Journal articles on the topic 'Gun control – South Africa – Pretoria'

Southern Africa has become a battleground between two ideologically and fundamentally opposed constellation of states, Pretoria and Lusaka constellations. The conflict between the two basically concerns the domestic racial policies and the future of South Africa. The Pretoria constellation was launched on July 22, 1980, and is led by P. W. Botha, the South Africa's Prime Minister. The Botha's axis is a designed strategy which essentially aims at using South Africa's economic power and wealth to manipulate its neighboring nine black ruled states; and to exert subtle pressure to ensure that they cohere with the white minority regime of South Africa. This ambition of the Pretoria constellation is a vital part of the total strategy of survival of the Botha government. This particularly involves the use of the economy as an instrument of maintaining ultimate political power and control based on the maintenance of the basic structures of apartheid. This has in turn motivated South Africa's opposition to the policies of economic and political liberation of the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) states. The second, the Lusaka constellation and also known as the “Southern Nine” was launched on April 1, 1980. It consists of the nine Southern African States of Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The declared aim of the Southern Nine is to form an alliance which would pursue an economic strategy that would reduce or eliminate their economic dependence on South Africa. To this end, the Southern Nine and the South African-occupied territory of Namibia unanimously adopted a Programme of Action aimed at stimulating inter-state trade with the ultimate objective of economic independence from South Africa.

Parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus L., family Asteraceae), an annual herb of neotropic origin, is an invasive noxious weed with a pantropical distribution (1). It is particularly undesirable because of the serious health risks it poses to people living close to infestations (1). In January 1995, S. Neser (ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa) collected a rust fungus on this plant near Brits, Northwest Province, South Africa (25°35′S, 27°46′E). Only uredinia were present. The same rust fungus was collected in the same area in January, March, and June of 2001, and again only uredinia were observed. In its native range, P. hysterophorus is infected by two rust fungus species, Puccinia abrupta Diet. & Holw. var. partheniicola (Jackson) Parmelee and Puccinia melampodii Diet. & Holw., but the latter species is microcyclic with telia only. The morphology of the urediniospores in the South African collections corresponds to Puccinia abrupta var. partheniicola (3): obovoid to almost triangular, 22 to 27 × 18 to 25 µm, echinulate, two subequatorial and one apical germ pores, spines absent around germ pores, wall 1 to 2.5 µm thick. The native range of Puccinia abrupta var. partheniicola is Mexico and northern South America (3). In addition, it has been recorded from Mauritius (3), Kenya, and India (H. C. Evans and C. A. Ellison, International Institute of Biological Control, CAB, 1987, unpublished data). It was intentionally introduced into Australia for the biological control of P. hysterophorus (2). Thirteen specimens in the Arthur Herbarium were examined, and only two had telia in addition to uredinia. The other 11 had only uredinia, indicating that nonformation of telia is common. Telia and uredinia are produced in high altitude, semiarid areas of Mexico, whereas in low altitude, more humid areas only uredinia are produced (1). The production of telia appears to depend on environmental conditions, and their absence is not unexpected at the Brits site, which is a high altitude (1,120 m) area with high summer rainfall (400 to 600 mm per year from November to February) and dry winters. Voucher specimens were deposited at the National Collection of Fungi, Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria (PREM 57298) and the Arthur Herbarium, West Lafayette, IN (PUR N1117). To our knowledge, this is the second report of this rust fungus in Africa and the first in southern Africa. References: (1) H. C. Evans. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 88:105, 1987. (2) A. Parker et. al. Plant Pathol. 43:1, 1994. (3) J. A. Parmelee. Can. J. Bot. 45:2267, 1967.

This study on environmental economics has noticed that a growing concern for healthy food and environmentally friendly production has resulted in increased attention towards organic food. In South Africa, the market for organic food is still in the infancy stage. Food marketers continue to grapple in designing marketing campaigns to attract organic food consumers. Using a survey method, self-completed questionnaires were collected from customers aged 18 and above, by means of convenience sampling technique from a sample of 120 customers at the Hazel food market (HFM) in Pretoria. A total of 118 questionnaires were received back. STATA software was used to analyze the data. This is a quantitative study in which data analysis consisted of descriptive statistics, the Chi-square test and reliability analysis. The results suggested that customers at HFM have the intention to purchase organic food. The major findings of the study indicated that factors such as consumer values, attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control significantly influence consumer’s intention to purchase organic food. This study intends to provide valuable insights into current studies of consumer behavior towards organic food in South Africa. Potential beneficiaries of this research study include consumers, vendors and government agencies. Keywords: environmental economics, consumer purchase intention, theory of planned behavior, organic food. JEL Classification: Q5, M31

Urban air pollution from gaseous pollutants is a growing public health problem in many countries including South Africa. Examining the levels, trends and health risk of exposure to ambient gaseous pollutants will assist in understanding the effectiveness of existing control measures and plan for suitable management strategies. This study determined the concentration levels and non-cancer risk of CO, SO2, NO2, and O3 at an industrial area in Pretoria West, South Africa. We utilised a set of secondary data for CO, NO2, SO2, and O3 that was obtained from a monitoring station. Analysis of the hourly monitored data was done. Their non-cancer risk (HQ) was determined using the human health risk assessment model for different age categories. The annual levels of NO2 (39.442 µg/m3), SO2 (22.464 µg/m3), CO (722.003 µg/m3) and the 8-hour concentration of CO (649.902 µg/m3) and O3 (33.556 µg/m3) did not exceed the South African National Ambient Air Quality Standards for each pollutant. The HQ for each pollutant across exposed groups (except children) was less than 1. This indicates that the recorded levels could not pose non-cancer risk to susceptible individuals.

