Relevant bibliographies by topics / Hardship clause

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers

Academic literature on the topic 'Hardship clause'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 27 April 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Hardship clause"

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Hernoko, Agus Yudha. "“FORCE MAJEUR CLAUSE” ATAU “HARDSHIP CLAUSE” PROBLEMATIKA DALAM PERANCANGAN KONTRAK BISNIS." Perspektif 11, no. 3 (2006): 203. http://dx.doi.org/10.30742/perspektif.v11i3.276.

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Jayabalan, Sheela. "The Legality of Doctrine of Frustration in the Realm of Covid-19 Pandemic." Sociological Jurisprudence Journal 3, no. 2 (2020): 84–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.22225/scj.3.2.1900.84-90.

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The outbreak of the novel coronavirus (“COVID-19-Outbreak”) has a potential impact in the performance of a contract. If a contract does not contain a force majeure clause, a contracting party may look to the common law doctrine of frustration to relieve it from its obligations. Unlike force majeure clauses which focuses on the parties' express intention on how to deal with supervening events, frustration is implied by law and thus would only be considered in the absence of an express force majeure clause. In Malaysia, the doctrine of frustration is codified in section 57(2) of the Contracts Ac
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Calista Nawangsari, Elizabeth. "Covid-19 Pandemic As An Excuse Of Non-Performance Of Contractual Obligations From Transnational Law Perspective." Jurnal Sosial Sains 2, no. 3 (2022): 404–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.36418/sosains.v2i3.367.

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Background: The outbreak of COVID-19 has greatlyinfluenced the world’s economic situation. Its lethal potential as well as its drastic effects on international contracts, would lead to the post-pandemic litigation and arbitration questioning the applicability of the doctrines of force majeure, frustration, and hardship as an excuse of non-performances of several contractual obligations amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Purpose: This research will discuss on the matter of the applicability of the aforementioned doctrines and its subsequent effects to excuse a non-performing party. Methods: This res
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Khanderia, S. "Transnational Contracts and Their Performance During the COVID-19 Crisis: Reflections from India." BRICS Law Journal 7, no. 3 (2020): 52–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.21684/2412-2343-2020-7-3-52-80.

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The outbreak of COVID-19 has severely impacted the performance of contracts across the globe. In some situations, the outbreak may render the performance of contracts impossible as a result of governmental restrictions in the form of national lockdowns to curb the spread of the virus. In other situations, the pandemic may adversely impact the execution of contractual obligations by dramatically affecting the price of the performance and, thus, resulting in hardship or commercial impracticability, while in certain situations the pandemic may be legally construed to not affect the performance of
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Hartkamp, Arthur. "The UNIDROIT Principles for International Commercial Contracts and the Principles of European Contract Law." European Review of Private Law 2, Issue 3/4 (1994): 341–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/erpl1994040.

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Abstract. The year 1994 has witnessed the publication of two instruments of international contract law: the UNIDROIT Principles for International Commercial Contracts and the first part of the Principles of European Contract Law. Both documents contain general provisions and chapters on performance and non-performance of contracts. The contents of these are compared in this article. The survey shows that the two sets of Principles resemble each other to a large extent, not merely in the editorial form in which they (and the accompanying comments) are presented, but also in the topics dealt wit
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Mazzuoli, Valerio de Oliveira, and Gabriella Boger Prado. "Les contrats commerciaux internationaux face aux situations de crises sanitaires transnationales dans le cadre du MERCOSUR." Rev. secr. Trib. perm. revis. 9, no. 17 (2021): 172–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.16890/rstpr.a9.n17.p172.

