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1

Cullen, Mark R. "Semiconductor Industry." Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 32, no. 4 (April 1990): 379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00043764-199004000-00077.

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2

Greenberg, Gary N. "Reproductive Hazards of Semiconductor Industry." Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 31, no. 3 (March 1989): 280–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00043764-198903000-00019.

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3

Bennett, Gary F. "Semiconductor safety handbook: Safety and health in the semiconductor industry." Journal of Hazardous Materials 66, no. 3 (May 1999): 311–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3894(99)00018-7.

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4

Fisher, Jim. "Cancer in the Semiconductor Industry." Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal 57, no. 2 (March 2002): 95–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00039890209602922.

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5

Schmidt, Reiner, Horst Scheufler, Siegfried Bauer, Lona Wolff, Matthias Pelzing, and Rainer Herzschuh. "Toxicological Investigations in the Semiconductor Industry." Toxicology and Industrial Health 11, no. 1 (January 1995): 49–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/074823379501100105.

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6

Kim, Sunju, Chungsik Yoon, Seunghon Ham, Jihoon Park, Ohun Kwon, Donguk Park, Sangjun Choi, Seungwon Kim, Kwonchul Ha, and Won Kim. "Chemical use in the semiconductor manufacturing industry." International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 24, no. 3-4 (October 2, 2018): 109–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10773525.2018.1519957.

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7

Kinoulty, Mary, and Nerys Williams. "Occupational health provision and health surveillance in the semiconductor industry." Occupational Medicine 56, no. 2 (November 30, 2005): 100–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqj002.

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8

Fowler, Bruce, Joseph LaDou, Ana Maria Osorio, Maureen Paul, Shanna H. Swan, and Daniel T. Teitelbaum. "RE: Spontaneous abortion in the British semiconductor industry." American Journal of Industrial Medicine 36, no. 5 (November 1999): 584–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199911)36:5<584::aid-ajim11>3.0.co;2-i.

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9

Watterson, Andrew, Martin Silberschmidt, Simon Pickvance, Rory O'Neill, Peter Kirby, Jim Brophy, Margaret Keith, and Charles Woolfson. "RE: Spontaneous abortion in the British semiconductor industry." American Journal of Industrial Medicine 36, no. 5 (November 1999): 586. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199911)36:5<586::aid-ajim12>3.0.co;2-9.

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10

Illuzzi, Francesca, and Harry Thewissen. "Perfluorocompounds emission reduction by the semiconductor industry." Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences 7, sup1 (August 2010): 201–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19438151003621417.

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11

McCurdy, Stephen A., Marc B. Schenker, and Donald V. Lassiter. "Occupational injury and illness in the semiconductor manufacturing industry." American Journal of Industrial Medicine 15, no. 5 (1989): 499–510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajim.4700150503.

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12

Elliott, Richard C., Jacky R. Jones, Damien M. McElvenny, M. Jean Pennington, Christine Northage, Tracy A. Clegg, Simon D. Clarke, John T. Hodgson, and John Osman. "Spontaneous abortion in the British semiconductor industry: An HSE investigation." American Journal of Industrial Medicine 36, no. 5 (November 1999): 557–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199911)36:5<557::aid-ajim8>3.0.co;2-q.

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13

PHOOLCHUND, H. N. "Aspects of Occupational Health in the Sugar Cane Industry." Occupational Medicine 41, no. 3 (1991): 133–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/occmed/41.3.133.

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14

Hewstone, R. K. "Environmental health aspects of additives for the petroleum industry." Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 5, no. 3 (September 1985): 284–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0273-2300(85)90043-1.

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15

Schmidt, Robert-H. Munnig. "Ultra-precision engineering in lithographic exposure equipment for the semiconductor industry." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 370, no. 1973 (August 28, 2012): 3950–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2011.0054.

