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Journal articles on the topic 'Hemichordata'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 30 January 2023

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1

Cameron, C. B., and C. D. Bishop. "Biomineral ultrastructure, elemental constitution and genomic analysis of biomineralization-related proteins in hemichordates." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1740 (April 11, 2012): 3041–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.0335.

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Here, we report the discovery and characterization of biominerals in the acorn worms Saccoglossus bromophenolosus and Ptychodera flava galapagos (Phylum: Hemichordata). Using electron microscopy, X-ray microprobe analyses and confocal Raman spectroscopy, we show that hemichordate biominerals are small CaCO 3 aragonitic elements restricted to specialized epidermal structures, and in S. bromophenolosus, are apparently secreted by sclerocytes. Investigation of urchin biomineralizing proteins in the translated genome and expressed sequence tag (EST) libraries of Saccoglossus kowalevskii indicates that three members of the urchin MSP-130 family, a carbonic anhydrase and a matrix metaloprotease are present and transcribed during the development of S. kowalevskii . The SM family of proteins is absent from the hemichordate genome. These results increase the number of phyla known to biomineralize and suggest that some of the gene-regulatory ‘toolkit’, if not mineralized tissue themselves, may have been present in the common ancestor to hemichordates and echinoderms.

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2

Dilly, Peter N. "Cephalodiscusreproductive biology (Pterobranchia, Hemichordata)." Acta Zoologica 95, no. 1 (January 16, 2013): 111–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/azo.12015.

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3

Rickards, B., and A. Chapman. "Bendigonian graptolites (Hemichordata) of Victoria." Memoirs of the Museum of Victoria 52, no. 1 (1991): 1–135. http://dx.doi.org/10.24199/j.mmv.1991.52.01.

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4

Tassia, Michael G., Johanna T. Cannon, Charlotte E. Konikoff, Noa Shenkar, Kenneth M. Halanych, and Billie J. Swalla. "The Global Diversity of Hemichordata." PLOS ONE 11, no. 10 (October 4, 2016): e0162564. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162564.

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5

LoDuca, Steven T., Mengyin Wu, Yuanlong Zhao, Shuhai Xiao, James D. Schiffbauer, Jean-Bernard Caron, and Loren E. Babcock. "Reexamination of Yuknessia from the Cambrian of China and first report of Fuxianospira from North America." Journal of Paleontology 89, no. 6 (November 2015): 899–911. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jpa.2016.3.

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AbstractYuknessia Walcott, 1919 recently was transferred from the green algae to the Phylum Hemichordata on the basis of new details observed for the type species, Y. simplex, from the Burgess Shale Formation (Cambrian Stage 5) of British Columbia. This has prompted reexamination of material attributed to Yuknessia from various Cambrian localities in South China. Findings preclude both a Yuknessia and a hemichordate affinity for all of the Chinese study material, and most of this material is formally transferred to Fuxianospira Chen and Zhou, 1997, a taxon common in the Chengjiang biota. Comparable material from the Cambrian Marjum, Wheeler, and Burgess Shale formations of North America is also assigned to Fuxianospira, and this reassignment expands both the paleogeographic and stratigraphic range of this taxon. All aspects of the study specimens, including details obtained from scanning electron microscopy, are consistent with an algal affinity, as proposed in the original descriptions of the Chinese material.

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6

Ezhova, O. V., and V. V. Malakhov. "Musculo-epithelial cells in the intestine of the representative of Hemichordates Saccoglossus mereschkowskii (Hemichordata, Enteropneusta)." Doklady Biological Sciences 414, no. 1 (June 2007): 216–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0012496607030131.

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7

Lukinykh, A. I., O. V. Ezhova, S. V. Krylenko, S. V. Galkin, A. V. Gebruk, and V. V. Malakhov. "Discovery of Trunk Coelomoducts in Hemichordata." Doklady Biological Sciences 483, no. 1 (November 2018): 228–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0012496618060042.

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8

Lukinykh, A., V. Malakhov, A. Gebruk, S. Galkin, O. Ezhova, and S. Krylenko. "Discovery of the Trunk Coelomoduets in Hemichordata." Доклады академии наук 483, no. 5 (December 2018): 573–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s086956520003312-6.

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9

Dilly, P. N., and J. S. Ryland. "An intertidal Rhabdopleura (Hemichordata, Pterobranchia) from Fiji." Journal of Zoology 205, no. 4 (August 20, 2009): 611–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1985.tb03548.x.

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10

DlLLY, P. N. "The prosicular stage of Rhabdopleura (Pterobranchia: Hemichordata)." Journal of Zoology 206, no. 2 (August 20, 2009): 163–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1985.tb05642.x.

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11

Lester, Susan M. "Settlement and Metamorphosis ofRhabdopleura normani(Hemichordata: Pterobranchia)." Acta Zoologica 69, no. 2 (June 1988): 111–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-6395.1988.tb00907.x.

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12

Maletz, Jörg. "Hemichordata (Pterobranchia, Enteropneusta) and the fossil record." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 398 (March 2014): 16–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.06.010.

