Journal articles: 'Harsh parenting and encouragement'

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Musher-Eizenman, Dara R., Lynnel Goodman, Lindsey Roberts, Jenna Marx, Maija Taylor, and Debra Hoffmann. "An examination of food parenting practices: structure, control and autonomy promotion." Public Health Nutrition 22, no. 5 (2018): 814–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1368980018003312.

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AbstractObjectiveIn recent years, researchers have been working towards creating a standard conceptual framework of food parenting. To understand how parents’ reports correspond with the proposed model, the current study examined parents’ reports of their feeding behaviours in the context of a newly established framework of food parenting.DesignCross-sectional, with a two-week follow-up for a subset of the sample. Participants completed a quantitative and qualitative survey to assess food parenting. The survey included items from common food parenting instruments to measure the constructs posited in the framework. Exploratory factor analyses were conducted to ascertain which items related most closely to one another and factors were mapped on to existing constructs.SettingOnline.ParticipantsParents of children aged 2·5–7 years (n 496). Of these, 122 completed a two-week follow-up.ResultsAnalyses revealed eleven aspects of Structure (monitoring; distraction; family presence; meal/snack schedule; unstructured practices; healthy/unhealthy food availability; food preparation; healthy/unhealthy modelling; rules), ten aspects of Coercive Control (pressure to eat; using food to control emotions; food incentives to eat; food incentives to behave; non-food incentives to eat; restriction for health/weight; covert restriction; clean plate; harsh coercion) and seven aspects of Autonomy Promotion (praise; encouragement; nutrition education; child involvement; negotiation; responsive feeding; repeated offering). Content validity, assessed via parents’ open-ended explanations of their responses, was high, and test–retest reliability was moderate to high. Structure and Autonomy Promoting food parenting were highly positively correlated.ConclusionsIn general, parents’ responses provided support for the model, but suggested some amendments and refinements.

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Simons, Ronald L., Les B. Whitbeck, Rand D. Conger, and Chyi-in Wu. "Intergenerational transmission of harsh parenting." Developmental Psychology 27, no. 1 (1991): 159–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.27.1.159.

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Alsarhi, Khadija, Rahma, Mariëlle J. L. Prevoo, Lenneke R. A. Alink, and Judi Mesman. "Maternal Harsh Physical Parenting and Behavioral Problems in Children in Religious Families in Yemen." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 9 (2019): 1485. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16091485.

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The present study examined maternal religiosity as an underlying cultural factor in the effect of harsh physical parenting on child behavioral problems. Data was collected via a discipline observational task, religiosity-based vignettes, and a questionnaire in a group of 62 mothers and their children in slum areas in Yemen. Moderation and mediation models were tested, where the role of maternal religiosity as a predictor and a moderator in the association between harsh physical parenting and child behavioral problems was explored. Findings showed no direct association between harsh physical parenting, maternal religiosity, and child behavioral problems. However, maternal religiosity was found to significantly moderate the relationship between harsh physical parenting and child behavioral problems such that the positive association between harsh physical parenting and child behavior problems was stronger when parents were more religious. Implications of the moderating role of maternal religiosity on the association between harsh physical parenting and child behavioral problems are discussed.

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Wang, Mingzhong, and Jing Wang. "Harsh parenting and children's peer relationships: Testing the indirect effect of child overt aggression as moderated by child impulsivity." School Psychology International 40, no. 4 (2019): 366–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0143034319844304.

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Although harsh parenting has been found to be a risk factor for poor peer relationships, less is known about the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relation. Mainly guided by the person-environment interaction model, we tested a moderated mediation model to examine the mediating role of child overt aggression between harsh parenting and peer acceptance and whether this indirect association was moderated by child impulsivity. Eight hundred and twenty-four Chinese sixth to eighth graders with their parents and classmates were recruited as participants who completed questionnaires on harsh parenting, child impulsivity, child overt aggression and peer acceptance. Results indicated that the negative association between harsh parenting and adolescents' peer acceptance was mediated by child overt aggression. Moreover, the indirect effect of harsh parenting on peer acceptance was much stronger for adolescents with higher impulsivity. These findings suggest that reducing harsh parenting may be a way to reduce child aggression, especially for children with high impulsivity.

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Wiggins, Jillian Lee, Colter Mitchell, Luke W. Hyde, and Christopher S. Monk. "Identifying early pathways of risk and resilience: The codevelopment of internalizing and externalizing symptoms and the role of harsh parenting." Development and Psychopathology 27, no. 4pt1 (2015): 1295–312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579414001412.

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AbstractPsychological disorders co-occur often in children, but little has been done to document the types of conjoint pathways internalizing and externalizing symptoms may take from the crucial early period of toddlerhood or how harsh parenting may overlap with early symptom codevelopment. To examine symptom codevelopment trajectories, we identified latent classes of individuals based on internalizing and externalizing symptoms across ages 3–9 and found three symptom codevelopment classes: normative symptoms (low), severe-decreasing symptoms (initially high but rapidly declining), and severe symptoms (high) trajectories. Next, joint models examined how parenting trajectories overlapped with internalizing and externalizing symptom trajectories. These trajectory classes demonstrated that, normatively, harsh parenting increased after toddlerhood, but the severe symptoms class was characterized by a higher level and a steeper increase in harsh parenting and the severe-decreasing class by high, stable harsh parenting. In addition, a transactional model examined the bidirectional relationships among internalizing and externalizing symptoms and harsh parenting because they may cascade over time in this early period. Harsh parenting uniquely contributed to externalizing symptoms, controlling for internalizing symptoms, but not vice versa. In addition, internalizing symptoms appeared to be a mechanism by which externalizing symptoms increase. Results highlight the importance of accounting for both internalizing and externalizing symptoms from an early age to understand risk for developing psychopathology and the role harsh parenting plays in influencing these trajectories.