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De nombreuses pandémies ont frappé le monde. A l’heure actuelle, le monde traverse une crise inédite et dramatique : la pandémie mondiale de la COVID-19. Que cela relève des conséquences naturelles des pandémies ou des mesures y afférentes et imposées par les États, ce sont d’innombrables contrats internationaux en cours qui voient leur exécution compromise, plus difficiles, voire même impossible. Le débat s’intensifie en droit interne des contrats, notamment autour de la possibilité d’application de la force majeure, notion commune aux pays de droit civiliste, ou encore de la clause dite de h
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Monteiro, António Pinto, and Júlio Gomes. "Rebus Sic Stantibus - Hardship Clauses in Portuguese Law." European Review of Private Law 6, Issue 3 (1998): 319–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/204597.

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Ditrih, Stefan, and Svetlana Marković. "Force majeure and hardship model clauses published by the International Chamber of Commerce." Pravo - teorija i praksa 35, no. 10-12 (2018): 73–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/ptp1812073d.

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Janssen, André, and Christian Johannes Wahnschaffe. "COVID-19 and international sale contracts: unprecedented grounds for exemption or business as usual?" Uniform Law Review 25, no. 4 (2020): 466–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ulr/unaa026.

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Abstract The year 2020 has witnessed a health crisis of unparalleled dimensions that has triggered ongoing complications on a global scale. Through restrictions on economic activities and disruptions in supply chains, COVID-19 has severely impeded global trade. Among the ensuing problems, the question of excusing a party’s failure to perform its contractual obligations is of key interest. This contribution analyses the conditions for exemption from liability with view to contracts for the international sale of goods subject to the 1980 UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of G
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Shandi, Yousef Mohammad, Osama Ismail Mohammad Amayreh, Izura Masdina Mohamed Zakri, and Pardis Moslemzadeh Tehrani. "Retaining Economic Contractual Equilibrium Under the Hardship Theory in the UNIDROIT Principles of 2016 and the Contingency-Unforeseen Circumstances Theory in the Palestinian Civil Code Draft." Business Law Review 40, Issue 5 (2019): 203–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/bula2019027.

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The UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (PICC) have a significant effect on the legal impact of changed circumstances. Many recent court and arbitral decisions have relied on the PICC when ruling on issues relating to hardship events, as a result of the occurrence of events fundamentally altering the equilibrium of the contract either because the cost of a party’s performance has increased or because the value of the performance a party receives has diminished, which is widely known in international trade as hardship clauses. This was not the case only for court and arbit
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Hardship clause"

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Al, Achkar Reine. "Clause de Hardship et clause d'amiable composition." Paris 2, 2010. http://www.theses.fr/2010PA020023.

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Bien que le pouvoir modérateur de l’amiable compositeur à l’égard des droits nés du contrat soit reconnu (tempérer les conséquences du contrat), le vrai problème demeure de savoir si la clause d’amiable composition peut s’interpréter comme comportant une renonciation à se prévaloir d’une sanction stricte des droits nés du contrat. L’amiable compositeur a le droit de réduire plutôt que d’augmenter, atténuer les effets excessifs, empêcher les injustices criantes,… mais peut-il aller plus loin et écarter résolument une disposition contractuelle ? Peut-il au moins, au nom de l’équité, corriger les
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Costa, Rafael de Sá Americano da. "Adaptation of the international investment contract: the hardship clause." reponame:Repositório Institucional do FGV, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10438/12401.

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Submitted by Rafael Costa (americanobr@gmail.com) on 2014-11-12T17:04:56Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - MPGI - Rafael Costa.pdf: 532945 bytes, checksum: 26a47bf7335b9a5f2cdecf3dd358b0ac (MD5)<br>Approved for entry into archive by Luana Rodrigues (luana.rodrigues@fgv.br) on 2014-11-12T17:18:37Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - MPGI - Rafael Costa.pdf: 532945 bytes, checksum: 26a47bf7335b9a5f2cdecf3dd358b0ac (MD5)<br>Made available in DSpace on 2014-11-12T17:18:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - MPGI - Rafael Costa.pdf: 532945 bytes, checksum: 26a47bf7335b9a5f2cdecf3
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Alhowaimil, Ibrahim Saad. "Frustration of performance of contracts : a comparative and analytic study in Islamic law and English law." Thesis, Brunel University, 2013. http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/8532.