In February 2001, rust caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi Syd. was detected for the first time on soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) near Vryheid in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. As the season progressed, the disease was also observed in other parts of the province, and epidemic levels were reached in the Karkloof, Cedara, Howick, and Greytown production regions. In affected areas, infection foci gradually increased in size and caused premature yellowing and defoliation of soybean crops, usually after the flowering stage. Typical rust symptoms (3) were produced predominantly on the lower surface of soybean leaves. Soybean rust subsequently spread to Amsterdam and Ermelo in the Highveld region of South Africa. Following emergency registration of triazole compounds, fungicides were commonly used to control soybean rust, especially in the more humid eastern production areas. Available yield data suggested a reduction in kernel mass between 4 and 23%, depending on the cultivar and host growth stage at the time of infection. Urediniospores from the original collection (isolate PREM 57280, Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa) were 23 to 33 × 15 to 22 μm, indicating that spore dimensions fell within the known range for P. pachyrhizi (3). To confirm pathogenicity, 10 to 15 plants of each of the South African soybean cvs. Pan 589, Pan 780, Pan 854, Octa, and Prima were inoculated with isolate PREM 57280. Primary leaves were sprayed with a suspension of spores in light mineral oil (approximately 1 mg of spores per ml) before incubating plants in the dark in a dew chamber for 16 h. Large, sporulating uredinia, producing typical soybean rust urediniospores, developed on all inoculated plants. Classical and real-time fluorescent polymerase chain reaction assays as well as sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer regions verified the identity of isolate PREM 57280 as P. pachyrhizi (2). Since the disease is known to occur in Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and several other African countries (1,3,4), inoculum was most likely introduced by air currents from countries to the north of South Africa. It is highly probable that soybean rust will successfully overwinter in South Africa based on experience in other southern African countries. References: (1) O. A. Akinsanmi and J. L. Ladipo. Plant Dis. 85:97, 2001. (2) R. D. Frederick et al. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 90 (suppl):S25, 2000. (3) G. L. Hartman et al. eds. Compendium of Soybean Diseases, 4th ed. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 1999. (4) J. B. Sinclair and G. L. Hartman, eds. Soybean Rust Workshop, Publ. 1 College of Agricultural, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences, National Soybean Research Laboratory, Urbana, IL. 1996.

The small, micro and medium business enterprises (SMMEs) sector is universally acclaimed for fostering economic growth in many economies. The health of this sector is largely premised on the observance of good corporate governance tenets. The purpose of this paper is to determine whether good corporate governance practice has been firmly embedded in the small-to-medium enterprise (SMMEs) sector in South Africa. In this study we interrogate the influence of good internal control systems, with a special focus on cash flow management practices on the survival or growth of the SMMEs. This paper utilised qualitative research methods and employed the survey technique amongst the SMMES operating in the retail sector of Pretoria in South Africa. We find evidence that good corporate governance practices enhance cash flow management processes. This is extremely important to the survival of a business, particularly small businesses, and poor corporate governance practices lead to weak cash flow management systems, which can thus lead to small business failure. We also proffer policy advice as to the remedial actions needed to safeguard this sector

Bermudagrass, Cynodon spp. is one of the most commonly grown turfgrass genera in the southern United States having excellent drought tolerance, but poor tolerance to shade. Developing cultivars tolerant to shade would allow bermudagrass to become more prevalent in home lawns or other recreational areas in the southeast, where trees dominate the landscape. In this field study, nine accessions collected from Pretoria, South Africa were evaluated for their ability to grow under shade with varying fertility treatments. These accessions and cultivars ‘Celebration’, ‘TifGrand’, and ‘Tifway’ were evaluated under 0%, 63%, and 80% continuous shade during 2011–12. For both years, significant differences among shade levels, genotypes, and the interaction of the two were observed. As expected, the progression from 0% to 63% to 80% shade reduced normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), percent turfgrass cover (TC), and turf quality (TQ) readings for all accessions. Some genotypes, however, were able to maintain adequate quality and aggressiveness under 63% shade. ‘Celebration’, WIN10F, and STIL03 performed better than ‘Tifway’ (P ≤ 0.05), the susceptible control. Overall, our results indicate that there are promising genotypes among the bermudagrass materials collected from South Africa. These accessions represent additional sources of shade hardiness to be used in bermudagrass breeding. Furthermore, higher nitrogen fertility provided increased NDVI and TQ in some instances suggesting an added benefit of fertility under low-light conditions. However, the increased economic value attributed to the added inputs associated with these increases is outweighed by the low impacts offered.

Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. (Poaceae) is indigenous to the old world but is a problem weed in tropical areas throughout the world (1). A smut fungus was observed frequently on this grass at a single site near Pretoria (25°44′19″S, 28°15′39″E), South Africa during April of 2006. On the basis of the following characteristics, it was identified as Sporisorium schweinfurthianum (Thüm.) K. Vánky (2). Panicles were systemically infected and all ovaries in infected inflorescences were replaced by spores. Spores were globose or subglobose, brown, 10 to 14 × 9 to 12 μm (average 11.2 × 9.8 μm; n = 25), wall 1 μm thick, and finely verruculose. Hyaline, thin-walled sterile cells were present. This identification was confirmed by K. Vánky (personal communication to A. R. Wood). To our knowledge, this is the first report of this smut species from southern Africa. A voucher specimen has been deposited in the South African National Collection of Fungi, ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute (PREM 59895). To test pathogenicity, soil in 15 pots with individual 1-month-old seedlings was drenched with an aqueous suspension of 1 × 108 spores ml–1 amended with 0.1% Tween 80. Before treatment, the pots were placed on pot trays and remained immersed in the spore suspension in the trays at 28°C (relative humidity <80%) for 24 h. To maintain the spore concentration in the soil, the pots were not watered until 7 days after inoculation. Distilled water amended with 0.1% Tween 80 was applied as control treatments to a further 15 pots with plants. Five of the treated plants produced panicles within 4 months of inoculation. Of these, all the ovaries of four emerging inflorescences were completely replaced with a brown, powdery mass of teliospores. No smutted panicles developed on the control plants. This smut fungus may have potential as a classical biological control agent for use against I. cylindrica by reducing dispersal by seed. References: (1) L. G. Holm et al. The World's Worst Weeds: Distribution and Biology. University Press of Hawaii. Honolulu, 1977. (2) K. Vánky. Australas. Plant Pathol. 29:155, 2000.

The subject of this research is the trends and prospects for the development and implementation of artificial intelligence in the military sphere of one of the BRICS member-states – South Africa in the context of national acts (for example, the Law of 2008 “On the Right of Intellectual Property for State-Funded Research and Development”), the potential and needs of this country, as well as achievements in design and manufacturing of unmanned aerial vehicles by the competitor companies (Seeker 400, MA 380, etc.). The relevance of this topic is substantiated by timely consideration of the legal perspective of the approaches of South Africa towards the implementation of artificial intelligence. The scientific novelty of this article is defined by the focus of research and the acquired results. It is determined that South Africa takes the path of institutional, legal and practical consolidation of the development of artificial intelligence in form of creation of designated infrastructure (on the premises of the universities, for example, Intelligent Systems Group at the University of Pretoria), as startups, scientific network structures (Center for Artificial Intelligence Research), etc. It is demonstrated that South Africa is the manufacturer and seller of the line of unmanned aerial vehicles that are controlled by the artificial intelligence and capable of performing various civil or military tasks –  from moving cargo (including laser-guided bombs) to monitoring the territory (search and rescue or reconnaissance operations, damage assessment from natural disasters or combat operations, control conduct of fire at enemy positions, etc.).

