Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Heavy cement'

Cement -based solidification/stabilisation (s/s) has been applied to the disposal of heavy metal bearing contaminated soil and wastes for approximately 50 years. This work studies the interactions of cement and heavy metals and provides further insight into encapsulation of heavy metals in cement matrices. The pastes and suspensions of calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, pure cement phases ( 38, C}A, C4AF, Ci 2A7 and CA) and Portland cement with or without heavy metals (Zn2+ , Pb2+, Cu2+ and Cr3+) were examined by a number of analytical techniques. These techniques were X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), solid state magic angle spinning/nuclear magnetic resonance (MAS/NMR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), differential thermal analysis (DTA) and thermogravimetry (TG). Thermodynamic modelling using a geochemical code, PHREEQC, and the edited database, was carried out to elucidate the chemical reactions occurring in cement/heavy metal systems. Heavy metals acted as accelerators for hydration of CaO, CaS and Portland cement except that Zn2+ retarded the early-age hydration of Cfi and Portland cement. This work confirmed that the precipitation of portlandite was retarded due to the hydrolysis of heavy metals. Calcium ions resulting from the decomposition of cement phases combined with heavy metals to form calcium-heavy metal double hydroxides, including CaZn2(OH)6.2H2O, Ca2(OH)4Cu(OH)2.mH2O and Ca2Cr(OH)7 .3H2O. The carbonation of CaS and Portland cement resulted in the formation of calcium carbonate and the condensation of silicates from single tetrahedra to branching sites and three-dimensional frameworks (low Ca/Si ratio C-S-H gel). The polymerisation of C-S-H gel, and the polymorphism conversion and decomposition temperature of calcium carbonate were influenced by heavy metals. The incorporation of heavy metal cations in C-S-H gel is similar to that seen in glass. Heavy metals acted as network modifiers or network intermediates. In hydrated Portland cement pastes, aluminium was partitioned in ettringite or calcium carboaluminate. After carbonation, this work revealed that aluminium was in the tetrahedral form, forming mixed AlCVSiC^ branching or three-dimensional networks. This thesis presents the new structural models for C-S-H gel and the chemical mechanisms of 38 reactions with water and carbon dioxide in the presence or absence of heavy metals. In the absence of gypsum, the reaction products detected in the pastes of C3A, C4AF, Ci2A? and CA were gehlenite hydrate, calcium carboaluminate, C4AH X and hydrogarnet. Heavy metals, especially Zn 2+ , inhibited the formation of hydrogarnet and promoted the conversion of C-A-H to calcium carboaluminate and calcium carbonate. In the presence of gypsum, the major hydration product of C^A was ettringite. During carbonation, COs'" substituted for SO 4 2 " and formed calcium carboaluminate, and eventually transformed into calcium carbonate and gibbsite. The conversion of metastable calcium carbonate polymorphs (aragonite and vaterite) to calcite through Ostwald ripening occurred very slowly in the carbonated pastes containing gypsum. The reactivity of C 3 A, C^Ay, CA and C4AF during carbonation was much lower than seen during hydration. Heavy metals influenced the rates and products of hydration or carbonation of CsA, Ci2A7, CA and C4 AF and were completely incorporated in the reaction products of these phases. Thermodynamic modelling confirmed that accelerated carbonation could be beneficially employed to cement-based s/s to improve its effectiveness. Calculations of solubility and equilibrium phase assemblage are consistent with the experimental examination obtained in this work.

In order to avoid the occurrence of early-age damage, cement-treated base (CTB) materials must be allowed to cure for a period of time before the pavement can be opened to traffic. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the utility of the soil stiffness gauge (SSG), heavy Clegg impact soil tester (CIST), portable falling-weight deflectometer (PFWD), dynamic cone penetrometer, and falling-weight deflectometer for assessing early-age strength gain of cement-stabilized materials. Experimentation was performed at four sites on a pavement reconstruction project along Interstate 84 near Morgan, Utah, and three sites along Highway 91 near Richmond, Utah; cement stabilization was used to construct CTB layers at both locations. Each site was stationed to facilitate repeated measurements at the same locations with different devices and at different curing times. Because of the considerable attention they have received in the pavement construction industry for routine quality control and quality assurance programs, the SSG, CIST, and PFWD were the primary focus of the research. Statistical techniques were utilized to evaluate the sensitivity to curing time, repeatability, and efficiency of these devices. In addition, the ruggedness and ease of use of each device were evaluated. The test results indicate that the CIST data were more sensitive to curing time than the SSG and PFWD data at the majority of the cement-treated sites during the first 72 hours after construction. Furthermore, the results indicate that the CIST is superior to the other instruments with respect to repeatability, efficiency, ruggedness, and ease of use. Because the CIST is less expensive than the SSG and PFWD, it is more likely to be purchased by pavement engineers and contractors involved with construction of CTBs. For these reasons, this research suggests that the CIST offers greater overall utility than the SSG or PFWD for monitoring early-age strength gain of CTB. Further research is needed to identify appropriate threshold CIST values at which CTB layers develop sufficient strength to resist permanent deformation or marring under different types of trafficking.

This Master thesis is focused on characterization of multicompound self-compacting heavy-weight mortars resistant against long lasting influence of ionizing radiation in the underground nuclear waste storage. It examines a specific combination of properties of heavy-weight concretes and self-compacting mortars while considering the ecological and energetic impact of their production, as well as the productibility of partial substitutions that do not have negative impact on material properties. The Experimental part provides a comprehensive overview of composition and properties of self-compacting heavy-weight mortars with varying percentages of cement-to-mortar ratio. Sample properties were evaluated based on mechanical test results, thermal analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction.

The Master’s thesis is focused on a study of the effect of increased content of heavy metals present in a raw meal on the formation and properties of prepared clinker and acquired cement. Main attention is devoted to changes on the physical, mechanical, microstructural and hydration properties. The theoretical part contains an overview of clinker minerals occurring in Portland cement including the possibility of incorporation of heavy metals into their structure and affecting the properities of the cement. In the experimental part, there is compared the effect of heavy metal oxides on the composition and hydration properties of portland clinker and physical-mechanical and microstructural properities of cement pastes prepared from this clinker.