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This thesis is an assessment of the position of Islamic law and English law regarding the doctrine of the frustration of the contract. The thesis gave in the first general view about Islamic law and Saudi legal system, also about the contract in Islamic law in general. This study provides a detailed and critical account of the principles of frustration of contract law which operate under Islamic law and English law, where appropriate, identifies and critically evaluates the differences between the principles of frustration of contract which operate respectively under Islamic law and English la
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Signat, Carine. "Le pouvoir discrétionnaire du juge et l'inexécution du contrat : étude de droit comparé franco-allemande." Thesis, Paris 2, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014PA020050.

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La question de la mesure du pouvoir du juge s’impose lorsqu’on souhaite comparer l’étendue des pouvoirs du juge dans différents ordres juridiques donnés. Or force est de constater que les pouvoirs du juge sont appréhendés sous diverses notions dans les systèmes juridiques nationaux : il est fait tour à tour référence au pouvoir souverain d’appréciation du juge du fond, au pouvoir facultatif du juge, à son pouvoir modérateur, discrétionnaire, arbitraire. Toute la difficulté de la comparaison réside dans l’absence d’un instrument de mesure uniforme. A l’échelle supranationale, le terme anglais «
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Briend, Cyril. "Le contrat d'adhésion entre professionnels." Thesis, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015USPCB177/document.

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Le professionnel que l'on croyait capable de défendre ses intérêts, par opposition au salarié ou au consommateur, s'est révélé tout autant victime de contrats déséquilibrés depuis quelques décennies. L'apparition de puissantes entreprises privées dans différents secteurs entraîne, de toute évidence, une inégalité entre les professionnels. Notre étude souligne la complexité de trouver un juste critère pour identifier de manière juste ce qu'est un professionnel partie faible. Il n'est pas possible de dire si, de manière générale, telle entreprise est plus puissante qu'une autre, car la personne
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Alrdaan, Rakan Fahad M. "The contractual obligations, subsequent impossibility and commercial hardship : a study of aspects of the English doctrine of frustration and the use of force majeure clauses with some comparison to the law of Saudi Arabia." Thesis, University of Leeds, 2016. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/16820/.

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This study focuses on the effects of a contract of events and circumstances which occurred after the contract was entered into. The study principally examines the application of the English doctrine of frustration with comparative reference to the law applicable in Saudi Arabia. The main objective is to analyse how the English doctrine and its Saudi equivalents can provide an excuse or defence in circumstances where a party is prevented from performing contractual obligations. The study proceeds as follows. First, the doctrine of frustration is described in the context of a general overview of
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Heinich, Julia. "Le droit face à l'imprévisibilité du fait." Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013AIXM1042.

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La tentation est grande de proclamer qu’aujourd’hui toute imprévisibilité a disparu. Dès lors qu’un fait s’est produit, il semble rétrospectivement acquis qu’il était prévisible avant même sa réalisation. Puisque l’on doit s’attendre à tout, rien ne peut être considéré comme imprévisible ; ni une crise économique, ni une catastrophe naturelle, ni un simple accident, dont on sait qu’ils peuvent survenir à n’importe quel moment, frapper n’importe où et n’importe qui. L’imprévisibilité, privée de consistance et d’effets, se voit alors inexorablement écartée du domaine du droit.Pourtant, l’imprévi
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Chvátalová, Daniela. "Kupní smlouva v soukromém právu." Doctoral thesis, 2015. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-351043.