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Roubinov, Danielle S., W. Thomas Boyce, and Nicole R. Bush. "Informant-specific reports of peer and teacher relationships buffer the effects of harsh parenting on children's oppositional defiant disorder during kindergarten." Development and Psychopathology 32, no. 1 (2018): 163–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579418001499.

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AbstractHarsh and restrictive parenting are well-established contributors to the development of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) among children. However, few studies have explored whether interpersonal relationships that develop outside the family environment attenuate the risk for ODD that is associated with harsh parenting. The current study tested multireporter measures of teacher–child closeness and peer acceptance as moderators of the association between harsh parenting and children's ODD as children's social worlds widen during the kindergarten year (N = 338 children, 48% girls, M age = 5.32 years). Harsh parenting interacted with peer nominations of peer acceptance and children's report of teacher–child closeness to predict children's ODD symptoms in the spring, adjusting for fall symptoms. Children exposed to harsh parenting exhibited greater symptom increases when they were less liked/accepted playmates and in the context of lower teacher–child closeness. However, harsh parenting was not associated with symptom change among children with higher levels of peer-nominated acceptance and those who reported closer relationships with teachers. There were no significant interactions using teacher's report of peer acceptance or teacher's report of teacher–child closeness. Findings highlight positive peer and teacher relationships as promising targets of intervention among children exposed to harsh parenting and support the importance of assessing multiple perspectives of children's social functioning.

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Farley, Laura, Bonamy R. Oliver, and Alison Pike. "A Multilevel Approach to Understanding the Determinants of Maternal Harsh Parenting: the Importance of Maternal Age and Perceived Partner Support." Journal of Child and Family Studies 30, no. 8 (2021): 1871–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-01990-8.

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AbstractDeterminants of parenting are most often considered using one child per family within a cross-sectional design. In 182 families, the current study included two siblings and sought to predict maternal harsh parenting measured prospectively when each child was age 2 years from child gender, infant temperament, maternal age, maternal educational attainment, maternal depression and anxiety and maternal perceptions of partner support. Multilevel modeling was used to examine between- and within-family variance simultaneously. Mothers reported levels of harsh parenting that were similar towards both children (intraclass correlation = 0.69). Thus, the majority of variance in maternal perceptions of their harsh parenting resided between rather than within families and was accounted for in part by maternal age and maternal perceptions of partner support. Results are discussed in relation to family-wide determinants of harsh parenting, previous literature pertaining to parenting siblings and the potential avenues for future research and practice.

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Singh, Nirbhay N. "Preventive parenting with love, encouragement and limits." Journal of Child and Family Studies 5, no. 2 (1996): 241–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02237946.

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Kingsbury, Mila, Ewa Sucha, Ian Manion, Stephen E. Gilman, and Ian Colman. "Adolescent Mental Health Following Exposure to Positive and Harsh Parenting in Childhood." Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 65, no. 6 (2019): 392–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0706743719889551.

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Objectives: The purpose of the present study was to assess longitudinal associations between positive and harsh parenting in childhood and adolescent mental and behavioral difficulties. Methods: Data were drawn from Canada’s population-based National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (data collected from 1994 to 2009, analyzed 2018). The sample included 9,882 adolescents aged 12/13 years old. Parents self-reported positive and harsh parenting when children were 6/7, 8/9, and 10/11 years old. Symptoms of depression/anxiety, hyperactivity, physical aggression, social aggression, and suicidal ideation were self-reported by adolescents at age 12/13. Linear regression was used to examine the associations between parenting behaviors at each age and adolescent psychiatric symptoms, adjusted for children’s baseline symptoms. Results: Harsh parenting at 10/11 was associated with elevated symptoms of early-adolescent physical aggression, social aggression, and suicidal ideation for boys only, and for all children at earlier ages. Beginning at age 8/9, harsh discipline was associated with elevated symptoms of depression/anxiety for boys only. Overall, positive parenting at age 6/7 was protective against depression/anxiety, physical aggression, and social aggression. Significant sex differences emerged beginning at age 8/9, with positive parenting associated with higher symptoms of depression/anxiety for boys only. Positive parenting at age 10/11 was associated with increased depression/anxiety, physical aggression, social aggression, and suicidal ideation among boys, but decreased symptoms of physical aggression, social aggression, and suicidal ideation among girls. Conclusions: Results suggest that the impact of positive and harsh parenting may depend on age and sex, with harsh parenting being more detrimental to boys as they approach adolescence.

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Willoughby, Michael T., Roger Mills-Koonce, Cathi B. Propper, and Daniel A. Waschbusch. "Observed parenting behaviors interact with a polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene to predict the emergence of oppositional defiant and callous–unemotional behaviors at age 3 years." Development and Psychopathology 25, no. 4pt1 (2013): 903–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579413000266.

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AbstractUsing the Durham Child Health and Development Study, this study (N = 171) tested whether observed parenting behaviors in infancy (6 and 12 months) and toddlerhood/preschool (24 and 36 months) interacted with a child polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene to predict oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and callous–unemotional (CU) behaviors at age 3 years. Child genotype interacted with observed harsh and intrusive (but not sensitive) parenting to predict ODD and CU behaviors. Harsh–intrusive parenting was more strongly associated with ODD and CU for children with a methionine allele of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene. CU behaviors were uniquely predicted by harsh–intrusive parenting in infancy, whereas ODD behaviors were predicted by harsh–intrusive parenting in both infancy and toddlerhood/preschool. The results are discussed from the perspective of the contributions of caregiving behaviors as contributing to distinct aspects of early onset disruptive behavior.

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Chang, Lei, Jennifer E. Lansford, David Schwartz, and Joann M. Farver. "Marital quality, maternal depressed affect, harsh parenting, and child externalising in Hong Kong Chinese families." International Journal of Behavioral Development 28, no. 4 (2004): 311–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01650250344000523.