Em agosto de 2001 havia, no Brasil, sete fábricas de cimento com licença para o co-processamento de resíduos industriais em seus fornos, em substituição à matriz energética, e 14 outras em vias de adquiri-la. Há mais de cinco anos, a Companhia de Cimento Ribeirão Grande conta com efetiva participação de uma mistura (blend) de resíduos industriais de diferentes correntes no processo. O clínquer co-processado é hoje o componente principal do cimento portland da fábrica, o qual manteve resistências mecânicas à compressão às idades de 1, 3, 7 e 28 dias sempre acima dos limites normativos mínimos exigidos. Para atestar a imobilidade dos componentes inorgânicos incorporados ao clínquer, utilizaram-se ensaios microscópicos e análises químicas por espectrometria de absorção atômica e de raios X em clínqueres industriais não co-processados e co-processados; testes de lixiviação em cimentos de laboratório; química mineral por microssonda eletrônica e microscopia eletrônica de varredura em clínqueres dopados com Zn, V e Pb. Os resultados levaram, em linhas gerais, às seguintes considerações: - A microestrutura dos clínqueres co-processados manteve-se preservada com a introdução do blend no sistema. - As matérias-primas e o combustível fóssil respondem por boa parte dos elementos traços presentes no sistema. O blend introduz aporte extra dos elementos traços presentes na composição, enriquecendo seletivamente o clínquer co-processado. - Há, de maneira geral, compatibilidade grande dos elementos traços com o clínquer, mesmo de elementos voláteis como cádmio e mercúrio. Já cobalto e, principalmente, chumbo, são os que se mostraram menos compatíveis. - Nos clínqueres experimentais, alita incorporou preferencialmente zinco e chumbo, e belita, vanádio. - Não houve solubilização significativa de nenhum elemento de relevância ambiental dos cimentos, atestando sua retenção nos retículos cristalinos dos minerais formadores do clínquer portland. A qualidade ambiental do clínquer portland co-processado deve abranger sua propriedade de reter elementos traços em solução sólida, a manutenção da integridade das relações texturais, e a garantia da imobilidade de componentes tóxicos no produto final, através de um controle sistemático dos clínqueres e também dos cimentos.
In August 2001, in Brazil, there were seven cement plants with and an increasing number of others on the way to get the permit to co-processing, i.e. burning industrial wastes in their kilns as substitutes for fossil fuels. For over five years now the Companhia de Cimento Ribeirão Grande has counted on partial substitution of a blend of different waste streams for fossil fuels in the burning process. Co-processed clinker makes up today the main component of their Portland cement, which has shown mechanical strengths at 1, 3, 7 and 28 days permanently above standardized minimal limits. In order to assess the immobility of trace elements incorporated to the clinkers, a methodology was used which comprised carrying out microscopy and chemical analysis by atomic absorption and X-ray spectrometry of both conventional and co-processed clinkers, leaching tests on laboratory cements prepared with co-processed clinkers, mineral chemistry by electronic microprobe and scanning electronic microscopy on experimental clinkers doped with Zn, V and Pb. The results led to the following general statements: - Co-processed clinkers showed sound microstructure just like conventional clinkers. - Raw materials – limestone, clay and iron ore – and fossil fuels account a great deal for the amounts of trace elements involved in the burning process. According to its composition, the blend enriches selectively co-processed clinkers. - A general compatibility of trace elements – even highly volatile ones such as Cd and Hg – in clinker was observed. Co and especially Pb, however, were comparatively incompatible. - Alite of experimental clinkers incorporated preferentially Zn and Pb while belite incorporated V. - No elements showed any significant solubility from laboratory cements, thus attesting retention of environmentally relevant trace elements in the crystal lattice of clinker mineral phases. Co-processed Portland clinker must present environmental quality by retaining trace elements in solid solution, while being able to keep sound textural relationships, and guarantee immobility of toxic components on the final product. This should be attested through a systematic control of clinkers and also of cements.

A geração de resíduos sólidos é inerente ao desenvolvimento humano. O concreto armado é um dos materiais mais utilizados pelo homem e tem o cimento Portland como seu principal constituinte, o qual é produzido pela moagem de clínquer e gesso. O clínquer pode ser definido como um mineral artificial, obtido a partir das reações físico-químicas de calcário, argila e corretivos a altas temperaturas, em forno rotativo industrial, mediante a queima de combustíveis fósseis. No início da década de 70 foram realizadas as primeiras experiências de substituição de combustíveis fósseis por resíduos industriais nos Estados Unidos e países europeus, através da técnica denominada co-processamento, resultando na manufatura de um produto ao mesmo tempo em que os resíduos eram eliminados. O co-processamento se baseia na recuperação da energia disponível nos resíduos, substituindo parte daquela fornecida pelos combustíveis tradicionais ou na substituição de matérias-primas por resíduos com características químicas semelhantes àquelas normalmente empregadas na produção do clínquer. No estado de São Paulo as primeiras iniciativas para a utilização de resíduos industriais em fornos de clínquer ocorreram no início da década de 90. A partir de 1997 os órgãos ambientais de alguns estados brasileiros normatizaram procedimentos de licenciamento da atividade que foi, posteriormente, uniformizada por norma em âmbito federal. No ano de 1995 a Companhia de Cimento Ribeirão Grande/SP, Brasil, iniciou os procedimentos visando a substituição parcial dos combustíveis utilizados nos fornos rotativos por uma mistura de resíduos industriais. No período de 1995 a 2002 foram realizadas campanhas de amostragens em chaminés para avaliação das emissões atmosféricas dos dois fornos de produção de clínquer. A análise dos resultados obtidos associada às demais informações disponíveis de monitoramento das características das matérias-primas e combustíveis utilizados, bem como dos produtos finais, clínquer e cimento, não evidenciou alterações significativas nos níveis de emissões atmosféricas, sobretudo de material particulado e óxidos de enxofre, que pudessem ser associadas à utilização dos resíduos. Foram confirmadas as baixas emissões de inorgânicos e evidenciado o papel representado pelos resíduos no aporte dessas substâncias no sistema-forno, concluindo-se que esse aporte pode ser tão ou mais importante pela via da alimentação da farinha, cujos teores estão associados às características das jazidas minerais utilizadas. Foi também confirmada a alta eficiência do sistema-forno na destruição e remoção dos compostos orgânicos perigosos alimentados durante os testes de queima.
The production of industrial residues in inherent to the human development. The cement concrete is one of the most used material, manly the type portland cement, which is constituted by grinding clinker and gypsum together. Clinker can be defined as an artificial mineral obtained by applying physico-chemical reactions, at very high temperatures, to an appropriated mixture of limestone, clay, and some other materials in a rotating industrial kiln wich burns fossil fuels. In the early 1970 decade occurred the first experiences substituting fossil fuels by organic residues in USA and Europe through a technique named co-processing that results the production of certain manufacture while eliminates residues. Co-processing is based in the recovery of thermal energy and/or the mass of some constituents from some residues, with the same chemical characteristics of normal sources of energy, then economizing fuels and mass constituents and making better use of residues, otherwise useless and environmentally polluters. In the state of São Paulo this practice began in early 1990 decade and by 1997 it was started the standardization of the rules for its use in some units of the federation. Later this activity was regulated by nationally approved standard rules. In 1995 the industry Companhia de Cimento Ribeirão Grande (CCRG), a cement plant located in the city of Ribeirão Grande, São Paulo state, Brazil, started procedures searching the partial substitution of the normal fuels by a mixture of industrial residues in its two rotating kilns. The gaseous emissions from the chimneys of these two clinker kilns were studied from 1995 to 2002 about the use of residues as part of the fuel. Analyses of the final results associated with other informations concerning to the quality of raw minerals, fuels and products did not show significant alterations in atmospheric emissions, mainly for particulate material and sulfur oxides, related with the use of residues. The emissions of inorganic continued to be low and not significantly altered by the presence of residues. It was possible to conclude that the alterations in inorganic emissions depend more from the quality of the raw minerals feed in the kilns, which is more difficult to control, than from the presence of residues being burn with the fuel. It was shown a high efficiency in the destruction of dangerous organic compounds feed in the cement kilns, under test conditions.