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The developments in lithographic tools for the production of an integrated circuit (IC) are ruled by ‘Moore’s Law’: the density of components on an IC doubles in about every two years . The corresponding size reduction of the smallest detail in an IC entails several technological breakthroughs. The wafer scanner, the exposure system that defines those details, is the determining factor in these developments. This review deals with those aspects of the positioning systems inside these wafer scanners that enable the extension of Moore’s Law into the future. The design of these systems is increasingly difficult because of the accuracy levels in the sub-nanometre range coupled with motion velocities of several metres per second. In addition to the use of feedback control for the reduction of errors, high-precision model-based feed-forward control is required with an almost ideally reproducible motion-system behaviour and a strict limitation of random disturbing events. The full mastering of this behaviour even includes material drift on an atomic scale and is decisive for the future success of these machines.
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16

Yoon, Chungsik, Sunju Kim, Donguk Park, Younsoon Choi, Jihoon Jo, and Kwonseob Lee. "Chemical Use and Associated Health Concerns in the Semiconductor Manufacturing Industry." Safety and Health at Work 11, no. 4 (December 2020): 500–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2020.04.005.

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17

Grossel, Stanley S. "Semiconductor Safety Handbook: Safety and Health in the Semi-Conductor Industry." Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 14, no. 3 (January 2001): 241–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0950-4230(00)00027-9.

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18

Oliver, James D., Russ Kremer, Arnd Dietrich Weber, Kevin Nguyen, and James Amano. "SEMI Standards for SiC Wafers." Materials Science Forum 924 (June 2018): 5–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.924.5.

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SEMI Standards charter is to develop standards that benefit the semiconductor industry. The SEMI organization has evolved over the last 40 years into an international organization with covering all aspects of semiconductor and flat panel materials and devices. SEMI Standards provides the framework for the development of consensus based standards documents. At present there are two published standards specific to silicon carbide, the first dealing with dimensions, properties and ordering information for SiC wafers, and the second defining a nomenclature for defects found on SiC: SEMI M55-0817 Specification for Polished Monocrystalline Silicon Carbide Wafers SEMI M81-0611 Guide to Defects Found on Monocrystalline Silicon Carbide Substrates Additional standards applicable to various semiconductor wafers also are available and new SiC related standards are being developed based on industry needs and volunteer participation.
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19

Spier, Raymond. "Ethical aspects of the university-industry interface." Science and Engineering Ethics 1, no. 2 (June 1995): 151–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02584071.

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20

McCurdy, S. A., M. B. Schenker, and S. J. Samuels. "Reporting of occupational injury and illness in the semiconductor manufacturing industry." American Journal of Public Health 81, no. 1 (January 1991): 85–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/ajph.81.1.85.

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21

Kim, Inah, Hyun J. Kim, Sin Y. Lim, and Jungok Kongyoo. "Leukemia and non-Hodgkin lymphoma in semiconductor industry workers in Korea." International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 18, no. 2 (June 2012): 147–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1077352512z.00000000019.

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22

Kim, Eun-A., Hye-Eun Lee, Hyung-Woo Ryu, Seung-Hyun Park, and Seong-Kyu Kang. "Cases Series of Malignant Lymphohematopoietic Disorder in Korean Semiconductor Industry." Safety and Health at Work 2, no. 2 (June 2011): 122–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5491/shaw.2011.2.2.122.

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23

Geiser, Kenneth. "Health Hazards in the Microelectronics Industry." International Journal of Health Services 16, no. 1 (January 1986): 105–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/vlu0-e2mm-6x7u-hyr6.