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The present study used a family systems approach to examine harsh parenting, maternal depressed affect, and marital quality in relation to children’s externalising behaviour problems in a sample of 158 Hong Kong primary school children. At two time points, peers and teachers provided ratings of children’s externalising behaviours, and mothers completed questionnaires assessing depressed affect, marital quality, and harsh parenting. Path analyses showed that maternal depressed affect had both direct effects on child externalising and indirect effects through harsh parenting. The effect of marital quality on child externalising was not direct but was mediated through harsh parenting. These findings reflect family processes that have similarities with those found in Western samples as well as differences in terms of how Hong Kong Chinese culture may facilitate and inhibit these processes.

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Jacques, Debrielle T., Melissa L. Sturge-Apple, Patrick T. Davies, and Dante Cicchetti. "Maternal alcohol dependence and harsh caregiving across parenting contexts: The moderating role of child negative emotionality." Development and Psychopathology 32, no. 4 (2019): 1509–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579419001445.

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AbstractParental alcohol dependence is a significant risk factor for harsh caregiving behaviors; however, it is unknown whether and how harsh caregiving changes over time and across parenting contexts for alcohol-dependent mothers. Furthermore, to our knowledge, no studies have examined whether and how distinct dimensions of child characteristics, such as negative emotionality modulate harsh caregiving among alcohol-dependent mothers. Guided by parenting process models, the present study examined how two distinct domains of children's negative emotionality—fear and frustration—moderate the association between maternal alcohol dependence and maternal harshness across discipline and free-play contexts. A high-risk sample of 201 mothers and their two-year-old children were studied over a one-year period. Results from latent difference score analyses indicated that harsh parenting among alcohol-dependent mothers increased over time in the more stressful discipline context, but not in the parent–child play context. This effect was maintained even after controlling for other parenting risk factors, including other forms of maternal psychopathology. Furthermore, this increase in harsh parenting was specific to alcohol-dependent mothers whose children were displaying high levels of anger and frustration. Findings provide support for specificity in conceptualizations of child negative emotionality and parenting contexts as potential determinants of maladaptive caregiving among alcohol-dependent mothers.

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Brody, Gene H., Tianyi Yu, Allen W. Barton, Gregory E. Miller, and Edith Chen. "Youth temperament, harsh parenting, and variation in the oxytocin receptor gene forecast allostatic load during emerging adulthood." Development and Psychopathology 29, no. 3 (2016): 791–803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s095457941600047x.

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AbstractAn association has been found between receipt of harsh parenting in childhood and adult health problems. However, this research has been principally retrospective, has treated children as passive recipients of parental behavior, and has overlooked individual differences in youth responsivity to harsh parenting. In a 10-year multiple-wave prospective study of African American families, we addressed these issues by focusing on the influence of polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR), variants of which appear to buffer or amplify responses to environmental stress. The participants were 303 youths, with a mean age of 11.2 at the first assessment, and their parents, all of whom were genotyped for variations in the rs53576 (A/G) polymorphism. Teachers rated preadolescent (ages 11 to 13) emotionally intense and distractible temperaments, and adolescents (ages 15 and 16) reported receipt of harsh parenting. Allostatic load was assessed during young adulthood (ages 20 and 21). Difficult preadolescent temperament forecast elevated receipt of harsh parenting in adolescence, and adolescents who experienced harsh parenting evinced high allostatic load during young adulthood. However, these associations emerged only among children and parents who carried A alleles of the OXTR genotype. The results suggest the oxytocin system operates along with temperament and parenting to forecast young adults’ allostatic load.

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McKinney, Cliff, and Erica Szkody. "Parent and Child Depression: Moderated Mediation by Gender and Harsh Parenting in Emerging Adults." Journal of Family Issues 40, no. 5 (2018): 594–612. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192513x18817578.

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Parental depression has been associated with psychological problems in offspring. It was hypothesized that harsh parenting would mediate this relationship and that gender differences would suggest moderated mediation. Emerging adults ( N = 490) reported on their current perceptions of parental depression, harsh parenting, and their own psychological problems. The indirect effects of parental depression on emerging adult psychological problems in the context of parent–child gender dyads were examined. All variables shared positive free correlations across gender, whereas direct and indirect effects were influenced heavily by gender. Parental depression was directly related to male and female depression, and harsh parenting was only directly and indirectly related to female depression. Further research should focus on the complexity of harsh parenting and environmental predictors on child psychological problems. Addressing parental depression may indirectly and directly improve children’s internalizing and externalizing problems.

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Meyer, Alexandria, Greg Hajcak, Elizabeth Hayden, Haroon I. Sheikh, Shiva M. Singh, and Daniel N. Klein. "A genetic variant brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) polymorphism interacts with hostile parenting to predict error-related brain activity and thereby risk for internalizing disorders in children." Development and Psychopathology 30, no. 1 (2017): 125–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579417000517.

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AbstractThe error-related negativity (ERN) is a negative deflection in the event-related potential occurring when individuals make mistakes, and is increased in children with internalizing psychopathology. We recently found that harsh parenting predicts a larger ERN in children, and recent work has suggested that variation in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene may moderate the impact of early life adversity. Parents and children completed measures of parenting when children were 3 years old (N = 201); 3 years later, the ERN was measured and diagnostic interviews as well as dimensional symptom measures were completed. We found that harsh parenting predicted an increased ERN only among children with a methionine allele of the BDNF genotype, and evidence of moderated mediation: the ERN mediated the relationship between parenting and internalizing diagnoses and dimensional symptoms only if children had a methionine allele. We tested this model with externalizing disorders, and found that harsh parenting predicted externalizing outcomes, but the ERN did not mediate this association. These findings suggest that harsh parenting predicts both externalizing and internalizing outcomes in children; however, this occurs through different pathways that uniquely implicate error-related brain activity in the development of internalizing disorders.

