a community, bound together by activity and mutual concerns. An audience is joined together only by their mutual interest in, or presence at, a performance. Carpini and Williams note that the term ‘public’ is no longer an adequate way to describe the complex levels of interaction that form contemporary political discourse: “people, politics, and the media are far more complex than this. Individuals are simultaneously citizens, consumers, audiences…and so forth” (Carpini & Williams in Bennett & Entman 161). Marshall sees the audience as both a derivative of and a factor in the larger, more political popular body called the “masses”. These masses define the population largely as an unorganised political power, while audiences emerge in relation to consumer products, as rationalised and therefore somewhat subdued categories within that scope. He notes that although the audience, in the twentieth century, has emerged as a “social category” of its own, it has developed as such in relation to both the unharnessed political power of the masses and the active political power of the public (Marshall 61-70). The audience, then, can be said to be a separate but overlapping state that rationalises and segments the potential of the masses, but also informs the subsequent actions of the public. An audience without some degree of action or involvement is not a public. Such a definition provides important insights into the debate from the perspective of political communication. The cohesiveness of the group that is to define the public can be undermined by mass media. It has been argued that mass media, in particular the internet, have removed all sense of local community and instead provided an information outlet that denies individual response. (Franklin 23; Postman 67-69) It can certainly be argued that with media available on such an instant and individual basis, the necessity of group gathering for information and action has been greatly reduced. Thus, one of the primary functions of the public is eliminated, that of joining together for information. This lack of communal information gathering can eliminate the most important functions of the public: debate and personal action. Those who tune-in to national broadcasts or even read national newspapers to receive political information are generally not invited to debate and pose solutions to the problems that are introduced to them, or to take immediate steps to resolve the conflicts addressed. Instead, they are asked only to fulfill that traditional function of the audience, to receive the information and either absorb or dismiss it. Media also blur the audience/public divide by making it necessary to change the means of political communication. Previous to the advent of mass media, political communication was separated from entertainment by its emphasis on debate and information. Television has led a turn toward more ‘emotion’ and image-based campaigning both for election and for support of a particular political agenda. This subsequently implies that this public has increasingly become primarily an audience. Although this attitude is one that has been adopted by many critics and observers, it is not entirely correct to say that there are no longer any opportunities for the audience to regain their function as a public. On a local level, town hall meetings, public consultations and rallies still exist and provide an opportunity for concerned citizens to voice their opinions and assist in forming local policy. Media, often accused of orchestrating the elimination of the active public, occasionally provide opportunities for more traditional public debate. In both Canada and the US, leaders are invited to participate in ‘town hall’ style television debates in which audience members are invited to ask questions. In the UK, both print media and television tend to offer opportunities for leaders to respond to the questions and concerns of individuals. Many newspapers publish responses and letters from many different readers, allowing for public debate and interaction. (McNair 13) In addition, newspapers such as The Washington Post and The Globe and Mail operate Websites that allow the public to comment on articles published in the paper text. In Canada, radio is often used as a forum for public debate and comment. The Canadian Broadcast Corporation’s Cross Country Check Up and Cross Talk allows mediated debate between citizens across the country. Regional stations offer similar programming. Local television news programmes often include ‘person on the street’ interviews on current issues and opportunities for the audience to voice their arguments on-air. Of course, in most of these instances, the information received from the audience is moderated, and shared selectively. This does not, however, negate the fact that there is interaction between that audience and the media. Perhaps the greatest challenge to traditional interpretations of media-audience response is the proliferation of the internet. As McNair observes, “the emergence of the internet has provided new opportunities for public participation in political debate, such as blogging and ‘citizen journalism’. Websites such as YouTube permit marginal political groups to make statements with global reach” (McNair 13). These ‘inter-networks’ not only provide alternative information for audiences to seek out, but also give audience members the ability to respond to any communication in an immediate and public way. Therefore, the audience member can exert potentially wide reaching influence on the public agenda and dialogue, clearly altering the accept-or-refuse model often applied to mediated communication. Opinion polls provide us with an opportunity to verify this shift away from the ‘hypodermic needle’ approach to communication theory (Sanderson King 61). Just as an audience can be responsible for the success of a theatre or television show based on attendance or viewing numbers, so too have public opinion polls been designed to measure, without nuance, only whether the audience accepts or dismisses what is presented to them through the media. There is little place for any measure of actual thought or opinion. The first indications of an upset in this balance resulted in tremendous surprise, as was the case during the US Clinton/Lewinsky scandal (Lawrence & Bennett 425). Stephanopoulos writes that after a full year of coverage of the Monica Lewinsky ‘scandal’, Clinton’s public approval poll numbers were “higher than ever” while the Republican leaders who had initiated the inquiry were suffering from a serious lack of public support (Stephanopoulos 442). Carpini and Williams also observed that public opinion polls taken during the media frenzy showed very little change of any kind, although the movement that did occur was in the direction of increased support for Clinton. This was in direct contrast to what “…traditional agenda-setting, framing, and priming theory would predict” (Carpini & Williams in Bennett & Entman 177). Zaller confirms that the expectation among news organisations, journalists, and political scientists was never realised; despite being cast by the media in a negative role, and despite the consumption of that negative media, the audience refused to judge the President solely on his framed persona (Zaller in Bennett & Entman 255). It was clear that the majority of the population in the US, and in other countries, were exposed to the information regarding the Clinton scandal. At the height of the scandal, it was almost unavoidable (Zaller in Bennett & Entman 254). Therefore it cannot be said that the information the media provided was not being consumed. Rather, the audience did not agree with the media’s attempts to persuade them, and communicated this through opinion polls, creating something resembling a mass political dialogue. As Lawrence and Bennett discuss in their article