Tomato plants, grown in open hydroponic systems under shadecloth and plastic near Barberton and Pretoria in South Africa and Srelebi Phikwe in Botswana, developed symptoms of wilting with brown-to-black cankers on the lower stems, blackening of the vascular tissues, and root rot. Pathogens isolated from affected tissues were identified as Phytophthora capsici Leonian (1) and Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. (2).They occurred separately or together. Pythium aphanidermatum has previously been recorded on tomato in South Africa. P. capsici isolates were papillate, caducous, grew at >36°C, had tapered sporangial bases, and a maximum sporangial length of >70 μm. Koch's postulates were confirmed by inoculating 4-week-old tomato seedlings (cv. Floradade) grown at 22 to 30°C in a steam-pasteurized mixture of sawdust compost, pine bark, and vermiculite (3:2:1). Plugs from V8 juice agar cultures of P. capsici were placed on wounds made on the stems of 10 seedlings. Ten wounded uninoculated plants served as controls. Water-soaked lesions were visible on the stems of all inoculated plants after 2 days. Control plants remained healthy. After 4 days, lesions turned dark brown with affected plants wilted or dead. Reisolation yielded P. capsici. The experiment was repeated with similar results. To our knowledge, this is the first report of P. capsici on tomatoes in South Africa. References: (1) A. H. Thompson et al. S. Afr. J. Bot. 60:257, 1994.(2) W. Dick. Keys to Pythium. University of Reading Press, Reading, U.K., 1990.

At risk of committing entomological heresy, we question the identity of a dung-burying beetle species that originates from Africa and has been introduced first into Hawaii and subsequently to Australasia, North America, and South America (Fincher 1986; Edwards 2007; Noriega et al. 2010) for pasture improvement and biological control of dung-breeding flies (Waterhouse 1974; Bornemissza 1979). Under the name Onthophagus gazella (Fabricius 1787), it was the first species selected for introduction into Australia by the CSIRO Dung Beetle Project (Bornemissza 1976; Edwards 2007). Firstly, in 1968, a "tropical strain" was introduced from Hawaii where it had become established after introduction from Zimbabwe in 1957 (Markin & Yoshioka 1998). Later, after establishment of the CSIRO Dung Beetle Research Unit in Pretoria in 1970, a "cold" or "even rainfall strain" was introduced into Australia directly from South Africa (Bornemissza 1976) (even rainfall region = south coast of Eastern Cape). The species was subsequently introduced into the southern continental United States of America (Victoria County, Texas) from Hawaii (Montes de Oca & Halffter 1998) then elsewhere into southeastern and southwestern states from Hawaii and breeding colonies from Australia (Anderson & Loomis 1978). It has since expanded its range through Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean to coastal Colombia (Kohlmann 1994; Noriega 2002; Noriega et al. 2006, 2011). Expansion of its range within central southern South America (Noriega et al. 2010) has been assisted by introductions into Brazil from the United States of America since the 1980s (Bianchin et al. 1998), and others into Venezuela and Chile (Vidaurre et al. 2008). More recently, it has been introduced into quarantine and field trials in New Zealand (Forgie et al. 2013) using individuals originating from the south coast of the Eastern Cape and Northwest Province of South Africa (S. Forgie, personal communication).

Specialized vegetable crops such as endive (Cichorium endiva), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), and sorrel (Rumex spp.) are being cultivated hydroponically in South Africa to be marketed as admixtures in salads. Stunted growth accompanied by browning and rotting of the root tips has been observed at a commercial recirculating gravel bed hydroponic system near Pretoria during the warm summer months. Root segments excised from symptomatic plants were rinsed in sterile water and plated on Pythium selective medium (1). Pythium F-group, characterized by the production of noninflated filamentous sporangia and no oospores (2), was isolated from 40% of endive, 60% of fennel, and 7% of sorrel root segments. Koch's postulates were confirmed by inoculating 4-week-old seedlings of each crop in the greenhouse with a Pythium F-group isolate from the particular crop. Inoculations were performed by adding 3 ml of suspension (105 zoospores per ml) to each liter of aerated nutrient solution. Control plants received no inoculum, and the experiment was repeated once. After 4 weeks, inoculated plants showed stunting of the foliage and slight to moderate root rot. Pythium F-group could readily be reisolated from roots of inoculated plants. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Pythium F-group on these crops in South Africa. References: (1) W. J. Botha and R. L. J. Coetzer. S. Afr. J. Bot. 62:196, 1996. (2) M. W. Dick. Keys to Pythium. University of Reading Press, Reading, UK, 1990.

We evaluated the validity of remote pure tone audiometric testing conducted from North America on subjects in South Africa. Desktop-sharing computer software was used to control an audiometer in Pretoria from Dallas, and PC-based videoconferencing was employed for clinician and subject communication. Thirty adult subjects were assessed, and the pure tone audiometric thresholds (125–8000 Hz) obtained through conventional face-to-face and remote testing were compared. Face-to-face and remote audiometry thresholds differed by 10 dB in only 4% of cases overall. The limits of agreement between the two techniques were −8 and 7 dB with a 90% confidence interval of −5 to 5 dB. The average reaction times to stimulus presentations were similar, within −108 and 121 ms. The average test duration was 21% longer for remote testing (10.4 vs. 8.2 min). There were no clinically significant differences between the results obtained by remote intercontinental audiometric testing and conventional face-to-face audiometry. It may therefore be possible to expand the reach of audiological services into remote underserved regions of the world.

ABSTRACT This is the first description, to our knowledge, of the distribution of human polyomavirus and simian virus 40 (SV40) in urban sewage. Using a nested-PCR procedure, we report the detection of human polyomaviruses JC virus (JCV) and BK virus (BKV) but not SV40 in a high percentage of urban sewage samples obtained from widely divergent geographical areas in Europe and Africa. For a total of 28 samples analyzed, JCV was detected in 26, BKV was detected in 22, and none was positive for SV40. All geographical areas showed a high prevalence of these viruses with mean estimated values of JC viral particles per ml on the order of 103 in Barcelona (Spain) and Nancy (France) and 102 in Pretoria (South Africa) and Umeå (Sweden) and mean values of BK viral particles on the order of 102 in Pretoria and Barcelona and 101 in Nancy and Umeå. This compares with estimated mean values of 102 to 103 for human adenovirus that was evaluated as a control. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the amplified DNA from some of the samples is also presented and represents the sequence of the most abundant JC and BK viral strains in these samples. The nucleotide sequence of the JCV detected was also analyzed in a phylogenetic study and for genomic characterization in the regulatory region. This study has shown that human polyomaviruses are spread in high concentrations in the sewage of different geographical areas and are present in contaminated environments. The frequency and concentration of JCV detected in the environment and the absence of described animal hosts suggest that JCV may be useful as a marker for fecal pollution of anthropogenic origin. The results also support the idea previously described that the strains of JCV are closely related to the ethnic origin of the population studied. The procedure applied should also be useful in future studies of population patterns of viral excretion and as a tool in epidemiological studies for the detection of changes in the prevalence of specific viral pathogens.