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Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior
The production of heavy oil fields, typical in the Northeastern region, is commonly stimulated by steam injection. High bottom hole temperatures are responsible not only for the development of deleterious stresses of the cement sheath but also for cement strength retrogression. To overcome this unfavorable scenario, polymeric admixtures can be added to cement slurries to improve its fracture energy and silica flour to prevent strength retrogression. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of the addition of different concentrations of polyurethane (5-25%) to cement slurries containing 40% BWOC silica flour. The resulting slurries were characterized using standard API (American Petroleum Institute) laboratory tests. In addition to them, the mechanical properties of the slurries, including elastic modulus and microhardness were also evaluated. The results revealed that density, free water and stability of the composite cement/silica/polyurethane slurries were within acceptable limits. The rheological behavior of the slurries, including plastic viscosity, yield strength and gel strength increased with the addition of 10% BWOC polyurethane. The presence of polyurethane reduced the fluid loss of the slurries as well as their elastic modulus. Composite slurries also depicted longer setting times due to the presence of the polymer. As expected, both the mechanical strength and microhardness of the slurries decreased with the addition of polyurethane. However, at high bottom hole temperatures, the strength of the slurries containing silica and polyurethane was far superior than that of plain cement slurries. In summary, the use of polyurethane combined with silica is an interesting solution to better adequate the mechanical behavior of cement slurries to heavy oil fields subjected to steam injection
Em campos que possuem ?leos pesados ? necess?rio um meio para estimular o ?leo a fluir pela forma??o, tais reservas s?o caracter?sticas da Regi?o Nordeste do Brasil e necessitam da inje??o de vapor para sua recupera??o. Temperatura elevada no fundo do po?o proporciona tens?es induzidas na bainha de cimento, al?m de favorecer a retrogress?o de resist?ncia do cimento, comprometendo a qualidade da cimenta??o. Sendo assim, adiciona-se em pastas cimentantes, o pol?mero, afim de se promover maior plasticidade e s?lica a para evitar o efeito da perda de resist?ncia mec?nica (retrogress?o). Diante disso, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo estudar o comportamento de pastas de cimento contendo poliuretana em diferentes concentra??es (5% a 25%) e 40% BWOC de s?lica flour. Foram realizados ensaios padronizados pelo API (American Petroleum Institute) e ensaios para obten??o do m?dulo de elasticidade e microdureza, al?m da caracteriza??o das pastas formuladas. Os resultados mostraram que as pastas comp?sitas cimento/s?lica/poliuretana apresentaram valores de peso espec?fico, ?gua livre e estabilidade dentro dos estabelecidos por norma. As propriedades reol?gicas foram modificadas, a viscosidade pl?stica, o limite de escoamento e os g?is aumentaram com a adi??o a partir de 10% BWOC de poliuretana. A poliuretana favoreceu melhor controle de filtrado e diminuiu o m?dulo de elasticidade das pastas. A mesma tamb?m promoveu retardamento da pega do cimento. As propriedades mec?nicas de resist?ncia e microdureza diminu?ram com a adi??o de s?lica e/ou s?lica/poliuretana, entretanto, em alta temperatura a resist?ncia mec?nica das pastas com s?lica e poliuretana tiveram um valor bem superior quando comparado com a pasta de cimento padr?o. A caracteriza??o das pastas mostrou que a adi??o de s?lica e pol?mero diminui o teor de c?lcio do cimento e que h? a forma??o do filme polim?rico. Pol?mero combinado com cimento e s?lica pode ser usado como aditivo para diminuir o m?dulo de elasticidade e, desta forma, fornecer maior plasticidade e resist?ncia ?s ciclagens t?rmicas ocasionadas pelo processo de inje??o de vapor

Heavy metals released to the natural ecosystem constitute significant risks not only for organisms, but also for water supplies in the nature. There are a number of analytical methods for the determination of heavy metals. Each of them is suitable for different element and its character. Since the results of the analysis are applied during the solidification and stabilization, it is necessary to ensure the highest correlation between hazardous waste and solidification medium for maximum inhibition of toxic ions. This work investigates the stabilization of heavy metals binders based on cement base with admixture of the natural zeolite and its possible use for the solidification of heavy metals in soluble form.