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The microelectronics industry is explored as a source of occupational health hazards resulting from the extensive use of toxic chemicals in the production of semiconductor chips and the assembly of electronic components. Information is provided on the range of chemicals used in the industry and their particular health implications. Case materials are drawn from Massachusetts' “Route 128” region and California's “Silicon Valley.” Problems with worker exposure in the plants are compared with the risks experienced by residents of local neighborhoods from the leakage of industrial chemicals from underground storage tanks into the local groundwater used for drinking water. The recent development of the industry, its highly innovative character, the absence of unions and organizations for worker protection, and the persistence of a public perception that the industry is relatively safe and clean, are all identified as determinants of the extent of health hazards posed by chemical exposure. The paper concludes with recommendations for further studies, worker organization, and increased attention to the reduction of the volume and toxicity of chemicals in industrial production.
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24

Tabusso, G. "Quality Education: Regulatory Aspects in the Pharmaceutical Industry." Drug Information Journal 29, no. 4 (October 1995): 1275–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009286159502900429.

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25

Mundt, K. A. "Cancer risk in the semiconductor industry: responding to the call for action." Occupational and Environmental Medicine 64, no. 1 (July 17, 2006): 5–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.2006.029504.

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26

Balwicki, Łukasz, Michał Stokłosa, Małgorzata Balwicka-Szczyrba, and Wioleta Tomczak. "Tobacco industry interference with tobacco control policies in Poland: legal aspects and industry practices: Table 1." Tobacco Control 25, no. 5 (September 28, 2015): 521–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2015-052582.

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27

Balon, R. "Educational Aspects of Interactions With the Pharmaceutical Industry." Academic Psychiatry 34, no. 2 (March 1, 2010): 90–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ap.34.2.90.

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28

CHAO, Chin-Jung, Hui-Ming WANG, Wen-Yang FENG, and Feng-Yi TSENG. "A Study for Safety and Health Management Problem of Semiconductor Industry in Taiwan." Industrial Health 46, no. 6 (2008): 575–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.46.575.

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29

CHEE, Heng-Leng, Krishna Gopal RAMPAL, and Abherhame CHANDRASAKARAN. "Ergonomic Risk Factors of Work Processes in the Semiconductor Industry in Peninsular Malaysia." INDUSTRIAL HEALTH 42, no. 3 (2004): 373–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.42.373.

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30

Lee, Tzen-Chin, and Feng-Jiin Liu. "Recovery of hazardous semiconductor-industry sludge as a useful resource." Journal of Hazardous Materials 165, no. 1-3 (June 15, 2009): 359–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.10.105.

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31

Alani, R., R. J. Mitro, and K. Ogura. "Reactive Ion Beam Etching (RIBE) Technique and Instrumentation for SEM Specimen Preparation of Semiconductors." Microscopy and Microanalysis 5, S2 (August 1999): 912–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600017888.

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Argon ion beam etching has established itself as an alternative technique to “wet chemical” etching for the preparation of cross sectional SEM specimens of semiconductors [1]. Complementing this technique, we are reporting the results of an iodine RIBE method for improved etching/cleaning capabilities with a measurable increase in etching rates as compared to argon ion beam etching. RIBE systems have been used for decades in the semiconductor research/industry for wafer processing, patterning and surface cleaning. This same technique has also been used for high quality TEM specimen preparation of certain semiconductor materials [2,3]. The beneficial aspects of the iodide RIBE technique for surface etching for a variety of semiconductor structures along with the related instrumentation will be discussed. The semiconductor specimens include traditional ICs and more advanced copper technology devices.The design and construction of the original system used in this work has already been reported [4].
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32

SAFONOVA, Margarita F., and Evgeniya S. VYALAYA. "Internal cost control of health resort institutions: Methodological aspects." International Accounting 22, no. 7 (July 15, 2021): 804–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.24891/ia.24.7.804.