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13

Nanglu, Karma, and Jean-Bernard Caron. "Symbiosis in the Cambrian: enteropneust tubes from the Burgess Shale co-inhabited by commensal polychaetes." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 288, no. 1951 (May 26, 2021): 20210061. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.0061.

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The in situ preservation of animal behaviour in the fossil record is exceedingly rare, but can lead to unique macroecological and macroevolutionary insights, especially regarding early representatives of major animal clades. We describe a new complex ecological relationship from the middle Cambrian Burgess Shale (Raymond Quarry, Canada). More than 30 organic tubes were recorded with multiple enteropneust and polychaete worms preserved within them. Based on the tubicolous nature of fossil enteropneusts, we suggest that they were the tube builders while the co-preserved polychaetes were commensals. These findings mark, to our knowledge, the first record of commensalism within Annelida and Hemichordata in the entire fossil record. The finding of multiple enteropneusts sharing common tubes suggests that either the tubes represent reproductive structures built by larger adults, and the enteropneusts commonly preserved within are juveniles, or these enteropneusts were living as a pseudo-colony without obligate attachment to each other, and the tube was built collaboratively. While neither hypothesis can be ruled out, gregarious behaviour was clearly an early trait of both hemichordates and annelids. Further, commensal symbioses in the Cambrian may be more common than currently recognized.

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14

Zeng, Liyun, and Billie J. Swalla. "Molecular phylogeny of the protochordates: chordate evolution." Canadian Journal of Zoology 83, no. 1 (January 1, 2005): 24–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z05-010.

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The deuterostomes are a monophyletic group of multicellular animals that include the Chordata, a phylum that exhibits a unique body plan within the metazoans. Deuterostomes classically contained three phyla, Echinodermata, Hemichordata, and Chordata. Protochordata describes two invertebrate chordate subphyla, the Tunicata (Urochordata) and the Cephalochordata. Tunicate species are key to understanding chordate origins, as they have tadpole larvae with a chordate body plan. However, molecular phylogenies show only weak support for the Tunicata as the sister-group to the rest of the chordates, suggesting that they are highly divergent from the Cephalochordata and Vertebrata. We believe that members of the Tunicata exhibit a unique adult body plan and should be considered a separate phylum rather than a subphylum of Chordata. The molecular phylogeny of the deuterostomes is reviewed and discussed in the context of likely morphological evolutionary scenarios and the possibility is raised that the ancestor of the Tunicata was colonial. In this scenario, the colonial tadpole larva would more resemble an ancestral chordate than the solitary tadpole larva. In contrast, the true chordates (vertebrates and cephalochordates) would have evolved from filter-feeding benthic worms with cartilaginous gill slits, similar to extant enteropneust hemichordates.

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15

Maletz, Jörg. "Symmetry in graptolite zooids and tubaria (Pterobranchia, Hemichordata)." Evolution & Development 23, no. 6 (November 2021): 513–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ede.12394.

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16

Gonzalez, Paul, and Christopher B. Cameron. "Ultrastructure of the coenecium of Cephalodiscus (Hemichordata: Pterobranchia)." Canadian Journal of Zoology 90, no. 10 (October 2012): 1261–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z2012-096.

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The ultrastructure of the coenecia of Cephalodiscus (Cephalodiscus) hodgsoni Ridewood, 1907, Cephalodiscus (Idiothecia) nigrescens Lankester, 1905, and Cephalodiscus (Orthoecus) densus Andersson, 1907 was characterized using light microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The coenecium of Cephalodiscus is composed of layers of coenecial material of variable thickness laid down one upon the next and separated by sheets. Thick fusellar-like layers (up to 160 μm thick) and thin cortical-like layers (down to 15 nm thick) are present, but do not form two distinct components. Instead, a continuum exists in the thickness and shape of these layers. At the ultrastructural level, both fusellar-like and cortical-like layers are composed of thin (16–23 nm) long and straight fibrils, similar to the fibrils described in extant Rhabdopleura Allman, 1869. In C. densus, fibrils in the outer secondary deposits show a parallel arrangement, similar to the arrangement of fibrils in the graptolite eucortex. Although similarities in the shape and arrangement of growth increments between Cephalodiscus, Rhabdopleura, and graptolites probably reflect homologous zooidal behaviors and secretion mechanisms, differences at the ultrastructural level show that fibril types and fibril arrangement can evolve independently from larger scale features of the coenecium.

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17

Li, Yuanning, Kevin M. Kocot, Michael G. Tassia, Johanna T. Cannon, Matthias Bernt, and Kenneth M. Halanych. "Mitogenomics Reveals a Novel Genetic Code in Hemichordata." Genome Biology and Evolution 11, no. 1 (November 23, 2018): 29–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gbe/evy254.

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18

Holland, Nicholas D., Karen J. Osborn, and Linda A. Kuhnz. "A new deep-sea species of harrimaniid enteropneust (Hemichordata)." Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 125, no. 3 (October 2012): 228–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2988/12-11.1.