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WANG, Mingzhong, Xiuxiu DU, and Zongkui ZHOU. "Harsh parenting: Meaning, influential factors and mechanisms." Advances in Psychological Science 24, no. 3 (2016): 379. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1042.2016.00379.

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Conger, Rand D., Thomas J. Schofield, and Tricia K. Neppl. "Intergenerational Continuity and Discontinuity in Harsh Parenting." Parenting 12, no. 2-3 (2012): 222–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2012.683360.

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Gülseven, Zehra, Asiye Kumru, Gustavo Carlo, Francisco Palermo, Bilge Selçuk, and Melike Sayıl. "The mediational roles of harsh and responsive parenting in the longitudinal relations between socioeconomic status and Turkish children’s emotional development." International Journal of Behavioral Development 42, no. 6 (2018): 563–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025418783279.

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This study examined the associations among the socioeconomic status (SES) of Turkish families when children ( N = 340, Mean age = 83 months, SD = 3.59, 50.3% boys) were approximately 7 years of age (Time 1) and their emotional lability and emotion regulation tendencies 3 years later (Time 3). We also examined the mediating roles of mothers’ harsh and responsive parenting behaviors when children were 9 years of age (Time 2). Results revealed that family SES was positively linked to parental responsiveness and negatively linked to harsh parenting; harsh parenting was positively linked to children’s emotion lability and negatively linked to children’s emotion regulation (after controlling for prior levels of emotion regulation and emotional lability at Time 2). Further, harsh parenting significantly mediated the associations between family SES and children’s emotional lability and emotion regulation tendencies. The pattern of associations did not vary by child gender or community (e.g., Istanbul, Ankara, Bolu) in Turkey. The findings highlight the interplay among family SES, maternal parenting behaviors, and children’s self-regulation outcomes in a non-Western, collectivist society.

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McCarthy, Randy J. "Experiencing Instigations and Trait Aggression Contribute to Harsh Parenting Behaviors." Psychological Reports 120, no. 6 (2017): 1078–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0033294117711934.

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Three studies (total N = 1777 parents) examined whether harsh parenting behaviors would increase when parents experienced an instigation and whether this increase would be especially pronounced for parents who were high in trait aggression. These predictions were tested both when parents’ experience of an instigation was manipulated (Studies 1 and 2) and when parents’ perceptions of their child’s instigating behavior was reported (Study 3). Further, these predictions were tested across a variety of measures of parents’ harsh behaviors: (1) asking parents to report their likelihood of behaving harshly (Study 1), (2) using proxy tasks for parents’ inclinations to behave harshly (Study 2), and (3) having parents report their past child-directed behaviors, some of which were harsh (Study 3). Both child instigations and parents’ trait aggression were consistently associated with parents’ child-directed harsh behaviors. However, parents’ trait aggression only moderated the extent to which the instigation was associated with their harsh parenting for self-reported physical harsh behaviors (Study 1). The results of the current studies demonstrate that both situational factors, such as experiencing an instigation, and individual difference variables, such as trait aggression, affect parents’ likelihood to exhibit harsh behaviors, but found little evidence these factors interact.

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Coard, Stephanie I., Shani Foy-Watson, Catherine Zimmer, and Amy Wallace. "Considering Culturally Relevant Parenting Practices in Intervention Development and Adaptation." Counseling Psychologist 35, no. 6 (2007): 797–820. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011000007304592.

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A randomized prevention pilot trial compared caregivers who participated in the Black Parenting Strengths and Strategies (BPSS) Program with control caregivers. BPSS is a strengths- and culturally based parenting program designed to improve aspects of parenting associated with the early development of conduct problems and the promotion of social and cultural competence. Parenting variables included monitoring, positive parenting, harsh discipline, and the use of proactive racial socialization. Child variables included conduct problems and social competence. Relative to control caregivers, intervention caregivers used significantly more racial socialization strategies, positive parenting practices, and less harsh discipline. Also, despite caregivers' multiple risk factors, high rates of attendance and satisfaction were achieved. Results of this pilot support the feasibility, acceptability, and potential efficacy of a culturally relevant intervention program.

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Schofield, Thomas J., Rand D. Conger, and Kathi J. Conger. "Disrupting intergenerational continuity in harsh parenting: Self-control and a supportive partner." Development and Psychopathology 29, no. 4 (2016): 1279–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579416001309.

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AbstractHarsh, abusive, and rejecting behavior by parents toward their children is associated with increased risk for many developmental problems for youth. Children raised by harsh parents are also more likely to treat their own children harshly. The present study addresses conditions that would break this intergenerational cycle of harsh parenting. Data come from a three-generation study of a cohort of 290 adolescents (Generation 2 [G2], 52% female) grown to adulthood and their parents (Generation 1 [G1]). During adolescence, observers rated G1 harsh parenting to G2. Several years later observers rated G2 harsh parenting toward their oldest child (Generation 3 [G3]). Several adaptive systems fundamental to human resilience attenuate intergenerational continuity in harshness. G2 parents were relatively less harsh to G3 children (notwithstanding a history of harshness from G1) when G2's romantic partner (a) communicated positively with G2 and (b) had a good relationship with G3, and (c) when G2 was high on self-control. Interventions that target all of these protective factors may not only break but also reverse the intergenerational cycle of child maltreatment.

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Jeon, Hyeon Gyu, Sung Je Lee, Jeong Ae Kim, Gyoung Mo Kim, and Eui Jun Jeong. "Exploring the Influence of Parenting Style on Adolescents’ Maladaptive Game Use through Aggression and Self-Control." Sustainability 13, no. 8 (2021): 4589. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13084589.