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1 ABSTRACT CHVÁTALOVÁ, Daniela: Contract of Sale in Private Law. [Dissertation thesis]. Charles University. Faculty of Law; Department of Civil Law. Tutor: prof. JUDr. Jan Dvořák, CSc., Head of Department of Civil Law, Vice-Dean for the Doctoral Study Programme and Rigorosum Procedure. Level of professional qualification: Ph.D., Praha: PF UK, 2015. Key words: Civil Code No. 40/1964 Sb. Commercial Code No. 53/1991 Sb. Civil Code No. 89/2012 Sb. Principles of civil law. Purchase. Dual regulation. Precontracting negotiations. Offer and acceptance of the offer. Contract of sale. Purchase of person
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Books on the topic "Hardship clause"

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Frignani, Aldo. Factoring, leasing, franchising, venture capital, leveraged buy-out, hardship clause, countertrade, cash and carry, merchandising. 4th ed. G. Giappichelli, 1991.

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Charles, Debattista, ICC Commission on Commercial Law and Practice., and International Chamber of Commerce, eds. ICC force majeure clause 2003: ICC hardship clause 2003. ICC Pub., 2003.

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Icc Force Majeure Clause 2003 and Icc Hardship Clause 2003: Make Sure That Contract Protects You If Disaster Strikes. ICC Publishing, Inc., 2003.

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Ewan, McKendrick. Ch.6 Performance, s.2: Hardship, Introduction to Section 6.2 of the PICC. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198702627.003.0123.

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Section 6.2 of the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (PICC) deals with the concept of hardship. While hardship clauses are encountered with some frequency in international commercial contracts, few legal systems recognize a legal doctrine termed ‘hardship’. The innovative nature of Section 6.2 can be perceived by contrast with Art 79(1) of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG). A discussion of Art 79 CISG, entitled ‘exemption’, leads on to a consideration of the relationship between force majeure and hardship. Hardship is
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Loukas, Mistelis. Part II Investor-State Arbitration in the Energy Sector, 7 Contractual Mechanisms for Stability in Energy Contracts. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198805786.003.0007.

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This chapter discusses the interpretation and enforceability of various contractual means typically used in energy contracts to ensure a sustainable relationship between the contracting parties. These are the stabilization or freezing clauses and the economic equilibrium clauses together with the variants of adjustment, force majeure, and hardship clauses. These clauses are discussed from a historical and comparative viewpoint. In addition, while a dispute is occurring, it is essential to preserve the contract and relationship between the parties, and thus the chapter also looks at how multi-t
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Blackman, Shane, and Ruth Rogers, eds. Youth Marginality in Britain. Bristol University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.46692/9781447330530.

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This collections showcases contemporary research on multiple youth deprivation of personal isolation, social hardship, gender and ethnic discrimination and social stigma, drawing on findings of empirical studies that seek to explore the critical intersections of social class, gender and ethnic identities.
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Winnie: An English girl on the Prairies. Mosaïque Press, 2008.

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Roll, Jarod. Faith Powers and Gambling Spirits in Late Gilded Age Metal Mining. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252039997.003.0004.

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This chapter demonstrates how the story of the Galena revival is about the power of working-class enchantment with the magic of capitalism at the end of the Gilded Age. It offers an important field of analysis for historians of working-class religion, particularly during the tumultuous period of economic change between 1865 and 1915. While one scholarly tradition portrays mass faith in this era as compensation for material hardship, another, newer tradition emphasizes how religious belief provided many workers a potent means of resistance against capitalism. The Galena revival, however, points
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Archer, Richard. The Wall. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190676643.003.0013.

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Any comparison of the 1850s with 1830 would conclude that the struggle for equal rights had made substantial progress. Almost all legal discriminations had ended. There was increased opportunity for advancement. Some black New Englanders gained wealth, political positions, access to cultural venues, and all the other trappings of the affluent middle class. But a wall of poverty and limited economic opportunities limited most. They faced the double hardship of racism and disdain for the poor. Poverty was a wall holding back people of all ethnicities, and it was much more difficult to surmount t
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Gaskell, Elizabeth. Mary Barton. Edited by Shirley Foster. Oxford University Press, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/owc/9780199538355.001.0001.