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Subject. This article analyzes the activities of therapeutic resort and spa facilities from the point of view of the social importance of the population's health. It discusses the problems of improving the system of cost control and calculating the cost of a unit of services provided by these facilities to obtain reliable information and optimize the costs. Objectives. Based on the analysis of statistical information and scientific sources, the article aims to form an opinion on the state of the health resort complex, the structure of costs, and their share by items and elements in the total amount of production costs, and develop a methodology for their continuous control, taking into account the industry specifics to minimize risks. Methods. For the study, we used analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, literature review, and the calculation, graphical, accounting and analytical methods. Results. The article finds that the service provided by the health resort industry organizations is complex (accommodation, food, treatment) and therefore, it has a multi-element cost structure, which entails certain financial, tax, management risks that need continuous monitoring. Conclusions and Relevance. The proposed methodology helps to continuously control the costs of a multi-component service provided by economic entities of the health resort sector, optimizing them taking into account the industry specifics. This makes it possible to make this service more accessible to all segments of the population. The results of the study can be used in the theory and practice of internal cost control and the formation of the cost of a unit of services provided by the health resort institutions, as well as for further scientific developments and practical application.
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33

Callens, Stefaan. "Legal Aspects of Personalized Health Monitoring." European Journal of Health Law 19, no. 5 (2012): 503–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718093-12341241.

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Abstract Personal health monitoring (PHM) can be defined as comprising all technical systems, processing, collecting, and storing of data linked to a person. PHM involves several legal issues that are described in this article. This article analyses firstly the short term actions that are needed at the European level to allow personal health monitoring in respect of the interests and rights of patients such as the need to have more harmonized medical liability rules at the EU level. Introducing PHM implies also legal action at the EU level on the long run. These long-term actions are related to e.g., the way in which hospitals are organized in their relation with healthcare professionals and with other hospitals or healthcare actors. The paper will finally analyse also how health monitoring projects may change the traditional (non-) relationship between patients and pharmaceutical/medical device industry. Today, the producers and distributors of medicinal products have no specific contact with patients. This situation may change when applying telemonitoring projects and may require to new legal rules.
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34

Nowakowski, Przemysław. "Health and ecological aspects in shaping of furniture equipment." BUILDER 284, no. 3 (February 24, 2021): 52–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.7426.

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The choice of furniture does not only affect the comfort of one’s life or work space. Materials utilized in furniture production may contribute to the quality of chemical microclimate in rooms and have an influence on the users’ health. Plenty of substances used in the furniture industry have negative effects on human health. These effects are usually of low intensity. However, they occur over a long period of time and as a result they may even lead directly to permanent health problems. Consumer lifestyle boosts frequent changes in interior decoration. The changes include mainly replacing furniture and household appliances. The furniture industry offers a wide range of products to satisfy the growing needs of buyers. Mass production results in a significant increase in the exploitation of natural resources and (often) leads to degradation of the natural environment. The downsides of mass furniture production are usually considered only in terms of utilizing various resources. Producers, however, implement measures to reduce the consumption of materials and energy. Their aim is to cut the production costs and lower the final price of manufactured goods. Worn out furniture, produced from highly processed materials is not biodegradable. Such waste is a heavy burden on the natural environment. The paper describes „the life cycle” of furniture items and presents a critical analysis of raw materials and intermediate products used in the furniture industry in the context of sustainable development (the impact on human health and on the condition of the natural environment). It may serve as a means to promote pro-health and pro-environmental awareness. A thorough assessment of the furniture available on the market may facilitate in making conscious decisions which will also take into consideration additional technical criteria. The choice of furniture neutral for people as well as for the environment is not an easy task and often involves higher spending.
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35

Watterson, Andrew. "Regulation of Occupational Health and Safety in the Semiconductor Industry: Enforcement Problems and Solutions." International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 12, no. 1 (January 2006): 72–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/oeh.2006.12.1.72.

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36

McCurdy, Stephen A., Dennis Pocekay, S. Katharine Hammond, Susan R. Woskie, Steven J. Samuels, and Marc B. Schenker. "A cross-sectional survey of respiratory and general health outcomes among semiconductor industry workers." American Journal of Industrial Medicine 28, no. 6 (August 16, 2010): 847–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajim.4700280616.