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Adolescent aggression manifests in problematic game use and ultimately undermines life quality. This study deals with the mechanisms behind adolescents’ perception of parenting, maladaptive game use, self-control, and life satisfaction within the context of integrated supportive-positive parenting and harsh-negative parenting. Using 778 valid panel data from the Korea Creative Content Agency (KOCCA), we reached the conclusions that both supportive-positive parenting and harsh-negative parenting, mediated by self-control and maladaptive game use, are major predictors of adolescents’ life satisfaction. PLS-SEM analysis was used for the hypothesized model test. This study helped bridge the gap in existing research by finding clues to recovering parent–child relationships from the side effects of youth game use.

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Stearns, M., A. Wilkerson, and K. J. Speed. "0945 Adolescent Sleep Mediates Maternal Depression and Harsh Parenting." Sleep 43, Supplement_1 (2020): A359. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsaa056.941.

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Abstract Introduction Mothers dealing with depressive problems often report using more harsh parenting practices. This occurs, in part, due to a scarcity of effective coping mechanisms and increased irritability. In addition, depressed mothers are less likely to set consistent rules and expectations within the home, which may result in children who stay up late. Children who get inadequate levels of sleep also are more likely to have behavior problems, irritability, and defiance toward their parents, particularly in adolescence. However, no studies have examined the potential of adolescent sleep as a contributor to the association between maternal depression and the use of harsh parenting. The current study examined whether mothers’ perceptions of inadequate adolescent sleep duration mediated the relationship between maternal depression and harsh parenting, with child gender as a moderator. Methods The sample (N=318) consisted of mothers reporting on adolescents aged 16-18 (M=16.89, SD = .429; 53.4% female) from the 10th wave of the Schools and Families Educating Children Study (SAFE). The SAFE study was a randomized control trial conducted from 1997-2008 designed to investigate children and families living in inner-city Chicago, Il. Measures included the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD), and the Parenting Practices Questionnaire (PPQ). Results Too little adolescent sleep mediated (β = .15) the relation between maternal depression and her reported use of harsh parenting. Mediation was further moderated by child gender, such that the mediation occurred for sons (β = .12) but not daughters. Conclusion These results suggest that too little adolescent sleep is the process through which mothers experiencing depressive problems engage in more harsh parenting. In addition, important child gender differences were apparent, such that sons’ lack of sleep may be more related to maternal depression and the use of harsh discipline. Support United States Department of Health and Human Services. National Institutes of Health. National Institute on Drug Abuse (5 R01 DA020829)

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Burt, S. Alexandra, D. Angus Clark, Elizabeth T. Gershoff, Kelly L. Klump, and Luke W. Hyde. "Twin Differences in Harsh Parenting Predict Youth’s Antisocial Behavior." Psychological Science 32, no. 3 (2021): 395–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797620968532.

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In the current study, we leveraged differences within twin pairs to examine whether harsh parenting is associated with children’s antisocial behavior via environmental (vs. genetic) transmission. We examined two independent samples from the Michigan State University Twin Registry. Our primary sample contained 1,030 families (2,060 twin children; 49% female; 6–10 years old) oversampled for exposure to disadvantage. Our replication sample included 240 families (480 twin children; 50% female; 6–15 years old). Co-twin control analyses were conducted using a specification-curve framework, an exhaustive modeling approach in which all reasonable analytic specifications of the data are interrogated. Results revealed that, regardless of zygosity, the twin experiencing harsher parenting exhibited more antisocial behavior. These effects were robust across multiple operationalizations and informant reports of both harsh parenting and antisocial behavior with only a few exceptions. Results indicate that the association between harsh parenting and children’s antisocial behavior is, to a large degree, environmental in origin.

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Berthelon, Matias, Dante Contreras, Diana Kruger, and María Isidora Palma. "Harsh parenting during early childhood and child development." Economics & Human Biology 36 (January 2020): 100831. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2019.100831.

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Darko, Georg. "Sex Differences in the Intergenerational Transmission of Harsh Punishment of Children in Ghana." European Journal of Social Science Education and Research 6, no. 3 (2019): 104. http://dx.doi.org/10.26417/ejser.v6i3.p104-111.

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The aim of the study was to assess the relationship between mothers’ and fathers’ use of harsh punishment on their children and their retrospective accounts of their own experiences of harsh parenting in childhood, in Ghana. Participants consisted of 1,202 parents (601 mothers and 601 fathers) who completed a questionnaire on harsh disciplinary practices. The findings showed associations between mothers’ and fathers’ childhood experiences of harsh punishment and their current use of such disciplinary techniques on their own children. Exposure and transmission varied by sex in that males were more exposed to harsh punishment when they were young than females, and they also punished their own children more often than females. Both males and females assessed that they used much less harsh parenting than they themselves had been exposed to as young. The use of physical punishment is a shared cultural value that is rooted as part of the Ghanaian national values. However, transmission in the use of harsh disciplinary measures across generations may be broken if younger generations of parents learn to use alternative ways of disciplining a child.

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Liu, Mowei, Xinyin Chen, Kenneth H. Rubin, et al. "Autonomy- vs. connectedness-oriented parenting behaviours in Chinese and Canadian mothers." International Journal of Behavioral Development 29, no. 6 (2005): 489–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/01650250500147063.

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The purpose of the study was to investigate maternal socialization goal-oriented behaviours in Chinese and Canadian mothers. Participants were samples of children at 2 years of age and their mothers in P.R. China and Canada. Data on child autonomy and connectedness and maternal encouragement of autonomy and connectedness were collected from observations of mother–child interactions in a laboratory situation. Cross-cultural similarities as well as differences were found in the study. Chinese mothers had higher scores on overall involvement than Canadian mothers during mother–child interaction. When overall involvement was controlled, Chinese mothers had higher scores than Canadian mothers on encouragement of connectedness. In contrast, Canadian mothers had higher scores than Chinese mothers on encouragement of autonomy. The results suggest that culturally general and specific socialization goals and values are reflected in maternal parenting behaviours.