Abstract Background: Screening for diabetes and hypercholesterolemia is widely advocated, and extra-laboratory testing could play a major role in cost-effective population screening. We wished to assess the analytical quality and interchangeability of capillary blood cholesterol and glucose assays as performed on near-patient devices in pharmacies in Pretoria, South Africa. Methods: Accuracy of near-patient and laboratory analyzers was assessed by analyses of human-serum-based reference material. To assess interchangeability in routine use, six volunteers visited each of 12 randomly selected pharmacies consecutively during a 3-week period to have their fasting blood glucose and cholesterol concentrations determined. For comparison purposes, a similar procedure was followed to evaluate the eight clinical chemistry laboratories servicing Pretoria and surroundings. Results: The analytical performances in our laboratory of a single point-of-care instrument and of a laboratory analyzer compared well. Nevertheless, between-pharmacy analytical variation was larger than between-laboratory variation (11% vs 6.1% for cholesterol; 10% vs 7.6% for glucose). For glucose measurements, near-patient testing in pharmacies demonstrated a bias of −48.1% to 16.2%, whereas bias for laboratory measurements was −1.0% to 7.4%. Cholesterol assays showed a bias of −5.6% to 16.6% in pharmacies compared with −10.6% to 3.7% in laboratories. The percentage of closeness to the homeostatic set point for a single glucose and cholesterol determination done in any pharmacy was 24.6% and 23.6%, respectively. The corresponding values for laboratories were 16.9% and 15.6%, respectively. Conclusions: Although modern point-of-care instruments allow high-quality blood analyses under ideal conditions, performance goals often are not achieved in practice as indicated by a higher uncertainty of cholesterol and glucose blood results when determined in pharmacies. Nonuniformity of calibration procedures, deficiencies in training, a lack of internal quality control, and the absence of an external quality assessment program may all contribute to the current state of affairs.

In September of 2005 and 2006, macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche) orchards in Tzaneen, Modjadji, Politsi, and Levubu in the Northern Province and Kiepersol in Mpumalanga, South Africa were surveyed and sampled to determine the causal agent of raceme blight. Symptoms appeared during early bloom and were present on racemes of all developmental stages. Early signs were necrotic tips of the peduncle that often curved to one side with necrosis spreading upward, resulting in the so-called “rat tail”. Unopened flowers were also affected. In severe cases, the entire inflorescence (flowers and peduncle) was necrotic and eventually flowers abscised. Occasionally, infection began with single flowers as small water-soaked specks on the flower, with no symptoms on the green peduncle. Diseased racemes were covered with olive gray patches of mycelia and abundant conidia. Flowers with blight symptoms were collected, surface disinfested with 70% ethanol for 2 min, and left to dry. Thirty isolations were made from the interface of the lesion and healthy tissue, plated onto 50% potato dextrose agar (PDA) (Biolab, Merck Laboratories, Wadeville, South Africa) with 19 g of agar per liter, and incubated at 25°C for 5 days. Direct isolations from diseased material were done by picking up conidia and placing them on PDA. A fungus was isolated consistently and identified morphologically as Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen.) de Vries based on the velvety olive-brown with almost black reverse colony color and dimensions and color of conidia and conidiophores. Conidia formed in long branched chains that readily disarticulate, mostly aseptate, elliptical to limoniform, 3 to 10.5 (3 to 7) × 2 to 5 (3 to 4) μm. Conidia were pale to olive brown and smooth to verruculose. Ramoconidia were 0-1 septate, 2.5 to 5 μm wide, up to 28 μm long, smooth or sometimes minutely verruculose. Conidiophores were pale to olive brown, macro- and micronemateus, smooth or sometimes verruculose, and of various lengths up to 320 μm long and 2 to 6 μm wide. To confirm pathogen identity, the ITS 1 and ITS 4 regions were sequenced, which had 100% homology to the 18S rRNA of C. cladosporioides (GenBank Accession No. DQ 124142.1). Pathogenicity trials were conducted in the field. Fungal isolates were grown on PDA for 6 days, spores were harvested, and a suspension was made (106 spores ml–1). Twenty macadamia inflorescences (cv. Beaumont) were dipped in the suspension for 1 s, covered with plastic bags containing wet cotton wool, and covered with paper bags. Inflorescences in different stages (petal fall, knee stage, and closed) were inoculated. Control treatments were dipped in sterile water. After 2 to 3 days, the bags were removed. Symptoms developed on all 20 inflorescences and in all cases, the bottom of the inflorescence blighted, resulting in the typical rat tail symptom. C. cladosporioides was reisolated from all surface-disinfested infected material plated on PDA. Control inflorescences developed no symptoms. Isolate PPRI 8376 was deposited with the National Collection of Fungi, Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa. The disease is prevalent during wet periods and 5 to 10% of flowers were infected. The disease has increasingly been seen in orchards over the last two seasons and under favorable wet, humid conditions, severe infections have resulted in 100% flower loss. To our knowledge, this is the first report of C. cladosporioides causing raceme blight on macadamia in South Africa.

Garden rocket (Eruca sativa syn.: E. vesicaria subsp. sativa (Mill) Thell.) is an annual plant of the Brassicaceae grown for fresh consumption as a salad vegetable. During winter (May to July) of 2013 and 2014 in South Africa, typical symptoms of white rust were observed in two commercial crops (each ~0.5 ha) of the garden rocket cv. Rucola coltivata in Centurion, Gauteng Province, at 33 and 80% incidence, respectively. Symptomatic leaves were deposited in the National Collection of Fungi, Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa (PREM 61073). Early infections appeared as white to cream, blister-like sori on the lower leaf surfaces, and pale yellow lesions on the corresponding upper leaf surfaces. Later stages of infection were characterized by coalescing of lesions into large, irregular, necrotic blotches and development of additional sori on the petioles and stems. Sporangiophores were hyaline, clavate or cylindrical, and measured 24 to 30 × 11 to 14 μm (n = 50). Sporangia developed in basipetal chains and were hyaline, globose or polyangular, and 15 to 20 μm (n = 100). Based on these morphological characters and the host plant, the pathogen was identified as Albugo candida (Pers.) Kunze (2). Genomic DNA was extracted using the DNeasy Plant Mini DNA extraction kit (Qiagen) from sori containing sporangia collected from naturally infected leaves, according to the manufacturer's specifications. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomonal DNA (rDNA) and the cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (COX2) region were amplified and sequenced (1). The ITS (GenBank Accession No. KM588081) and COX2 (KM588082) sequences confirmed identity of the pathogen as A. candida with 100% homology to the corresponding sequences of several A. candida isolates, including DQ418503 for the ITS sequence and DQ418514 for the COX2 sequence, of a voucher specimen of A. candida on E. sativa (BPI 184870) from Pakistan. Inoculum was prepared by scraping sporangia from infected leaves of the cv. Rucola coltivata collected from the 2014 field and placing the material in sterilized, distilled water (SDW) for 12 h at 5°C to induce zoospore formation. Pathogenicity tests were performed by spraying a suspension of 1 × 105 sporangia/ml onto each of 10 5-week-old rocket seedlings of the cv. Rucola coltivata. Ten additional seedlings were inoculated similarly with SDW to serve as a control treatment. The plants were maintained at 12 to 15°C and 95% RH for 72 h (3) before being moved to a shaded greenhouse at 20 to 24°C and 90% RH. Control plants remained symptomless, whereas white rust symptoms similar to those observed in the original fields developed on leaves of inoculated seedlings 10 to 14 days later, demonstrating that A. candida was the causal agent of the disease on E. sativa. To our knowledge, this is the first report of A. candida infecting garden rocket in South Africa. References: (1) Y.-J. Choi et al. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 40:400, 2006. (2) K. Mukerji. Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria No. 458. CMI, Kew, Surrey, UK, 1975. (3) M. J. Sullivan et al. Plant Dis. 86:753, 2002.