Les normes en vigueur de la caractérisation environnementale des déchets s'appuient sur l'analyse de granulats ou réduits en poudre. La modification de propriétés du matériau risque de fausser le relargage d'éléments polluants. L'objectif principal de ce travail de thèse est de mettre au point une méthodologie de lixiviation sur matériau monolithique.Des formulations cimentaires de type mortier ou sous-couche routière incorporant des sédiments traités par le procédé NOVOSOL® (STN) ont été réalisées. Leur caractérisation montre l'augmentation de la porosité et la surface lors de l'ajout de STN. Les caractéristiques mécaniques sont proches de celles des matériaux de type routier.Une longue phase de mise au point a permis de concevoir la cellule d'essai et le protocole permettant de tester des matériaux monolithiques en percolation à débit contrôlé. Un protocole de traçage couplé à une modélisation par un logiciel de transport permet de déterminer les caractéristiques hydrodynamiques des matériaux durant percolation.Les résultats d'essais mettent en évidence la bonne stabilité des métaux lourds contenus dans les STN comparés aux métaux apportés par le liant cimentaire. Ainsi, pour certains métaux, l'introduction de STN tend à diminuer les quantités relarguées, pour d'autres la teneur en polluant des percolats soit stable, soit en augmentation. Même si la complexité des phénomènes mis en jeu nous amène à considérer les données avec précaution, certains résultats tendent à montrer l'existence d'un lien entre surface de contact et relargage. La comparaison des résultats obtenus en laboratoire et des mesures réalisés in situ atteste de la représentativité du test mis au point

Abstract Millions of tons of mine tailings are generated worldwide annually. Since many valuable metals such as Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn, Au and Ni are usually incorporated into sulphidic minerals, a large proportion of the tailings generated contain high amounts of sulphates and heavy metals. Some of these tailings are used as paste backfill material at mining sites, but large amounts are still being deposited into the tailings dams under water coverage. Sulphidic minerals are stable underground but after mining of the ore and several processing steps these minerals can be oxidized when they come into contact with water and air. This oxidation generates acid and thus reduces the pH of the surrounding environment. Furthermore, the heavy metals present in the mine tailings can be leached into the environment. This phenomenon, called Acid Mine Drainage (AMD), is one of the most critical environmental issues related to the management of sulphidic-rich tailings. Since AMD generation can still occur hundreds of years after closure of the mine, the mine tailings need stable, sustainable and economically viable management methods in order to prevent AMD production in the long term. The aim of this PhD thesis was to study various solidification/stabilization (S/S) methods for the immobilization of sulphidic mine tailings. The main focus was to develop a suitable chemical environment for achieving effective heavy metal (mainly arsenic) and sulphate immobilization while simultaneously ensuring good mechanical properties. Three treatment methods were tested: alkali activation, stabilization using hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) and blast furnace slag (GBFS), and calcium sulphoaluminate-belite (CSAB) cement stabilization. The mine tailings used in this study contained large amounts of sulphates and heavy metals such as Cr, Cu, Ni, Mn, Zn, V and As. The leaching of arsenic and sulphates from powdered tailings exceeded the legal limits for regular and inert waste. All treatment methods were found to generate a hardened matrix that was suitable for use as a backfilling or construction material, but the calcium-based binding system was the most suitable for effective immobilization of all the heavy metals (including arsenic) and the sulphates. Precipitation in the form of calcium sulphates/calcium arsenate and the formation of ettringite are the main stabilization methods employed in calcium-based stabilization/solidification (S/S) systems. Some evidence of physical encapsulation occurring simultaneously with chemical stabilization was noted. These results can be exploited further to develop more sustainable mine tailing management systems for use in the future. The tailings could be stored in a dry landfill area instead of in tailing dams, and in this way a long-term decrease in AMD generation could be achieved, together with a high potential for recycling
Tiivistelmä Monet arvometallit kuten kulta, kupari ja nikkeli ovat sitoutuneena sulfidipitoisiin mineraaleihin. Louhittaessa ja rikastettaessa näitä sulfidimineraaleja syntyy miljoonia tonneja sulfidipitoisia rikastushiekkoja vuosittain. Rikastushiekat voivat sisältää myös runsaasti erilaisia raskasmetalleja. Osa rikastushiekoista hyödynnetään kaivostäytössä, mutta suurin osa rikastushiekoista läjitetään edelleen ympäristöön rikastushiekka-altaisiin veden alle. Kun sulfidipitoinen malmi kaivetaan ja käsitellään, sulfidiset mineraalit hapettuvat ollessaan kosketuksissa veden ja hapen kanssa. Hapettuessaan ne muodostavat rikkihappoa, laskien ympäristön pH:ta jolloin useimmat raskasmetallit liukenevat ympäristöön. Muodostuvia happamia kaivosvesiä voi syntyä vielä pitkään kaivoksen sulkemisen jälkeen ja ovat näin ollen yksi suurimmista kaivosteollisuuteen liittyvistä ympäristöongelmista. Lisäksi suuret rikastushiekka-altaat voivat aiheuttaa vaaraa myös ihmisille, mikäli altaan rakenteet pettävät. Rikastushiekkojen kestäviä ja ympäristöystävällisiä varastointimenetelmiä täytyy kehittää, jotta näitä ongelmia voidaan tulevaisuudessa ehkäistä. Tässä työssä tutkittiin menetelmiä, joilla kultakaivoksella syntyvät sulfidipitoiset vaaralliseksi jätteeksi luokitellut rikastushiekat saataisiin stabiloitua tehokkaasti. Työssä keskityttiin kolmeen erilaiseen menetelmään: alkali-aktivointiin, stabilointiin kalsiumhydroksidin ja masuunikuonan avulla ja stabilointiin CSAB sementin avulla. Valmistettujen materiaalien mekaanisia ja kemiallisia ominaisuuksia arvioitiin. Tavoitteena oli ymmärtää, miten eri menetelmät soveltuvat raskasmetallien (erityisesti arseenin) ja sulfaattien sitoutumiseen ja mikä on eri komponenttien rooli reaktioissa. Alkali-aktivoimalla rikastushiekkaa sopivan sidosaineen kanssa saavutettiin hyvät mekaaniset ominaisuudet ja useimmat haitta-aineet sitoutuivat materiaaliin. Ongelmia aiheuttivat edelleen sulfaatit ja arseeni. Kalsiumpohjaiset menetelmät sitoivat raskasmetallit (myös arseenin) ja sulfaatit tehokkaimmin. Sulfaatit ja arseeni saostuivat muodostaen niukkaliukoisia komponentteja kalsiumin kanssa. Samanaikaisesti rakenteeseen muodostui ettringiittiä, jolla on tutkitusti hyvä kyky sitoa erilaisia raskasmetalleja rakenteeseensa. Raskasmetallit myös kapseloituivat rakenteen sisään. Työn tuloksia voidaan hyödyntää, kehitettäessä rikastushiekkojen turvallista varastointia. Kun materiaalille saavutetaan riittävän hyvä lujuus ja kemiallinen stabiilius, rikastushiekat voitaisiin läjittää tulevaisuudessa kuivalle maalle altaan sijaan. Näin vältyttäisiin rikastushiekka-altaiden rakentamiselta ja voitaisiin vähentää happamien kaivosvesien muodostumista pitkällä ajanjaksolla. Saavutettujen tulosten perusteella rikastushiekkoja voidaan mahdollisesti tulevaisuudessa hyödyntää myös erilaisissa betonin tapaisissa rakennusmateriaaleissa