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Choi, Jeong‐Kyun, and Emily H. Becher. "Supportive Coparenting, Parenting Stress, Harsh Parenting, and Child Behavior Problems in Nonmarital Families." Family Process 58, no. 2 (2018): 404–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/famp.12373.

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Peng, Yanqun, Jared R. Anderson, Matthew D. Johnson, and Wenli Liu. "The Associations Between Perceived Harsh and Controlling Parenting, Shame Proneness, and Psychological Aggression Among Chinese Dating Couples." Violence and Victims 33, no. 4 (2018): 759–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.vv-d-17-00116.

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Using dyadic data from 198 dating heterosexual couples (aged 18–31) in Mainland China, the current study tested the direct associations between perceptions of their parents’ harsh and controlling parenting and psychological aggression and indirect associations via shame proneness. Results demonstrated that for women, greater perceived harsh and controlling parenting was directly related to higher levels of psychological aggression and indirectly related through higher levels of shame proneness. For men, perceived harsh and controlling parenting was not related to either shame proneness or psychological aggression. These findings provide initial insights into how shame, traditionally a valued and celebrated emotion in Chinese culture, can be maladaptive by contributing to psychological aggression in young adult intimate relationships. Although these findings merit further testing, especially for men, this study provides evidence that shame is an important mechanism for psychological dating violence.

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De Bourdeaudhuij, I., SJ te Velde, L. Maes, C. Pérez-Rodrigo, MDV de Almeida, and J. Brug. "General parenting styles are not strongly associated with fruit and vegetable intake and social–environmental correlates among 11-year-old children in four countries in Europe." Public Health Nutrition 12, no. 2 (2009): 259–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1368980008002930.

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AbstractObjectivesTo investigate whether fruit and vegetable (F&V) intake in 11-year-olds, and social–environmental correlates of F&V intake such as parental modelling and encouragement, family food rules and home availability, differ according to general parenting styles in Belgium, The Netherlands, Portugal and Spain.DesignCross-sectional study.SettingPrimary schools in four countries.SubjectsPupils and one of their parents completed questionnaires to measure F&V intake, related social–environmental correlates and general parenting styles. The sample size was 4555 (49·3 % boys); 1180 for Belgium, 883 for The Netherlands, 1515 for Portugal and 977 for Spain. Parenting styles were divided into authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful.ResultsNo differences were found in F&V intake across parenting styles and only very few significant differences in social–environmental correlates. The authoritarian (more parental encouragement and more demands to eat fruit) and the authoritative (more availability of fruit and vegetables) parenting styles resulted in more favourable correlates.ConclusionDespite earlier studies suggesting that general parenting styles are associated with health behaviours in children, the present study suggests that this association is weak to non-existent for F&V intakes in four different European countries.

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Stepp, Stephanie D., Diana J. Whalen, Lori N. Scott, Maureen Zalewski, Rolf Loeber, and Alison E. Hipwell. "Reciprocal effects of parenting and borderline personality disorder symptoms in adolescent girls." Development and Psychopathology 26, no. 2 (2014): 361–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579413001041.

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AbstractTheories of borderline personality disorder (BPD) postulate that high-risk transactions between caregiver and child are important for the development and maintenance of the disorder. Little empirical evidence exists regarding the reciprocal effects of parenting on the development of BPD symptoms in adolescence. The impact of child and caregiver characteristics on this reciprocal relationship is also unknown. Thus, the current study examines bidirectional effects of parenting, specifically harsh punishment practices and caregiver low warmth, and BPD symptoms in girls aged 14–17 years based on annual, longitudinal data from the Pittsburgh Girls Study (N = 2,451) in the context of child and caregiver characteristics. We examined these associations through the use of autoregressive latent trajectory models to differentiate time-specific variations in BPD symptoms and parenting from the stable processes that steadily influence repeated measures within an individual. The developmental trajectories of BPD symptoms and parenting were moderately associated, suggesting a reciprocal relationship. There was some support for time-specific elevations in BPD symptoms predicting subsequent increases in harsh punishment and caregiver low warmth. There was little support for increases in harsh punishment and caregiver low warmth predicting subsequent elevations in BPD symptoms. Child impulsivity and negative affectivity, and caregiver psychopathology were related to parenting trajectories, while only child characteristics predicted BPD trajectories. The results highlight the stability of the reciprocal associations between parenting and BPD trajectories in adolescent girls and add to our understanding of the longitudinal course of BPD in youth.

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Deater-Deckard, Kirby, Zhe Wang, Nan Chen, and Martha Ann Bell. "Maternal executive function, harsh parenting, and child conduct problems." Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 53, no. 10 (2012): 1084–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02582.x.

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SHUMOW, LEE, DEBORAH LOWE VANDELL, and JILL K. POSNER. "Harsh, Firm, and Permissive Parenting in Low-Income Families." Journal of Family Issues 19, no. 5 (1998): 483–507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019251398019005001.

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Lee, Dohoon, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Sara S. McLanahan, Daniel Notterman, and Irwin Garfinkel. "The Great Recession, genetic sensitivity, and maternal harsh parenting." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 34 (2013): 13780–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1312398110.

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Jimenez, Manuel E., Alan L. Mendelsohn, Yong Lin, Patricia Shelton, and Nancy Reichman. "Early Shared Reading Is Associated with Less Harsh Parenting." Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics 40, no. 7 (2019): 530–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/dbp.0000000000000687.

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Lee, Yookyong, and Neil B. Guterman. "Young mother–father dyads and maternal harsh parenting behavior." Child Abuse & Neglect 34, no. 11 (2010): 874–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.06.001.

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Rubin, Kenneth H., Larry J. Nelson, Paul Hastings, and Jens Asendorpf. "The Transaction between Parents’ Perceptions of their Children’s Shyness and their Parenting Styles." International Journal of Behavioral Development 23, no. 4 (1999): 937–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/016502599383612.