regarding the Lewinsky/Clinton public opinion “phenomenon”, it should not be assumed by polling institutions or public opinion watchers that the projected angle of the media will be immediately adopted by the public (Lawerence & Bennett 425). Although the media presented a preferred reading of the text, it could not ensure that the audience would interpret that meaning (Hall in Curran, Gurevitch & Harris 343). The audience’s decoding of the media’s message would have to depend on each audience member’s personal experiences and their impression of the media that was presenting the communication. This kind of response is, in fact, encouraging. If the audience relies on mainstream media to provide a frame and context to all political communication, then they are giving up their civic responsibility and placing complete authority in the hands of those actively involved in the process of communicating events. It could be suggested that the reported increase in the perceived reliabilty of internet news sources (Kinsella 251) can be at least partially attributed to the audience’s increasing awareness of these frames and limitations on mainstream media presentation. With the increase in ‘backstage’ reporting, the audience has become hyper-aware of the use of these strategies in communications. The audience is now using its knowledge and media access to decipher information, as it is presented to them, for authenticity and context. While there are those who would lament the fact that the community driven public is largely in the past and focus their attention on finding ways to see the old methods of communication revived, others argue that the way to move forward is not to regret the existence of an audience, but to alter our ideas about how to understand it. It has been suggested that in order to become a more democratic society we must now “re-conceive audiences as citizens” (Golding in Ferguson 98). And despite Blau’s pronouncement that audiences are “nothing like a public”, he later points out that there is still the possibility of unity even in the most diverse of audiences. “The presence of an audience is in itself a sign of coherence”(Blau 23). As Rothenbuhler writes: There is too much casualness in the use of the word spectator…A spectator is almost never simply looking at something. On the contrary, most forms of spectatorship are socially prescribed and performed roles and forms of communication…the spectator, then, is not simply a viewer but a participant in a larger system. (Rothenbuhler 65) We cannot regress to a time when audiences are reserved for the theatre and publics for civic matters. In a highly networked world that relies on communicating via the methods and media of entertainment, it is impossible to remove the role of the audience member from the role of citizen. This does not necessarily need to be a negative aspect of democracy, but instead a step in its constant evolution. There are positive aspects to the audience/public as well as potential negatives. McNair equates the increase in mediated communication with an increase in political knowledge and involvement, particularly for those on the margins of society who are unlikely to be exposed to national political activity in person. He notes that the advent of television may have limited political discourse to a media-friendly sound bite, but that it still increases the information dispensed to the majority of the population. Despite the ideals of democracy, the majority of the voting population is not extremely well informed as to political issues, and prior to the advent of mass media, were very unlikely to have an opportunity to become immersed in the details of policy. Media have increased the amount of political information the average citizen will be exposed to in their lifetime (McNair 41). With this in mind, it is possible to equate the faults of mass media not with their continued growth, but with society’s inability to recognise the effects of the media as technologies and to adjust education accordingly. While the quality of information and understanding regarding the actions and ideals of national political leaders may be disputed, the fact that they are more widely distributed than ever before is not. They have an audience at all times, and though that audience may receive information via a filtered medium, they are still present and active. As McNair notes, if the purpose of democracy is to increase the number of people participating in the political process, then mass media have clearly served to promote the democratic ideal (McNair 204). However, these positives are qualified by the fact that audiences must also possess the skills, the interests and the knowledge of a public, or else risk isolation that limits their power to contribute to public discourse in a meaningful way. The need for an accountable, educated audience has not gone unnoticed throughout the history of mass media. Cultural observers such as Postman, McLuhan, John Kennedy, and even Pope Pius XII have cited the need for education in media. As McLuhan aptly noted, “to the student of media, it is difficult to explain the human indifference to the social effect of these radical forces”(McLuhan 304). In 1964, McLuhan wrote that, “education will become recognised as civil defence against media fallout. The only medium for which our education now offers some civil defence is the print medium”(McLuhan 305). Unfortunately, it is only gradually and usually at an advanced level of higher education that the study and analysis of media has developed to any degree. The mass audiences, those who control the powers of the public, often remain formally uneducated as to the influence that the mediating factors of television have on the distribution of information. Although the audience may have developed a level of sophistication in their awareness of media frames, the public has not been taught how to translate this awareness into any real political or social understanding. The result is a community susceptible to being overtaken by manipulations of any medium. Those who attempt to convey political messages have only added to that confusion by being unclear as to whether or not they are attempting to address an audience or engage a public. In some instances, politicians and their teams focus their sole attention on the public, not taking into consideration the necessities of communicating with an audience, often to the detriment of political success. On the other hand, some focus their attentions on attracting and maintaining an audience, often to the detriment of the political process. This confusion may be a symptom of the mixed messages regarding the appropriate attitude toward performance that is generated by western culture. In an environment where open attention to performance is both demanded and distained, communication choices can be difficult. Instead we are likely to blindly observe the steady increase in the entertainment style packaging of our national politics. Until the audience fully incorporates itself with the public, we will see an absence of action, and excess of confused consumption (Kraus 18). Contemporary society has moved far beyond the traditional concepts of exclusive audience or public domains, and yet we have not fully articulated or defined what this change in structure really means. Although this review does suggest that contemporary citizens are both audience and public simultaneously, it is also clear that further discussion needs to occur before either of those roles can be fully understood in a contemporary communications context. References Bennett, Lance C., and Robert M. Entman. Mediated Politics: Communication in the Future of Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. 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Cambridge: MIT P, 2008. 
 
 
 
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