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37

Chen, Hong Wen. "Exposure and Health Risk of Gallium, Indium, and Arsenic from Semiconductor Manufacturing Industry Workers." Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 78, no. 1 (March 13, 2007): 5–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00128-007-9037-6.

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38

Chen, H. W. "Exposure and Health Risk of Gallium, Indium, and Arsenic from Semiconductor Manufacturing Industry Workers." Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 78, no. 2 (April 6, 2007): 123–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00128-007-9079-9.

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39

Harper, M. "Occupational health aspects of the arsenic extractive industry in Britain (1868-1925)." Occupational and Environmental Medicine 45, no. 9 (September 1, 1988): 602–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem.45.9.602.

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40

Schenker, Marc B., Ellen B. Gold, James J. Beaumont, Brenda Eskenazi, S. Hammond Katharine, Bill L. Lasley, Stephen A. McCurdy, Steven J. Samuels, Cathy L. Saiki, and Shanna H. Swan. "Association of spontaneous abortion and other reproductive effects with work in the semiconductor industry." American Journal of Industrial Medicine 28, no. 6 (August 16, 2010): 639–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajim.4700280603.

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41

Keller, William W., and Louis W. Pauly. "Crisis and Adaptation in East Asian Innovation Systems: The Case of the Semiconductor Industry in Taiwan and South Korea." Business and Politics 2, no. 3 (November 2000): 327–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.2202/1469-3569.1014.

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In recent decades, both South Korea and Taiwan have made remarkable leaps in the development and production of semiconductors-the core element in burgeoning global telecommunications, computer, and computer equipment industries. Although many aspects of their sectoral industrial strategies have differed, both countries are now moving aggressively to adapt their semiconductor industries to turbulent global markets. In the wake of the severe regional financial crisis that began in 1997, this case study compares and contrasts continuing processes of adaptation among primary semiconductor manufacturers in the two countries. The crisis had observable effects, especially in Korea, but it was not deep enough to force fundamental adjustments in either country. In the early days of the industry in both places, a sense of vulnerability-the need to come from behind-gave rise to quite different corporate structures and attendant strategies. Remarkable differences persist in the ways in which the South Korean and Taiwanese semiconductor firms are seeking new advantages in rapidly changing regional and global markets. Strategic change and structural continuity mark the attempt of two relatively small countries to stay competitive in a key industry.
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42

Durso, Francis T., and Frank A. Drews. "Health Care, Aviation, and Ecosystems." Current Directions in Psychological Science 19, no. 2 (April 2010): 71–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721410364728.

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Efforts to improve the delivery of health care have led scholars to look to other safety-critical industries for comparisons that may serve as models. We flesh out one popular comparison: aviation, an industry made exceptionally safe in large part due to the efforts of applied experimental and applied social psychologists. A number of aspects of the aviation industry are similar to those of health care. However, there are also limitations of the analogy, and we suggest that any analogy to an engineered system like that of aviation will capture only some aspects of the health-care system. We suggest health care is a socio-natural system and thus invites interventions appropriate for ecosystems.
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43

Pandey, Neeraj, Nikhil Mehta, and Shreya Basu Roy. "Semiconductor Pricing Strategy in USB Market: A Market Leader’s Dilemma." Business Perspectives and Research 5, no. 1 (November 30, 2016): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2278533716671614.

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The semiconductor market has become more competitive than ever before with new players joining the industry. There is pressure for innovation and differentiation in this industry to maintain leadership. The resultant innovative products have wide application but are sold in hypercompetitive market. The industry requires price management at transaction level to achieve efficiency and excellence with each of the diverse customers. The pricing in the semiconductor industry is done more scientifically as compared to other industries like FMCG, consumer durables, and health care. Pricing software aid managers in determining the appropriate price. This research looks holistically at the pricing issues especially faced by market leader with focus on Universal Serial Bus (USB) customers. The market leader traditionally does premium pricing in semiconductor industry. We question that—Should a market leader always charge price premium in all its product lines? Which pricing strategy is better—skimming pricing strategy or penetrative pricing strategy? The objective of the research is to find appropriate pricing strategy for the specific product category. A right price would lead to enhanced revenue besides better customer conversion ratio.
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44

Faizullina, Svetlana, Ainur Isaeva, Lailya Matkarimova, and Aigul Zhuzbaeva. "Aspects of sustainable development of industry in Kazakhstan." E3S Web of Conferences 135 (2019): 04043. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/201913504043.