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In recent years, researchers have examined factors that “determine” parenting beliefs, styles, and behaviours. One potential determinant of parenting is the child him/herself. Child characteristics, such as temperament, have been cited as evocative influences on parenting beliefs and behaviours. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the longitudinal relations between children’s social wariness/inhibition and parents’ beliefs about how to best socialise their children. Questionnaire data on child temperament and parenting practices were collected from the parents (mothers and fathers) of sixty 2-year-olds; identical data were collected 2 years later. Observations of inhibited behaviour were taken at two years. Results indicated that few differences existed between mothers’ and fathers’ expressed parenting styles at ages 2 and 4 years. Second, parental perceptions of child shyness at age 2 were: (a) stable to age 4; and (b) predicted a lack of encouragement of independence at age 4. Third, parents’ expressed lack of encouragement of independence, although stable from 2 to 4 years, failed to predict child shyness at age 4. The findings support the conjecture that young children’s dispositional characteristics predict subsequent maternal and paternal behaviour.

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Steinberg, Laurence, Susie D. Lamborn, Sanford M. Dornbusch, and Nancy Darling. "Impact of Parenting Practices on Adolescent Achievement: Authoritative Parenting, School Involvement, and Encouragement to Succeed." Child Development 63, no. 5 (1992): 1266. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1131532.

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Douglas, Sabrina, Gerarda Darlington, John Beaton, Kirsten Davison, and Jess Haines. "Associations between Coparenting Quality and Food Parenting Practices among Mothers and Fathers in the Guelph Family Health Study." Nutrients 13, no. 3 (2021): 750. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu13030750.

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Coparenting quality and food parenting practices have been shown to have a strong influence on child outcomes. However, little is known about whether coparenting quality may influence food parenting practices. This study aimed to investigate how coparenting quality is associated with both mothers’ and fathers’ food parenting practices. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted of 58 mothers and 40 fathers enrolled in the Guelph Family Health Study. The Coparenting Relationship Scale and the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire were used to measure coparenting and food parenting practices, respectively. Linear regressions using generalized estimating equations were used to examine associations between coparenting quality and food parenting practices in mothers and fathers. Among mothers, higher coparenting quality was associated with lower use of food for emotional regulation, restriction of food for health, and child control of food intake and with higher encouragement of a balanced and varied diet, provision of a healthy home environment, and modeling of healthy eating behaviors. Among fathers, higher coparenting quality was associated with lower pressure to eat and with higher encouragement of a balanced and varied diet and provision of a healthy home environment. Coparenting quality is associated with food parenting practices among both mothers and fathers. Interventions aiming to improve food parenting practices should include fathers and should consider targeting parents’ coparenting relationship.

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MURPHY, E., C. R. BREWIN, and L. SILKA. "The assessment of parenting using the Parental Bonding Instrument: two or three factors?" Psychological Medicine 27, no. 2 (1997): 333–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291796004606.

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Background. The Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) is a widely used measure of parenting, and is usually used to measure two parenting dimensions, care and over-protection. However, there is disagreement in the research literature about whether the PBI is best used as a two-factor or a three-factor measure.Method. PBI scores from 583 US and 236 UK students were factor analysed to assess whether a three-factor solution was more satisfactory than a two-factor solution.Results. A three-factor (care, denial of psychological autonomy and encouragement of behavioural freedom) solution was found to be more satisfactory than a two-factor solution. Using the three-factor solution, group differences that were not apparent with the two-factor solution were identified and it was found that the parenting behaviours associated with depression could be more accurately identified.Conclusion. The authors suggest that with modifications, the PBI could be used to measure three parenting variables (care, denial of psychological autonomy and encouragement of behavioural freedom), which would allow greater accuracy of prediction and a greater understanding of underlying processes.

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Zhao, Siman, Xinyin Chen, and Li Wang. "Maternal parenting and social, school, and psychological adjustment of migrant children in urban China." International Journal of Behavioral Development 39, no. 6 (2015): 541–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025415576815.

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This study examined the relations of maternal warmth, behavioral control, and encouragement of sociability to social, school, and psychological adjustment in migrant children in China. The participants were 284 rural-to-urban migrant children ( M age = 11 years, 149 boys) in migrant children’s schools and their mothers. Data on parenting were collected from mothers’ reports. Data on children’s adjustment were collected from multiple sources including peer assessments, teacher ratings, self-reports, and school records. It was found that maternal warmth was associated with children’s social and school performance, and that maternal encouragement of sociability was associated with children’s psychological adjustment. Maternal behavioral control was not associated with children’s adjustment. The results indicate that maternal warmth, behavioral control, and encouragement of sociability may serve different functions in different domains of adjustment among migrant Chinese children.

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Ofoha, Dorothy, and Rotimi Ogidan. "Punitive Violence against Children: A Psychoeducational Parenting Program to Reduce Harsh Disciplining Practices and Child Beating in the Home." International Journal of Psychological Research 13, no. 2 (2020): 89–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.21500/20112084.4604.

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While parental harsh disciplining of children is a global concern, children living in Nigeria often experience particularly high levels of harsh discipline. Constrained by the lack of parenting skills to effectively manage children, most Nigerian parents rely too heavily on the use of violent methods in the disciplining of their children, which poses a huge threat to their well-being and development. Given the high levels of harsh parenting and the lack of understanding of its harms, we set out to develop a program of intervention called Psychoeducational parenting program to prevent violence against children (PEPVAC), guided by psychological principles of social learning theory, to help parents reverse the trend. We tested the effectiveness of the program using a quasi-experimental design with questionnaire and observation as data collection tools. Participants were 300 parents of children age 3-12 years, who endorsed using harsh discipline. Parents (n = 150) who received the 8-week intervention were compared with parents in the control group (n = 150). A mixed-model ANOVA revealed that the PEPVAC parents demonstrated a reduced use of harsh disciplinary tactics and a decreased incidence of parents beating their children compared to parents in the control group who continued with business-as-usual. Findings suggest that PEPVAC can be a useful intervention tool in the prevention of punitive violence against children, especially in a culturally-oriented country like Nigeria with over 91 million population of children who are at risk of disciplinary violence in the home.