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‘It's the masters as has wrought this woe; it's the masters as should pay for it.’ Set in Manchester in the 1840s - a period of industrial unrest and extreme deprivation - Mary Barton depicts the effects of economic and physical hardship upon the city's working-class community. Paralleling the novel's treatment of the relationship between masters and men, the suffering of the poor, and the workmen's angry response, is the story of Mary herself: a factory-worker's daughter who attracts the attentions of the mill-owner's son, she becomes caught up in the violence of class conflict when a brutal
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Book chapters on the topic "Hardship clause"

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Bradley, Harriet, and Nicola Ingram. "Banking on the Future: Choices, Aspirations and Economic Hardship in Working-Class Student Experience." In Class Inequality in Austerity Britain. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137016386_4.

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Durst, Judit, and Ábel Bereményi. "“I Felt I Arrived Home”: The Minority Trajectory of Mobility for First-in-Family Hungarian Roma Graduates." In Social and Economic Vulnerability of Roma People. Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52588-0_14.

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AbstractThis chapter explores the upward social mobility trajectories, and the corollary prices of them for those 45, first-in-family college educated Roma in Hungary who come from socially disadvantaged and marginalised family and community background. We argue that among the academically high-achieving participants of our study the most common upward mobility trajectory, contrary to the common belief of assimilation, is their distinctive minority mobility path which leads to their selective acculturation into the majority society. This distinctive incorporation into the mainstream is close to what the related academic scholarship calls the ‘minority culture of mobility’. The three main elements of this distinct mobility trajectory among the Roma are (1) The construction of a Roma middle class identity that takes belonging to the Roma community as a source of pride, in contrast of the widespread racial stereotypes in Hungary (and all over Europe) that are closely tied to the perception of Roma as a member of the underclass, (2) The creation of grass-roots ethnic (Roma) organizations and (3) The practice of giving back to their people of origin that relegate many Roma professionals to a particular segment of the labour market, in jobs to help communities in need. However, we argue that in the case of the Hungarian Roma, these elements of the minority culture of mobility did not serve the purpose of their economic mobility as the original concepts (Neckerman et al. Ethnic and Racial Studies 22(6):945–965, 1999) posits, but to mitigate the price of changing social class and to make sense of the hardship of their social ascension.
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McKendrick, Ewan. "21. Frustration and Force Majeure." In Contract Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198808169.003.0021.

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The doctrine of frustration operates to discharge a contract where, after the formation of the contract, something occurs which renders performance of the contract impossible, illegal, or something radically different from that which was in the contemplation of the parties at the time of entry into the contract. This chapter examines the scope of the doctrine of frustration and the relationship between the doctrine of frustration and any force majeure or hardship clause that is found in the contract. Consideration is given to the basis of the doctrine of frustration and the remedial consequences of the conclusion that a contract has been frustrated. It also explores the reasons for the narrow scope of the doctrine of frustration and contrasts it with the more liberal regimes to be found in, for example, the Principles of European Contract Law.
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McKendrick, Ewan. "21. Frustration and Force Majeure." In Contract Law. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198855293.003.0021.

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The doctrine of frustration operates to discharge a contract where, after the formation of the contract, something occurs which renders performance of the contract impossible, illegal, or something radically different from that which was in the contemplation of the parties at the time of entry into the contract. This chapter examines the scope of the doctrine of frustration and the relationship between the doctrine of frustration and any force majeure or hardship clause that is found in the contract. Consideration is given to the basis of the doctrine of frustration and the remedial consequences of the conclusion that a contract has been frustrated. It also explores the reasons for the narrow scope of the doctrine of frustration and contrasts it with the more liberal regimes to be found in, for example, the Principles of European Contract Law.
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"Chapter 9. Hardship Clauses." In Drafting International Contracts. Brill | Nijhoff, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/ej.9781571053558.i-654.47.

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"Chapter 9. Hardship Clauses." In Drafting International Contracts. Brill | Nijhoff, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004176799.i-654.47.

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McKendrick, Ewan. "12. Boilerplate Clauses." In Contract Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198808169.003.0012.