El objetivo de esta tesis ha sido el tratamiento de un residuo (lodo de fundición) procedente del lavado húmedo de los gases del horno fusor. Para ello, se ha evaluado la peligrosidad del residuo y, posteriormente, se han estudiado diferentes tratamientos previos al vertido y se ha realizado su evaluación ambiental. El lodo de fundición es un residuo ecotóxico, debido principalmente a la alta concentración de cinc y a la carga orgánica (fenoles) del mismo, pudiéndose establecer relaciones matemáticas entre la ecotoxicidad y la concentración de cinc y fenoles, tanto en el residuo original como en los productos finales. Entre las diferentes tecnologías de tratamiento, destacan los procesos de estabilización/solidificación con cal o cemento como agente aglomerante, por su elevado interés en residuos de carácter tóxico mixto: orgánico e inorgánico. Se ha llevado a cabo un estudio exhaustivo de los diferentes aditivos utilizados en dichos procesos y se han desarrollado diferentes formulaciones cal o cemento y aditivos/residuo con el fin de cumplir los parámetros ambientales, concluyéndose con la relación existente entre formulación y evaluación ambiental y obteniendo una patente de invención.
The aim of this work has been the study of the treatment of foundry sludge coming from after wet cleaning of gases of the furnace in foundry activities. Previously, the hazardous of the waste material has been evaluated. Later, different treatments have been studied and the environmental evaluation have been conducted. Foundry sludge is an ecotoxical waste due to inorganic (basically zinc) and organic (phenols) pollutants, being able to establish mathematical relationships between the ecotoxicity and the concentration of zinc and phenols, both in waste and end-products. Among the different technologies for the treatment, stabilisation/solidification processes with lime or cement as binders are very interesting technologies for waste of mixed character (organic and inorganic). An exhaustive study of different additives used in these processes has been carried out and different formulations have been developed in order to inertise the waste materials, concluding with the relationships between formulation and environmental evaluation and obtaining a patent.

Etude des temps de relaxation de l'eau normale, de l'eau lourde et des protons en contact avec une surface d'argile, analysant les phenomenes en fonction de la concentration, de la temperature et de la nature de l'argile. Mesure du volume de la couche d'eau absorbee a la surface du solide, deduction de son epaisseur et determination de l'aire de la surface hydratee. Fonde sur le concept de tactoide, ce travail nombre l'existence de forces d'interaction a courte portee entre une molecule d'eau et une surface argileuse. Dans la deuxieme partie, etude du composant principal d'un ciment (silicate tricalcique), mesurant aire d'absorption en fonction du temps de prise; la methode rmo est une technique de surface simple et non destructrice, pouvant mesurer l'effet des adjuvants

Frost heave is a primary mechanism of pavement distress in cold regions. The distress exhibited is dependent on the frost susceptibility of the soil within the depth of frost penetration, the availability of subsurface water, and the duration of freezing surface temperatures. Cement stabilization is one technique used to mitigate the effects of frost heave. The tube suction test (TST) is one possible method for determining the frost susceptibility of soils in the laboratory. The purpose of this research was to assess the utility of the TST for identifying non-frost-susceptible (NFS) materials stabilized with cement. This research investigated two aggregate base materials from Alaska that have exhibited negligible frost susceptibility in the field. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS), final dielectric value in the TST, and frost heave at three levels of cement treatment and in the untreated condition were evaluated for both materials. The data collected in this research indicate that, for the two known NFS materials included in this study, the TST is a good indicator of frost heave behavior. The total heave of the untreated materials was approximately 0.15 in. at the conclusion of the 10-day freezing period, which classifies these materials as NFS according to the U.S Army Corp of Engineers. Both materials had final dielectric values of less than 10 in the TST, indicating a superior moisture susceptibility rating. The results of this research suggest that the TST should be considered for identifying NFS materials, including those stabilized with cement. Additional testing should be performed on known NFS materials stabilized with cement and other additives to further assess the validity of using the TST to differentiate between frost-susceptible and NFS materials. Consistent with previous studies, this research indicates that, once a sufficient amount of cement has been added to significantly reduce frost heave, additional cement has only a marginal effect on further reduction. Therefore, to avoid unnecessary expense in construction, the minimum cement content required for preventing frost heave should be identified through laboratory testing and specified by the engineer. In this work, UCS values ranging between 200 psi and 400 psi after a 7-day cure were typically associated with this minimum cement content. Because the scope of this research is limited to two aggregate base materials, further testing is also necessary to validate this finding.