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Mortensen, Jennifer A., and Melissa A. Barnett. "Risk and Protective Factors, Parenting Stress, and Harsh Parenting in Mexican Origin Mothers with Toddlers." Marriage & Family Review 51, no. 1 (2015): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2014.955937.

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Jackson, Aurora P., Jeong‐Kyun Choi, and Kathleen S. J. Preston. "Harsh Parenting and Black Boys' Behavior Problems: Single Mothers' Parenting Stress and Nonresident Fathers' Involvement." Family Relations 68, no. 4 (2019): 436–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/fare.12373.

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Le, Yunying, Steffany J. Fredman, and Mark E. Feinberg. "Parenting stress mediates the association between negative affectivity and harsh parenting: A longitudinal dyadic analysis." Journal of Family Psychology 31, no. 6 (2017): 679–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/fam0000315.

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Tunde-Ayinmode, M. F., and Olusola Abejide Adegunloye. "Parenting style and conduct problems in children: Case report of deliberate self poisoning in a Nigerian child." South African Journal of Psychiatry 17, no. 2 (2011): 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v17i2.256.

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The correlation between psychosocially unhealthy parenting styles and child psychopathology has been established. This case report describes how chronic harsh and overbearing paternal parenting style tipped a young boy into deliberate self poisoning with the aid of organo-phosphorous chemicals (rat poison). This report is purposed to increase the interest of physicians and psychiatrists in parenting style research and in how potentially its modification could be a therapeutic and preventive tool.

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Broun, Aaron, Denise Haynie, and Kelvin Choi. "Parental Anti-Smoking Encouragement as a Longitudinal Predictor of Young Adult Cigarette and E-cigarette Use in a US National Study." Nicotine & Tobacco Research 23, no. 9 (2021): 1468–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntab026.

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Abstract Introduction Young adulthood is a critical period for the adoption of risk behaviors like tobacco use. Protective factors in adolescence may promote a tobacco-free transition to young adulthood. We examine associations between the frequency of parental anti-smoking encouragement in adolescence and cigarette and e-cigarette use in young adulthood. Aims and Methods We analyzed data from Waves 1 (2009–2010, 10th grade, mean age = 16.2 years) and 5 (2013–2014 mean age = 20.3 years) of the US nationally representative NEXT Generation Health Study (n = 1718). At Wave 1, participants reported how often their parents or guardians encourage them to not smoke cigarettes (1 = Rarely or Never, 7 = Frequently). We used separate weighted multiple logistic regression models to model Wave 5 past 30-day cigarette and e-cigarette use as functions of the frequency of parental anti-smoking encouragement at Wave 1, adjusting for sociodemographic and parenting factors, initial substance use, and peer tobacco use. Results The average frequency of parental encouragement to not smoke cigarettes was fairly high (mean = 5.35). At Wave 5, 24.7% and 14.2% of respondents reported cigarette and e-cigarette use in the past 30 days, respectively. Greater frequency of parental anti-smoking encouragement was associated with lower odds of subsequent cigarette smoking (adjusted odds ratio 0.91, 95% confidence interval 0.83, 0.99) but its association with e-cigarette use was not significant (adjusted odds ratio 0.93, 95% confidence interval 0.84, 1.04). Conclusions The longitudinal negative association between anti-smoking encouragement and cigarette use suggests that parental anti-tobacco communication could be a long-term protective factor against young adult tobacco use. Our findings may also suggest the importance of product-specific messages in the evolving tobacco use landscape. Implications This study builds upon prior investigations of parenting in adolescence as a protective factor against young adult risk behavior. We isolate the frequency of anti-smoking encouragement during adolescence as an actionable factor distinct from other parenting variables. Our findings also suggest that message specificity may be an important factor in parental anti-tobacco communication as youth and young adult tobacco use becomes increasingly dominated by e-cigarettes.

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Cova, Félix, Paulina Rincón, Claudio Bustos, et al. "Randomized cluster trial of a parenting program in Chile: Key mediators in the decrease in behavior problems in preschool children." Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 25, no. 2 (2019): 320–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1359104519864124.

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Background: Parenting training is a proven strategy for the promotion of positive parenting practices and for the prevention and treatment of behavior problems in children. The processes that explain this efficacy are less clear. The aim of this study was to assess the mediating role of parenting practice modification, encouraged through the implementation of a universal parenting training program, for the decrease of behavior problems in 3- to 6-year-old children. Method: A cluster randomized trial was carried out in 19 educational centers in low and middle socioeconomic areas. A total of 178 families received the program and 154 of them were the control group. The following parenting practices were assessed: positive reinforcement, involvement, inconsistency, unsuitable treatment behaviors and physical punishment, as well as hostility and humiliation behaviors. Parent–child interaction was also assessed using an observational instrument. A multiple mediation analysis was carried out, identifying the indirect effects. Results: Reduction of harsh discipline and physical punishment, and parental inconsistency mediated the effects observed in the reduction of child behavior problems during the program. Conclusion: Within Chilean families, harsh discipline, physical punishment, and parental inconsistency are important aspects to be considered in the implementation of universal parenting training programs.

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Međedović, Janko. "Harsh environment facilitates psychopathy's involvement in mating-parenting trade-off." Personality and Individual Differences 139 (March 2019): 235–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.11.034.

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Chang, Lei, David Schwartz, Kenneth A. Dodge, and Catherine McBride-Chang. "Harsh Parenting in Relation to Child Emotion Regulation and Aggression." Journal of Family Psychology 17, no. 4 (2003): 598–606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.17.4.598.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Harsh parenting and encouragement'

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