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This article discusses the economic benefits of uranium mining, as well as its environmental and health impacts. Sustainable development includes several aspects: energy, water, the environment, food and the economy, and ensuring each of these aspects is a serious problem. Energy is at the center of other aspects of sustainability, as it has a direct relationship with water, food, and the environment. Uranium is Kazakhstan’s top priority in the global energy market. In the world, there are different opinions on the development of uranium production, increasing the value of atomic energy. Apparently, this should be preceded by a crisis in the field of oil and gas production in recent years, in connection with which the world energy market should have a diversified course depending on various energy sources. Kazakhstan is a country rich in uranium. In addition, over the years of independence, we have increased production almost four times and maintain leadership in the world. Therefore, uranium production is the most important advantage of our global energy space today.
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45

Jain, S. "Key Aspects of Physician and Pharmaceutical Industry Relationships for Trainees." Academic Psychiatry 34, no. 2 (March 1, 2010): 98–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ap.34.2.98.

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46

Sade, Robert M. "Dangerous Liaisons? Industry Relations with Health Professionals." Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 37, no. 3 (2009): 398–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-720x.2009.00400.x.

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47

Abdul Tali, Habibah, and Khairul Anuar Mohd Ali. "An Overview of Malaysian Food Industry: The Opportunity and Quality Aspects." Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8, no. 5 (April 15, 2009): 507–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2009.507.517.

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48

Oosterhuis, L. "Radiological Aspects of the Non-Nuclear Industry in the Netherlands." Radiation Protection Dosimetry 45, no. 1-4 (December 1, 1992): 703–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a081633.

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49

Busfield, Joan. "Globalization and the Pharmaceutical Industry Revisited." International Journal of Health Services 33, no. 3 (July 2003): 581–605. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/262x-56rg-m4t6-1gu5.

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This survey of the pharmaceutical industry at the beginning of the 21st century updates some of the information provided in Claudio Tarabusi and Graham Vickery's survey, “Globalization in the Pharmaceutical Industry,” published in the International Journal of Health Services in 1998, which was largely based on data up to 1993. However, the purpose of the present article differs from that of Tarabusi and Vickery, which covered a wide range of aspects of the industry relevant to globalization but did not explicitly address the question of the extent to which the industry could be described as globalized. After looking at the industry in some detail, the author directly confronts the question of the appropriateness of the use of the term “globalization” for characterizing the directions in which the pharmaceutical industry has been moving.
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50

Sapundzhiev, Nikolay, and Jochen Alfred Werner. "Nasal snuff: historical review and health related aspects." Journal of Laryngology & Otology 117, no. 9 (September 2003): 686–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1258/002221503322334486.

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Abstract:
With cigarette smoking declining in the modern world, the tobacco industry has to look for other products that can keep the old customers and attract new ones. Different forms of smokeless tobacco are currently massively promoted and are gaining in importance. Dry nasal snuff – the oldest known form of tobacco in Europe – is one of them. The health risks associated with it are different to those attributed to smoking and oral wet snuff. The nicotine contained leads to dependency. Its resorption rate is similar to that of smoking, so it could be seen as an adequate substitutional therapy. The risk for cardiovascular diseases is lower, compared to that for smokers. Chronic abuse leads to morphological and functional changes in the nasal mucosa. Although it contains substances that are potentially carcinogenic, at present, there is no firm evidence, relating the use of nasal snuff to a higher incidence of head and neck or other malignancies.
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