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This chapter examines some standard clauses found in commercial contracts today (often known as ‘boilerplate clauses’). The focus is on commercial contracts and terms that will, in all probability, have been drafted by lawyers. The discussions cover general clauses, retention of title clauses, price escalation clauses, interest, force majeure clauses, choice of law clauses, arbitration clauses, jurisdiction clauses, hardship clauses, entire agreement clauses, termination clauses, assignment, and exclusion and limitation clauses.
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McKendrick, Ewan. "12. Boilerplate Clauses." In Contract Law. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198855293.003.0012.

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This chapter examines some standard clauses found in commercial contracts today (often known as ‘boilerplate clauses’). The focus is on commercial contracts and terms that will, in all probability, have been drafted by lawyers. The discussions cover general clauses, retention of title clauses, price escalation clauses, interest, force majeure clauses, choice of law clauses, arbitration clauses, jurisdiction clauses, hardship clauses, entire agreement clauses, termination clauses, assignment, and exclusion and limitation clauses.
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Woodin, Tom. "The good old days?" In Working-class writing and publishing in the late-twentieth century. Manchester University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9780719091117.003.0004.

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A significant body of written work was produced by older people in the 1970s and 1980s reflecting back on the early twentieth century. Through the individual voice, wider social contexts were explored. Writers focused upon some key themes in order to achieve this, including childhood, work, family, the individual and politics to achieve this. The insistent belief in care and community in times of hardship is understood as a contradictory structure of feeling which spread widely during this time. Contrary to ideal type definitions of community, a close reading of texts reveals actual meanings and practices which have often been ignored in the historical record. Silences and tensions are also explored.
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Kulz, Christy. "‘Urban children’ meet the ‘buffer zone’: mapping the inequitable foundations of Dreamfields’ conveyor belt." In Factories for Learning. Manchester University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9781526116178.003.0005.

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This chapter unpicks how the inherent normality of the middle classes embedded within Dreamfields’ ethos intersects with race and is compounded by the education marketplace's demand for results. These parameters shape teacher and student negotiations, while students' social groupings are structured by institutional norms that they navigate from various positions within Dreamfields’ hierarchy. Supposedly more expressive black bodies are consistently more heavily policed in the playground, while performing 'whiter' forms of comportment is a tactic used to reduce student surveillance. Principal Culford demands a 'no excuses culture’, yet this 'no excuses' mantra divorces students from their social positioning, trivializing continued hardship, institutionalized racism and moral value judgements.
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Conference papers on the topic "Hardship clause"

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Rabelo, Air, Luiz Claudio Gomes Maia, and Fernando Silva Parreiras. "Performance Analysis of Computer Science Students in Programming Learning." In XXVI Workshop sobre Educação em Computação. Sociedade Brasileira de Computação - SBC, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5753/wei.2018.3499.

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The difficulties faced by lecturers and students in order to teach and learn programming on computer science courses have been a research topic over the years. The hardship to understand the abstract and logic concepts and consequent demotivation has been resulting in high rates of novices' failure and class abandonment. This study adopted statistical concepts to analyze students' final grades in programming subjects and compare their performance. Data were gathered from a computer science course at a Brazilian University. The period analyzed was from 2010 to 2015 including six programming sub
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Oya, Tetsuo, Fumihiko Kimura, and Hideki Aoyama. "Style Design System Based on Class A Bézier Curves for High-Quality Aesthetic Shapes." In ASME 2012 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc2012-70859.

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In this paper, a style design system in which the conditions for Class A Bézier curves are applied is presented to embody designer’s intention by aesthetically high-quality shapes. Here, the term “Class A” means a high-quality shape that has monotone curvature and torsion, and the recent industrial design requires not only aesthetically pleasing aspect but also such high-quality shapes. Conventional design tools such as normal Bézier curves can represent any shapes in a modeling system; however, the system only provides a modeling framework, it does not necessarily guarantee high-quality shape
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