The objectives of this research were to 1) measure the extent to which water vapor movement results in water accumulation in freezing base materials; 2) evaluate the effect of soil stabilization on water vapor movement in freezing base materials; 3) determine if the corresponding changes in water content are sufficient to cause frost heave during winter; 4) determine if the corresponding changes in water content are sufficient to cause reductions in stiffness during spring; 5) evaluate relationships between selected material properties, freezing conditions, and the occurrence and impact of water vapor movement; and 6) numerically simulate heat and water movement in selected pavement design scenarios. The research involved extensive laboratory and field testing, statistical analyses, and numerical modeling. The results of the laboratory testing, which included gradations, Atterberg limits, soil classifications, specific gravity and absorption values, electrical conductivity values, moisture-density relationships, soil-water characteristic curves, moisture-stiffness curves, hydraulic conductivity values, and frost susceptibility assessments, were used to characterize each material and enable subsequent statistical analyses. Testing of both treated and untreated materials enabled investigation of a wide variety of material properties. The results of the field testing, which included temperature, moisture content, water potential, elevation, and stiffness data over time, provided the basis for comparing pavement sections with and without capillary barriers and established the framework for numerical modeling. In a pavement section with a capillary barrier underlying the base layer, water vapor movement from the subgrade through the capillary barrier may be expected to increase the water content of the base layer by 1 to 3 percent during a typical winter season in northern Utah for base materials similar to those studied in this research. During winter, cold temperatures create an ideal environment for water vapor to travel upward from the warm subgrade soil below the frost line, through the capillary barrier, and into the base material. Soil stabilization can lead to increased or decreased amounts of water vapor movement in freezing base materials depending on the properties of the stabilized soil, which may be affected by gradation, mineralogy, and stabilizer type and concentration. Accumulation of water from long-term water vapor movement into frost-susceptible base materials underlain by a capillary barrier can lead to frost heave of the base layer as it approaches saturation, as water available in the layer can be redistributed upwards to create ice lenses upon freezing. However, the incremental increase in total water content that may occur exclusively from water vapor movement during a single winter season in northern Utah would not be expected to cause measurable increases in thaw weakening of the base layer during spring. Because water in a base layer overlying a capillary barrier cannot drain until nearly reaching positive pore pressures, the base layer will remain indefinitely saturated or nearly saturated as demonstrated in this research. For materials similar to those studied in this research, potentially important material properties related to the occurrence of water vapor movement during freezing include dry density, percent of material finer than the No. 200 sieve, percent of material finer than 0.02 mm, apparent specific gravity, absorption, initial water content, porosity, degree of saturation, hydraulic conductivity, and electrical conductivity. The rate at which water vapor movement occurs is also dependent on the thermal gradient within the given material, where higher thermal gradients are associated with higher amounts of water vapor movement. The numerical modeling supported the field observations that the capillary barrier effectively trapped moisture in the overlying base material, causing it to remain saturated or nearly saturated throughout the monitoring period. Only non-frost-susceptible aggregate base materials should be specified for use in cold climates in conjunction with capillary barriers, and the base material in this case should be assumed to remain in a saturated or nearly saturated condition during the entire service life of the pavement. Further study is recommended on water vapor movement in freezing aggregate base materials.

碩士
大同工學院
化學工程學系
84
The object of this research was to study the disposal of sludge contaminatedwith heavy metals by means of cement-based solidification. The sludge was produced and contaminated with heavy metals after the treatment of waste water generatedfrom the manufacture of picture tube. The Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure(TCLP) adopted by R.O.C. and U.S. EPA was used to determined the leaching toxicitywastes in this study; and the Multiple Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure(MTCLP) was introduced to study long-term leachability of sludge and solidified sludge. Besides, the effect of heavy metal leachability of solidmatrix added additiveswas also discussed. The concentration of heavy metal ions in leachate was analyzed by using atomic absorption spectrometry(AA). The results showed that the concentration of Zn, Pb and Cu in TCLP leachate ofuntreated sludge was greater than the regulation standard (Zn< 2mg/l, Pb< 5mg/l,Cu< 15 mg/l). The concentration of heavy metalin TCLP leachate was affected by thecuring time of solidification. After curing for about 28 days, the concentration inTCLP leachate of solidmatrix for Zn and Pb was remained constant. As the cement/sludgeratio increased to 0.15, the concentration of these three elements was less than the regulation. The MTCLP test results showed that the cumulative weight percents of these three elements for solidmatrix were less than those of untreated sludge. Theadditive, SP and water glass, added in solidmatrix was helpful to the capacity of imhibiting heavy metal to leach from solidmatrix. The inhibition of heavy metal forSP was greater than water glass.

碩士
國立中山大學
環境工程研究所
101
Incineration and recycling had became the main way to dispose of wastes in Taiwan, the data recently published by the Environmental Protection Administration in Taiwan indicate that in 2011 about 83% of municipal refuse collected in Taiwan was treated by incineration. The incinerated refuse is reduced to 20% of its original weight, and it contains about 20% fly ash. Fly ashes were classified as hazardous wastes because they may contain high concentrations of heavy metal, so they should be adequate processing before landfill. This research focus on one of municipal solid wastes incineration plant in Taiwan, and its incinerator fly ashes was solidified by cement and chelant solidification method. Observed the different solidification ratio and curing period, the leaching of heavy metals concentration and solidified volume changes, and find out the most adequate solidification ratio, which can meet the leaching standard, and can be moderately reduced the body volume, improve the utilization efficiency of the landfill. The TCLP(Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure) testing result shows that, lead leaching concentration is 38.84 mg/L higher than hazardous wastes limit 5 mg/L, and other heavy metal leaching concentration is lower than hazardous wastes limit. With 30 % water/ash ratio, the solidified with 3% chelant/ 8% cement/ 3 days curing period, lead leaching concentration is 3.43 mg/L, it can meet TCLP lead leaching concentration regulation limit. In optimize test, regardless of the amount of water added for 25, 20 or 10%, the amount of chelating agent of 3, 3.5% and 8, 10% of the amount of cement can meet TCLP lead leaching concentration regulation limit. Under the conditions of 10% water added, the amount of chelating agent 3 or 3.5%; cement dosage 8 or 10% can meet the solidified weight / fly ash weight < 1.35. When the amount of water added to 20%, regardless of amount of chelating agent for 3 or 3.5%, only cement dosage 8% can meet the solidified weight / fly ash weight < 1.35.The amount of water added 10%, chelating agent 3% and cement 8% can make the solidified weight / fly ash weight of a minimum range of 1.20 to 1.23.