Background: Preparedness is key in terms of the healthcare system capacity to react appropriately to an outbreak of any infectious disease in epidemic proportion. Following the Ebola viral disease outbreak that started in West Africa around 2014, which subsequently spread to the DR Congo, with high mortality rates largely attributed to unpreparedness among the healthcare workers, the need for getting all stakeholders involved in healthcare services to be prepared for possible disease outbreaks can never be overemphasized and has since been recognized in many countries including South Africa. This study was conducted to describe the knowledge, attitude and preparedness of healthcare workers towards a possible outbreak of Ebola viral disease at a large private health institution in Pretoria.
 Method: We conducted a cross-sectional study using self-administered questionnaires among a conveniently sampled 150 healthcare workers at a large private hospital. A total of 133 valid questionnaires were collected (response rate = 89%). The data was analyzed with SPSS and results presented using percentages, proportions, and frequency tables.
 Results: The finding revealed more female (93%) than male, modal age-group was 31-40yr (37%), and most were African (89%). The perceived lack clinical experts who could manage EVD and the fear of contracting the disease were the main concerns of these health professionals. Majority of the participants demonstrated only basic knowledge of EVD but acknowledged the readiness of the nation’s health system to deal with any outbreaks.
 Conclusion: The participants’ insufficient understanding of some aspects of the EVD showed the gaps in their knowledge and the apparent unpreparedness for possible Ebola outbreaks. Therefore, there is need for further education and training among the healthcare workers about how EVD is transmitted and the appropriate measures of disease control and prevention applicable to Ebola virus disease.

PurposeThe purpose of this article is to examine the effect of housing type, relative to demographics, on householders' self-reported recycling across low-, medium- and high-density housing without recycling facilities by using the theory of planned behaviour.Design/methodology/approachA survey was conducted amongst 580 households across houses, townhouses and apartments in Pretoria, South Africa. The household member most responsible for recycling completed a self-administered questionnaire. Data were analysed using factor and reliability analyses, decision trees and multivariate analysis of variance.FindingsAge was the strongest predictor; the older the respondent, the more likely the household recycled. Housing type was the second strongest predictor with a significant increase in recycling in houses compared to townhouses and apartments. Subsequent analyses focussed on young respondents to control for age. Housing type had an overall non-significant effect on the factors behind recycling. Post hoc tests, however, suggest that young respondents in townhouses and apartments felt significantly less able to recycle, particularly because of lack of space and support from managing agencies.Practical implicationsFor recycling to be acceptable to young people in medium- and high-density housing, interior architects and site planners should find innovative ways to make individual and communal facilities as convenient and accessible as possible to tenants, owners and recycling companies. The role of managing agencies is also critical.Originality/valueThis study is one of the first to systematically examine recycling across three different housing types with recommendations for planning, design and further research.

Southern highbush blueberry plants (Vaccinium corymbosum interspecific hybrids) showing rust-like symptoms were observed in July 2006 in Porterville in the Western Cape (WC), South Africa. Diseased plants were also found in Villiersdorp and George in the WC in 2007. In 2008, symptoms were observed in George, and in 2009, in all the previous reported areas. Cvs. Bluecrisp, Emerald, Jewel, Sharpblue, and Star were infected. Reddish-to-brown spots appeared on the adaxial surface of leaves and developed into yellow-to-orange erumpent uredinia with pulverulent urediniospores. Uredinia were hypophyllous, dome shaped, 113 to 750 μm wide, and occasionally coalescing. Urediniospores were broadly obovate, sometimes ellipsoidal or pyriform, with yellowish orange content, and measured 19 to 27 × 12 to 20 μm (average 24 × 15 μm, n = 30). Spore walls were echinulate, hyaline, 1 to 1.5 μm thick, and with obscure germ pores. No telia or teliospores were observed. Voucher specimens were lodged in the South African National Fungus Collection in Pretoria (PREM 60245). The isolate was initially identified as Thekopsora minima P. Syd. & Syd., based primarily on the absence of conspicuous ostiolar cells characteristic of Naohidemyces spp. (3). Genomic DNA was extracted from urediniospores. Approximately 1,400 bp were amplified spanning the 5.8S, ITS2, and 28S large subunit of the ribosomal DNA (1). The sequence (GU355675) shared 96% (907 of 942 bp; GenBank AF522180) and 94% (1,014 of 1,047 bp; GenBank DQ354563) similarities in the 28S portion, respectively, to those of Naohidemyces vaccinii (Wint.) Sato, Katsuya et Y. Hiratsuka and Pucciniastrum geoppertianum (Kuehn) Kleb, two of the three known rust species of blueberry (2). Although no sequences of T. minima were available for direct comparison, phylogenetic analyses of the 28S region strongly supported the South African blueberry rust as congeneric with T. guttata (J. Schröt.) P. Syd. & Syd. (GenBank AF426231) and T. symphyti (Bubák) Berndt (GenBank AF26230) (data not shown). Four 6-month-old cv. Sharpblue plants were inoculated with a suspension (approximate final concentration of 1 × 105 spores per ml) of fresh urediniospores in a water solution with 0.05% Tween 20. After incubation at 20°C for 48 h under continuous fluorescent lighting, the plants were grown in a glasshouse (18/25°C night/day temperatures). Identical uredinia and symptoms developed approximately 3 weeks after inoculation on the inoculated plants, but not on two control plants of cv. Sharpblue sprayed with distilled water and kept at the same conditions. The alternate host hemlock (Tsuga spp.) is not endemic to South Africa and not sold as an ornamental plant according to a large conifer nursery. Hosts of T. minima include Gaylussacia baccata, G. frondosa, Lyonia neziki, Menziesia pilosa, Rhododendron canadense, R. canescens, R. lutescens R. ponticum, R. prunifolium, R. viscosum, V. angustifolium var. laevifolium, V. corumbosum, and V. erythrocarpon (3). Visual inspection of possible hosts in the gardens in close proximity of Vaccinium production areas did not show any rust symptoms. To our knowledge, this is the first report of T. minima on blueberries outside of Asia and the United States (2). References: (1) M. C. Aime. Mycoscience 47:112, 2006. (2) D. F. Farr and A. Y. Rossman. Fungal Databases. Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory. Online publication. USDA-ARS, 2009. (3) S. Sato et al. Trans. Mycol. Soc. Jpn. 34:47, 1993.

In the evaluation of air-borne thermal infrared imaging sensors, the use of simulated spectral infrared scenery is a cost-effective way to provide input to the sensor. The benefit of simulated scenes includes control over parameters governing the spectral and related thermal behaviour of the terrain as well as atmospheric conditions. Such scenes need to have a high degree of radiometric and geometric accuracy, as well as high resolution to account for small objects having different spectral and associated thermal properties. In support of this, innovative use of tri-stereo, ultra-high resolution Pléiades satellite imagery is being used to generated high detail, small scale quantitative terrain surface data to compliment comparable optical data in order to produce detailed urban and rural landscape datasets representative of different landscape features, within which spectrally defined characteristics can be subsequently matched to thermal signatures. Pléiades tri-stereo mode, acquired from the same orbit during the same pass, is particularly favourable for reaching the required metric accuracy because images are radiometrically and geometrically very homogeneous, which allows a very good radiometric matching for relief computation. The tri-stereo approach reduces noise and allows significantly enhanced relief description in landscapes where simple stereo imaging cannot see features, such as in dense urban areas or valley bottoms in steep, mountainous areas. <br><br> This paper describes the datasets that have been generated for DENEL over the Hartebeespoort Dam region, west of Pretoria, South Africa. The final terrain datasets are generated by integrated modelling of both height and spectral surface characteristics within an object-based modelling environment. This approach provides an operational framework for rapid and highly accurate mapping of building and vegetation structure of wide areas, as is required in support of the evaluation of thermal imaging sensors.

Background: Oesophageal carcinoma continues to be a major cause of cancer related deaths worldwide. Metal stents are an established treatment option for palliation of dysphagia. These stents are classically deployed using endoscopy with fluoroscopic control. An alternative technique is using the paediatric endoscope.Methods: The study is a retrospective review of all cases of esophageal stenting at Dr George Mukhari Academic Hospital, Pretoria, South Africa were included. A prospectively maintained database Olympus Endobase® is used in the endoscopy suite. All cases between March 2015- February 2018, where the oesophagus was stented were reviewed. Cases where the paediatric scope was used were analysed further. Data captured from the database included demographics, tumour length, the presence of trahceoesophageal fistula.Results: A total of 233 patients were stented, the paediatric scope was used in 217. The procedure was successfully completed in 84,7% of the patients. Repeat stenting was required in 20 patients. The mean age was 57 years (32-97). Average length of the stricture 9,6cm (5-15cm). The reasons for palliation were patient unfit for surgery (n=159), associated TOF (n=15), unspecified (n=38). The reasons for repeat stenting were stent migration (n=5), tumour overgrowth (n=10) and blocked stent (n=5). Complications were recorded in 1 case where an iatrogenic perforation was caused which was successfully stented. In the 33 cases that failed the reason for failure was inability of the scope to negotiate the stricture. These cases were subsequently completed successfully using a guidewire with fluoroscopy. There was no periprocedural mortality.Conclusions: It is safe and feasible to use the paediatric endoscope to stent tumours of the oesophagus. If the procedure is successful it prevents the exposure of the staff and the patient to radiation. It ensures reliable placement of the guidewire into the stomach as well as confirming appropriate positioning of the stent.

The use and implementation of public open street Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) surveillance systems in Central Business Districts (CBDs) in South Africa solely for the purpose of crime control (reducing street crime) or crime prevention (deterrence) has in South Africa been a relatively new intervention within the broader context of crime prevention programmes. One of the drawbacks to its implementation for this purpose has been its costs and the inability of the South African Police Service to fund such implementation in the light of other more pressing priorities and demands on its finances and resources. However, the initiative to start implementing and linking CCTV surveillance systems in CBDs in the major metropolitan cities of South Africa to local police services was taken in the mid-1990s by Business Against Crime of South Africa (BACSA). This article, using case study overviews from four South African CBD areas (Cape Town, Johannesburg, Pretoria (Tshwane) and Durban), traces CCTV use as crime control or prevention surveillance, how they were implemented, the rationale behind their implementation and the operationalising of them in terms of preventing street crime and its uses in other surveillance. In addition it also looks at this initiative from the perspective of the growth and commercialisation of the management of these services, and the co-operation and co-ordination structures in partnership with the South African Police Service (SAPS). Furthermore, it reviews the purported impact on the reduction of crime of these systems in CBDs and finally the application of public crime surveillance by the CCTV control room operators (private security) in co-operation with the police (response team) and the role it plays in the observation, recording, arrest and conviction of suspects.

This article presents the findings of research conducted on ‘forgiveness’ as a spiritual construct, religious survival strategy and meaning-giving tool during incarceration. The research was conducted with 30 men serving long-term sentences in Zonderwater, a correctional centre outside Pretoria, South Africa. A review of literature showed that forgiveness has mainly been seen as something the perpetrator owed the victim and that asking for and granting forgiveness were religious imperatives. However, this study shows that offenders, in the troubled space of incarceration, survived by putting themselves in control of forgiveness. They found peace of mind by granting forgiveness to those who caused them to be incarcerated, whilst at the same time taking responsibility for their own actions. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the participants. Applying an interpretative phenomenological analysis methodology, the collected data were analysed and the following themes were identified: (1) forgiving those who transgressed against me; (2) the role of politics in forgiveness; (3) God’s role in forgiveness; and (4) the effects of forgiveness on the self.Contribution: This article contributes to an understanding of the construction of forgiveness as experienced by offenders, independent from the traditional victim-offender relations. Living in a troubled, unforgiving space, these men are expected to practice forgiveness by set standards. From their shared narratives, it is illustrated that their spiritual navigation with this phenomenon is not a chronological, time dependent process, but a multi-dimensional, personal journey to self-discovery.