碩士
大同工學院
化學工程學系
85
ABSTRACT The object of this research was to study the effects of the different additives on the cement — based solidification of the sludge contaminated with heavy metals.The sludge was produced and contaminated with heavy metals after the treatment of waste-water generated from CPT (Chinese Picture Tube Co.). The ToxicityCharacteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) adpoted by R.O.C. and U.S. EPA was used to determine the leaching toxicity of waste in this study;and the test of the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) were intro-duced to study the compressive strength of the cement solidmatrix.The conen-tration of heavy metal ions in leachate were analyzed by using atomic ab-sorption spectrometry (AAS). The results showed that the concentration of Pb、Cr、Cu and Zn in TCLP leachate of untreated sludge were greater than the current R.O.C. and U.S. EPA regulatory threshold ( Pb＜5 mg/L , Cr＜5 mg/L , Cu＜15 mg/L , Zn＜25 mg/L ). The concentration of all the heavy metals in TCLP leachate decreased as the sludge was treated by the cement solidification. The concentration of the heavy metals in TCLP leachate decreased prominently when the additives were added during the solidification.As the cement /sludge ratio was greater than 0.15, the concentration of Pb、Cr and Cu were less than the current R.O.C. and U.S. EPA regulatory threshold. As the additives were added during the solidification and the cement / sludge ratio was greater than 0.1, the concentrations of these three elements would be less than the current R.O.C. and U.S. EPA regulatory threshold. The unconfined compressive strength of the cement solidmatrix increased with the cement / sludge ratio. However, as the cement /sludge ratio was 1.0, the unconfined compressive strength of the cement solidmatrix was greater than the current R.O.C. and U.S. EPA regula-tory threshold for landfilling of the solidmatrix ( ie ＞ 10 kg/cm2 ).As the additive, ettringite, was added during the solidification, the cement solid-matrix, whose cement / sludge ratio was 0.5, could accord with the current R.O.C. and U.S. EPA regulatory threshold. Effect of the curing time of the solidification on the concentrations of the heavy metals in TCLP leachate of the cement solidmatrix was smaller than that on the unconfined compressive strength of the cement solidmatrix.Each additive enhanced the solidification of the sludge, and the ettringite was found to be the best additive in this research.

碩士
國立成功大學
環境工程學系碩博士班
97
To reduce the consumption of raw materials and energy in the cement industry, finding the alternative raw materials and reducing the sintering temperature are important issues at the moment. In this study, the potential cement materials such as oyster shell, rice husk, water treatment plant sludge, and Basic Oxygen Furnace slag are utilized as cement raw materials. Cement chemical parameters were controlled and electroplating sludge was added as a source of ion to stabilize the β-C2S thus produces belite-rich cement (BRC). Finally, to verify the feasibility of BRC in the engineering application, the pastes are mixed in different proportions to BRC and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and undergo the test of hydration characteristics. The results show that the largest amount of C2S phase in the clinker is about 75 wt.%, when the chemical parameters of raw material settings are LSF = 0.75, SR = 4. But some of γ-C2S still remains inactive with water. Factor experimental design was used to exam the role of heavy metals on β-C2S stabilization, and the effect of Cr2O3 was found to be the most significant, and followed by NiO. For factors interaction assessment, addition of CuO and ZnO as well as Cr2O3 and ZnO are also considered as significant factors. In addition, the research of utilizing electroplating sludge as a part of raw materials confirms that the heavy metals in electroplating sludge have a stabilizing effect on β-C2S. When compared to the clinker without electroplating sludge addition; as the addition amount reaches 14 wt.%, amount of γ-C2S reduces from 7.8 wt.% to 0.3 wt.%, and amount of β-C2S increases from 63.4 wt.% to 77.6 wt.%, which effectively raised the hydration product activity of the clinker. In the hydration characteristics test, when BRC-to-OPC ratio (B/O) is less than 4 / 6, the compressive strength of pastes are in compliance with the standard of type I cement of CNS. In addition, the compressive strength of pastes has improved significantly after 7 days, and it is also greater than the standard of type IV cement of CNS at 28 days when the BRC-to-OPC ratio is 8 / 2. With the crystal phase rise and fall, it can be confirmed that the hydration of the clinker is ongoing and the hydration products are generated. Obtained from the microstructure, the hydration products in cements are Ca(OH)2, ettringite (AFt), monosulphoaluminate (AFm) and CSH gel.