Aims: To determine the aromatic hydrocarbons degradability and plasmid profile of the marine bacteria isolated from Rivers State contaminated marine environments of Niger Delta.
 Study Design: Nine treatments and the controls designs were set up in triplicates containing 100 mL of sterile modified mineral basal medium in 500 mL conical flasks supplemented with 1 mg /L of xylene, anthracene and pyrene each; nine marine hydrocarbon degraders and incubated at 24 ºC for 24 days study. The nine treatments and control set ups designated as ANT1, XYL2, PYR3, ANT4, PYR5, ANT6, XYL7, XYL8, PYR9 and CTRL (Without hydrocarbons) were used to determine the aromatic hydrocarbons degradability and plasmid profile of the marine bacteria. 
 Place and Duration of Study: Department of Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa between September, 2015 and March, 2018.
 Methodology: A laboratory scale study was carried on six composite samples of the sediment and water samples from the three studied areas using enrichment, screening, selection, morphological, biochemical, degradation and plasmid assays.
 Results: The findings revealed that the three sampling sites harbour a lot of efficient aromatic degrading bacterial strains belonging to the genera: Providencia, Alcaligenes, Brevundimonas, Myroides, Serratia, and Bacillus able to significantly (P = .05) tolerate and grow on the aromatic hydrocarbons. The bacterial strains especially Serratia marcescens XYL7 significantly (P = .05) removed 99.50 ± 0.05 % and 60.00 ± 0.02 % in weights of xylene and pyrene, respectively while Alcaligenes faecalis PYR5 significantly (P =.05) degraded 97.40 ± 0.01 % in weight of anthracene. The degradations of the respective hydrocarbons were found to be plasmid mediated with plasmid sizes between 200 bp - 1.2 kbp.
 Conclusion: Thus, the excellent degradative abilities of these bacterial strains especially Serratia marcescens XYL7 could be exploited for bioremediation purposes in Nigeria.

Abstract Background In 2017, the South African National Department of Health (NDoH) Cervical Cancer Prevention and Control Policy was revised. Human papillomavirus (HPV) testing on self-collected samples may offer improved screening uptake. The objectives of the study were to compare the positivity of high-risk (hr)-HPV deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and hrHPV viral messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) between healthcare worker-collected cervical and self-collected vaginal samples and investigate the accuracy of the applicator-tampon-based self-collected samples in detecting hrHPV DNA and hrHPV mRNA. Methods A total of 527 women aged 18 years and older and seeking gynecology services at a tertiary hospital in Pretoria, South Africa, were enrolled. Vaginal samples were self-collected using SelfCerv applicator tampon, followed by cervical samples collected by a healthcare worker using a Cervex Brush® Combi. Both samples were tested with the Abbott m2000 analyzer for 14-hrHPV types and 285 paired samples were tested for hrHPV E6/E7 mRNA using the Aptima HR-HPV mRNA assay. The prevalence of hrHPV DNA and hrHPV E6/E7 mRNA was estimated and the positivity between the two collection methods was compared for the total group as well as per age group. Results HrHPV prevalence was 48.0% (95% CI 43.7–52.4) among healthcare worker collected samples and 47.6% (95% CI 43.3–52.0) among self-collected samples. There was no difference in positivity between healthcare worker collection (48.0%) and applicator-tampon-based self-collection, 47.6% (p-value = 0.90). The proportions of hrHPV were equal between the age groups as shown by the McNemar test (p = 0.9036) results for correlated proportions. The prevalence of hrHPV mRNA was 78.6% (95% CI 73.4–83.2) and 58.6% (95% CI 52.6–64.4) for healthcare worker- and self-collection, respectively. The McNemar test for correlated proportions was highly significant (p < 0.0001), indicating that the hrHPV mRNA proportions are not comparable, although this differed between age groups. Conclusions Applicator-tampon-based self-collection has a comparable hrHPV DNA positivity rate as healthcare worker collection but different positivity rates for hrHPV mRNA. Self-sampling showed high concordance with healthcare worker-collected sampling for hrHPV DNA detection, especially regarding HPV 16/18 detection. HrHPV DNA was equally detected between the total group as well as per age group. Implementation of self-sampling using an applicator tampon as a primary screening tool may be considered.

The history of South Africa is an unpleasant one. It was a society based on racial segregation with the promotion of Afrikaner culture and the Afrikaans language above all other languages. This can be traced to the architect of apartheid, the Afrikaner National Party, which introduced apartheid. Afrikaans-speaking people, through the Afrikaner National Party, dominated South Africa politically. Their language too, was promoted above all other languages. For example, Afrikaans enjoyed more privileges than other languages in that it was used for drafting laws, as the language of record in the courts and was also the only compulsory subject for learning. The apartheid government, through its racial policies, used the Afrikaans language as a tool to control Black South Africans in almost all spheres of life, including education, which had to be undertaken in Afrikaans. It is therefore no surprise that there were five universities that offered education mainly in Afrikaans. These are Stellenbosch University, University of the Free State, University of Pretoria, Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education (now North-West University) and Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit (now University of Johannesburg). The use of the Afrikaans language as an instrument for social control was not sustainable. The new constitutional dispensation ushered in an era wherein respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms is at the top of the South African agenda. The right to further education is constitutionally recognised in section 29(1)(b) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. Section 29(2) of the Constitution further recognises and embraces the diversity of South African society and provides that “everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their choice in public education institutions where that education is reasonably practicable” (s 29(b) of the Constitution). The State has an obligation to take reasonable measures on a progressive basis to ensure that further education is available and accessible (s 29(1)(b) of the Constitution). In ensuring “effective access to and implementation” of the right to further education, It is notable that, in its endeavour to make further education available and accessible, the State is required to consider several factors such as language policies. In an effort to facilitate the realisation of the right to further education, the Higher Education Act (101 of 1997) was enacted in order inter alia to “redress past discrimination and ensure representivity and equal access to higher education institutions” (preamble to the Act).In the UFS case (CC), the Constitutional Court applied section 29(1)(b) of the Constitution, which provides for the right to further education and the “right to receive education in the official language or languages of [one’s] choice”. This note centres on this decision and seeks to critically discuss and analyse both the majority and minority decisions of the Constitutional Court. The question presented is whether the Constitutional Court has given the public a solution to the issue surrounding the use of either Afrikaans or English as a language medium of instruction in the higher education sector and what the effect of this has been on the development of other languages. The case note is divided into five sections. The facts of the case, the issues put before the court for consideration and the finding of the court are discussed in part 2. Part 3 contains an analysis of the minority and majority judgments. Part 4 considers whether the court has given us any solutions. Part 5 sets out the authors’ recommendations and their conclusions.