MSc (Chemistry)
Department of Chemistry
Increasing health and environmental concern about the effects of most toxic heavy metals emitted from cement plants in developing countries, which are going through rapid development, has led to this study. Cement industry in South Africa has been the primary industry over the years contributing immensely to infrastructure development and economic growth. Cement has been used to build many large cities, industries, homes, bridges and shopping malls around the country and still continue to be used by constructors. At this point, there has been no other substitute for cement and it will continue to be produced for decades to come. Unfortunately, this industry is now known to be amongst the major environmental polluters. Less has been done to address the adverse effects that comes with the production of cement, especially in the developing countries where there is huge demand for cement. This study focusses on dust emanating from production processes especially cement manufacturing from rotary kiln stage during production of cement and cement bricks. The production of cement and cement bricks generate dust, which is distributed over large areas of the environment. In South Africa, there are a number of factories in operation without proper planning of pollution prevention and compliance to environmental legislature. Since the production of cement is associated with the release of dust containing heavy metals, the dust is atmospherically deposited on the land, water surfaces and residential areas. The soil, street pavements, wetlands and water surfaces have become the sinks of heavy metals. Heavy metals that are being deposited include arsenic, cadmium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, copper, barium, antimony, selenium, vanadium, nickel and lead. Such metals pose health threat to the animals, plants and human beings living around the cement factories. These metals can easily be leached out from the soil and washed to the water bodies causing water pollution. Old processing techniques have been found to be inefficient to prevent emission of dust to the atmosphere. Hence, the emission of the toxic heavy metals to the environment was uncontrollable. Since cement is used to produce cement bricks, the whole process is subjected to heavy metals being discharged with dust from the factory to the surrounding environment. Four papers (I, II, III and V) were written to assess the level of heavy metals. In paper I, water and plants samples (Bidens Pilosa, Phragimites Australis and Xanthium Strumarium) were collected in the Mvudi River nearby a cement factory. Sampling was done before, within and after the wetland. Samples were digested with nitric acid for analysis. The concentration of zinc, chromium and lead were determined in the samples using a graphite furnace atomic absorption spectromentry. Results showed that the concentrations of zinc, chromium and lead were above the permissible limits in different parts of the plants analysed and water. The pH of water samples were below the threshold recommended by Department of water affairs and forestry (DWAF) and World health organisation (WHO). In paper II, seven soils at different distance, seven soils below soil surface at seven different layers and a bulk were sampled nearest to the cement brick making factory. Bulk sample was separated into five particle sizes (2 - 3 mm, 1 - 2 mm, 0.5 - 1 mm, 0.5 mm). Five sediments samples were also collected before, within and after the wetland along Mvudi river. Modified three step BCR sequential extraction was applied to the 23 samples in order to obtain the metal distribution in the samples. Heavy metal concentrations of nickel and chromium were determined using graphite atomic absorption spectrometry. Results showed that the levels of nickel and chromium exceeded the permissible limits recommended by WHO. Elevated concentrations Ni and Cr in soil and sediments also showed that the cement brick making factory is the main source of pollution in the area. To assess the contribution of cement dust to heavy metal pollution from the cement plants to the surrounding environment, two studies were carried out in the vicinity of two cement plants one in Thabazimbi and the other in Pretoria. Two papers (III and IV) were written from the studies and were summarised as follows: In paper III, dust samples were collected along the road leading to and passing by the cement plant in Thabazimbi, South Africa. The samples were collected using a brush and pan into sampling bags. After sampling dust samples were sieved into three particle size fractions (PM125, PM75, and PM32). A bulk and five samples were collected beneath the soil at different depth for depth analysis nearest to the cement plant. Water samples were collected along the Crocodile River before and after the cement plant site. The samples were digested using aqua ragia and extracted using Modified BCR sequential extraction. The samples were analysed using inductive coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) for concentration of platinum group metals and x-ray fluorescence for elementary analysis (XRF). Analysis of samples included characterisation of the dust samples using x-ray diffraction (XRD). The vi concentrations were also compared to that of the control study (blank) area to find out if the metals were discharged from the cement factories of interest. In paper IV, street dust samples were collected randomly on the paved surfaces, on the streets and accessible residential and roadsides on locations close to the cement plant in Pretoria. Some samples were collected along the road leading to the gate of the factory and also on the road near the cement plant. The samples were collected into sampling bags using a brush and pan. After sampling dust samples were sieved into three particle size fractions (PM125, PM75 and PM32). A bulk and five samples were collected beneath the soil at different depth for depth analysis nearest to the cement plant. Water samples were collected along the Apies River before and after the cement plant. All samples were kept in a cooler box with ice bags to keep them in good condition. The samples were digested using aqua ragia and extracted using Modified BCR sequential extraction. Results were used to establish spatial distribution of the heavy metals around the urban streets. The samples were analysed using ICP-OES for concentration of heavy metals and XRF. Analysis of samples included characterisation of the dust samples using XRD. The concentrations were also compared to that of the control study (blank) area to find out if the metals were discharged from the cement factories of interest. In paper V, seven different vegetables (spinach/Spinacia oleracea, Chinese cabbage/Brassica rapa, onion/Allium cepa, beetroot/Beta vulgaris, sweet potatoes/Ipomoea batatas, tomatoes/ Lycopersicon esculentum and cabbage/Brassica pekinensis), fruits (bananas/Musa acuminate) and their soils taken after uprooting them were sampled in farming area close to Thohoyandou town and the cement factory. The concentrations of cadmium, nickel and manganese were measured using the graphite atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS). Cadmium, nickel and manganese levels were found above permissible limits proposed by Food agricultural organisation (FAO) and WHO in edible parts of vegetables, fruits and soils and hence, may pose a health risk to consumers. Similarly the results from XRF also showed high concentration of the heavy metals in soil analysed. The aim of this project is to determine the levels of toxic heavy metals carried with dust emanating from cement factories. This assessment is meant to identify and highlight the levels of heavy metals in areas that are close to cement factories. The study will develop a database of heavy metals in affected areas and the pollution impact to the affected environments.
NRF

碩士
國立雲林科技大學
環境與安全工程系碩士班
94
Incineration had become the main way to dispose of wastes in Taiwan, and it will produce fly ashes when wastes are burned. Fly ashes were classified as hazardous wastes because they may contain heavy metals. Final landfill of fly ashes is permitted only after adequate processing. This project research two types of incinerator fly ashes, one from municipal solid wastes incineration plant (plant A), another from co-incineration with general industrial/business wastes incineration (plant B). Both were solidified by cement and chelant solidification method. The purpose of this project is to find out the most adequate solidification ration and curing period combination to produce stabilized solids which can meet the regulation requirement on solidification compressive strength and heavy metal extraction by TCLP (Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure) limit. In the TCLP testing result of both fly ashes, only lead leaching concentration is higher than hazardous wastes limit. Other heavy metal leaching concentration is lower than hazardous wastes limit. The fly ash of plant B has higher lead leaching concentration due to more variable source of waste. With 30% water/ash ratio, the fly ash of plant A solidified with 1% chelant/15% cement / 3 days curing period can meet TCLP lead leaching concentration regulation limit of 5mg/L. For plant B fly ash solidification with 30% water, although increasing chelant result in decreasing of TCLP lead leaching concentration, its TCLP lead leaching still fail to meet the regulation requirement, and their compressive strength also failed to meet 10kg/cm2 regulation requirement because of insufficient water addition. When 35% water was added to minimize operation cost, plant A fly ash solidification, with 1% chelant/20% cement /7 days curing, and 2% chelant/20% cement /3 days curing combination, can meet TCLP lead leaching concentration and compressive strength limit. Plant B fly ash solidification can also meet both regulation requirement with 4% chelant/25% cement ratio.

Civil engineers are at times required to stabilize sulfate bearing clay soils with calcium based stabilizers. Deleterious heaving in these stabilized soils may result over time. This dissertation addresses critical questions regarding the consequences of treating sulfate laden soils with calcium-based stabilizers. The use of a differential scanning calorimeter was introduced in this research as a tool to quantify the amount of ettringite formed in stabilized soils. The first part of this dissertation provides a case history analysis of the expansion history compared to the ettringite growth history of three controlled low strength mixtures containing fly ash with relatively high sulfate contents. Ettringite growth and measurable volume changes were monitored simultaneously for mixtures subjected to different environmental conditions. The observations verified the role of water in causing expansion when ettringite mineral is present. Sorption of water by the ettringite molecule was found to be a part of the reason for expansion. The second part of this dissertation evaluates the existence of threshold sulfate levels in soils as well as the role of soil mineralogy in defining the sensitivity of soils to sulfate-induced damage. A differential scanning calorimeter and thermodynamics based phase diagram approach are used to evaluate the role of soil minerals. The observations substantiated the difference in sensitivity of soils to ettringite formation, and also verified the existence of a threshold level of soluble sulfates in soils that can trigger substantial ettringite growth. The third part of this dissertation identifies alternative, probable mechanisms of swelling when sulfate laden soils are stabilized with lime. The swelling distress observed in stabilized soils is found to be due to one or a combination of three separate mechanisms: (1) volumetric expansion during ettringite formation, (2) water movement triggered by a high osmotic suction caused by sulfate salts, and (3) the ability of the ettringite mineral to absorb water and contribute to the swelling process.