As the Next Big Thing in consumer electronics is introduced, Australia is once again feeling the tyranny of distance from the world's major markets DVD (Digital Video Disc, recently rechristened 'Digital Versatile Disc') has long been hyped as the next step in the digital revolution of home entertainment. A good decade after the audio CD began to replace LPs as the premier sound carrier medium, it is now video's turn to become digital. DVD, which in many aspects constitutes the next generation of CD technology, has inherited many of its ancestor's features -- the handy and robust physical format of the individual CD-like discs, superior picture and sound quality (especially when compared with VHS tapes) which doesn't degrade with multiple viewings, and the convenience of direct access to particular tracks and sections of the disc, without rewinding. As a second-generation medium, DVD also adds the enhanced gadgetry that was still beyond the CD's technological horizon -- DVDs offer multiple versions of a movie on one disc (e.g., standard and director's cuts, pan-and-scan, letterbox, and 16:9 editions, PG- to R-rated versions, alternative endings), up to eight alternative soundtracks (Dolby Stereo, Dolby Surround, various foreign-language overdubbed versions), a total of 32 sets of optional subtitles, and further interactive control options for the viewer. Such enhancements are partly due to the much-increased storage capacity of the DVD when compared to CDs: in addition to a sevenfold increase in capacity per surface area, DVDs can also double and quadruple that increase by carrying data on both sides of a disc, and by offering two surface layers of information per side. In keeping with the general trend towards an integration of various entertainment and computing technologies, then, DVDs will also gradually replace standard audio CDs (most DVD players can also play audio CDs, making the transition even easier) and CD-ROMs (DVD-ROMs, which are able to read older CD-ROMs, are already on the market). It is the consumer video market, however, where DVD has been expected to make its biggest impact -- and more than a year after its market introduction in the U.S., the signs there are positive. Around 350,000 DVD players have been sold, over 600 DVD titles are now available, video stores are setting up DVD rental sections, and even the major LaserDisc and video Internet mail-order stores like Ken Crane's or Movienow! are offering DVDs. Comparisons with the triumph of CDs over vinyl break down quickly, however, since those two technologies were fundamentally similar read-only media -- by contrast, the technology DVD has set out to supersede, VHS, is also a recording medium (recordable DVDs are still some way into the future; even recordable CDs are only now appearing at affordable prices). DVD, therefore, is targetted more at the growing 'home cinema' market, that is, at consumers who value quality vision and sound over recordability (they are likely to own a hi-fi VCR anyway). The satisfactory, but ultimately limited market LaserDiscs have been able to carve out for themselves in competition with VHS serves as a caution against overestimating the inevitability of success for the DVD campaign. In the course of that campaign, it is now Australia's turn, and the technology's move beyond the borders of such unified, self-contained national markets as North America points out a number of mostly self-inflicted problems which may very well reduce DVD to a digital video dud, for the time being. The availability of DVD hardware is unlikely to present much of an obstacle, but it is software choice which will ultimately determine the acceptance of any new entertainment medium. With Village Roadshow having jumped the gun for the official Australian DVD roll-out that was slated for Easter '98, there were originally only a total of nine titles available in Australia -- mixing the Australian flavour of Shine, Priscilla: Queen of the Desert and an ABC production of the opera La Bohème with an odd assortment of international movies: Dumb & Dumber, The Crow, Wild Rhapsody, Evita, The Mask, and Seven. That merely such a handful of titles are available (the entry of other distributors into the Australian market has not significantly increased the volume) is due to a particular arrangement of the future world market for DVDs into various zones -- these are: 1. North America 2. Europe, the Middle East, South Africa, Japan 3. South East Asia 4. Middle and South America, Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea 5. Russia, the remainders of Asia and Africa 6. China On the surface, such a division makes sense for various reasons: movie tastes will differ markedly from region to region, and differences in video standards (the use of PAL or NTSC systems) also mean that DVDs from one region may not play on another region's players. (With the growing market share of dual-system TVs, such technical distinctions are beginning to lose importance, though.) Mainly, however, the regions soon emerge clearly as instruments to counteract the increasing globalisation of trade in entertainment content -- they were demanded by Hollywood's studios, designed specifically so that DVDs of recent movies would not enter a particular region before the movie had run its course in the region's cinemas, and they exist to protect the status quo of video distribution rights which has come under threat from globally operating mail-order video stores. Europeans wanting to buy a copy of Armageddon on DVD, for example, would have to wait until the disc was available in their region, and couldn't simply get the U.S. release that came out after the movie had finished its theatrical run there, months ago. To ensure that they indeed would not order DVDs from another region, technical barriers have been implemented in players and discs: in essence, Australian-made players will only play Australian-made discs, for example -- a DVD that was made for the American 'region one' will simply refuse to play. Only die-hard movie fans, the DVD producers hope, will make the effort to also buy their DVD player in the U.S. (this would force them to buy all their discs there, too -- Australian-made discs wouldn't play). This strange form of inverted protectionism (a protection of the local market from imports, put into place by a transnational consortium), then, is the reason that despite the relative abundance of DVD titles in region one only such few are available in Australia -- none of the overseas ones would play on the local region four machines. The prospects for Australian DVD consumers appear bleak, then: having been included in the wildly heterogeneous 'rest of the Western world' group of region four, Australia seems unlikely to enjoy a great influx of major titles anytime soon -- while the Middle and South American markets within the region are too large to ignore for DVD manufacturers, they are likely to encourage a selection of DVDs that is significantly at variance with Australian movie interests. At the same time, the English-speaking component of the region is simply too small to make any great effort addressing: in the immediate future, the combined markets of Australia and New Zealand are likely to produce a few hundred DVD-equipped households at best. Australia, then, is once again about to feel the tyranny of its distance from the areas with which it feels the greatest cultural affinity, is once again about to be overlooked as a small player amongst the larger markets of North America and Europe, and is this time even technologically restrained from attaching itself to these markets. At least in Australia, then, the industry's decision to counteract the growing trend of market globalisation that has led to consumers' increased use of international mail-order services, particularly with the help of computerised shopping on the Internet's World Wide Web, may come back to haunt it. Should DVD in Australia turn out to be a digital video dud in the next few years, in fact, distributors may want to seriously rethink their positioning of the country in region four, moving it instead to the better-suited, larger-market regions one or two. In any event, the continuing convergence of home entertainment and computer technology also offers some hope for Australian movie fans: the regional division makes much less sense in DVD-ROM drives for computers (which will also play movie DVDs), since the software market is a global one, and so those drives are more likely to offer ways of overriding regional coding -- as the computer becomes the central element in the home entertainment system, then, it may remove the regional barriers which the movie industry has imposed on us. Citation reference for this article MLA style: Axel Bruns. "Digital Video Dud?" M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 1.1 (1998). [your date of access] <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9807/dvd.php>. Chicago style: Axel Bruns, "Digital Video Dud?," M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 1, no. 1 (1998), <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9807/dvd.php> ([your date of access]). APA style: Axel Bruns. (1998) Digital video dud? M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 1(1). <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9807/dvd.php> ([your date of access]).