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19

Rehkämper, G., U. Welsch, and P. N. Dilly. "Fine structure of the ganglion ofCephalodiscus gracilis(pterobranchia, hemichordata)." Journal of Comparative Neurology 259, no. 2 (May 8, 1987): 308–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cne.902590210.

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20

Cameron, C. B., G. O. Mackie, J. F. F. Powell, D. W. Lescheid, and N. M. Sherwood. "Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone in Mulberry Cells ofSaccoglossusandPtychodera(Hemichordata: Enteropneusta)." General and Comparative Endocrinology 114, no. 1 (April 1999): 2–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/gcen.1998.7218.

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21

Satoh, Noriyuki, Daniel Rokhsar, and Teruaki Nishikawa. "Chordate evolution and the three-phylum system." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1794 (November 7, 2014): 20141729. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1729.

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Traditional metazoan phylogeny classifies the Vertebrata as a subphylum of the phylum Chordata, together with two other subphyla, the Urochordata (Tunicata) and the Cephalochordata. The Chordata, together with the phyla Echinodermata and Hemichordata, comprise a major group, the Deuterostomia. Chordates invariably possess a notochord and a dorsal neural tube. Although the origin and evolution of chordates has been studied for more than a century, few authors have intimately discussed taxonomic ranking of the three chordate groups themselves. Accumulating evidence shows that echinoderms and hemichordates form a clade (the Ambulacraria), and that within the Chordata, cephalochordates diverged first, with tunicates and vertebrates forming a sister group. Chordates share tadpole-type larvae containing a notochord and hollow nerve cord, whereas ambulacrarians have dipleurula-type larvae containing a hydrocoel. We propose that an evolutionary occurrence of tadpole-type larvae is fundamental to understanding mechanisms of chordate origin. Protostomes have now been reclassified into two major taxa, the Ecdysozoa and Lophotrochozoa, whose developmental pathways are characterized by ecdysis and trochophore larvae, respectively. Consistent with this classification, the profound dipleurula versus tadpole larval differences merit a category higher than the phylum. Thus, it is recommended that the Ecdysozoa, Lophotrochozoa, Ambulacraria and Chordata be classified at the superphylum level, with the Chordata further subdivided into three phyla, on the basis of their distinctive characteristics.

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22

Cameron, C. B. "A phylogeny of the hemichordates based on morphological characters." Canadian Journal of Zoology 83, no. 1 (January 1, 2005): 196–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z04-190.

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A comprehensive review of literature on all 15 genera constituting the phylum Hemichordata resulted in a morphological matrix of 105 characters. The echinoderms, tunicates, cephalochordates, and vertebrates were included in the analysis, and the cnidarians, polychaetes, and sipunculids were employed as outgroup taxa. The consensus tree supported the traditional view of a monophyletic Hemichordata, Echinodermata, Ambulacraria, and Chordata. The enteropneust families Spengelidae and Ptychoderidae were each monophyletic and sister-taxa, but there was no resolution among the family Harrimaniidae. A detailed sensitivity analysis provided (i) tree lengths of competing evolutionary hypothesis and (ii) a test of monophyly of groups under a variety of evolutionary models. It is argued that the ancestral deuterostome was a benthic vermiform organism with a terminal mouth and anus, well-developed circular and longitudinal muscles, a simple nerve plexus with little sign of regionalization, a pharynx with gill slits and collagenous gill bars, a cluster of vacuolated cells with myofilaments, produced iodotyrosine, and displayed direct development. The pterobranchs have lost many of these features as a consequence of evolving a small body size and living in tubes, but these features exist in present-day enteropneusts, suggesting that they are a plausible model for the proximate ancestor of deuterostomes.

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23

Ежова, О. В., М. А. Трухан, А. И. Лукиных, Е. М. Крылова, С. В. Галкин, А. В. Гебрук, and В. В. Малахов. "ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПИТАНИЯ ГЛУБОКОВОДНОГО КИШЕЧНОДЫШАЩЕГО (HEMICHORDATA, ENTEROPNEUSTA, TORQUARATORIDAE) ИЗ БЕРИНГОВА МОРЯ." Доклады Российской академии наук. Науки о жизни 500, no. 1 (2021): 432–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s2686738921050115.

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24

Miyamoto, Norio, Teruaki Nishikawa, and Hiroshi Namikawa. "Cephalodiscus planitectus sp. nov. (Hemichordata: Pterobranchia) from Sagami Bay, Japan." Zoological Science 37, no. 1 (January 24, 2020): 79. http://dx.doi.org/10.2108/zs190010.

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25

Benito, Jesús, Isabel Fernández, and Fernando Pardos. "Fine Structure of the Hepatic Sacculations ofGlossobalanus minutus(Enteropneusta, Hemichordata)." Acta Zoologica 74, no. 2 (March 1993): 77–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-6395.1993.tb01224.x.

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26

Maletz, Jörg. "Tracing the evolutionary origins of the Hemichordata (Enteropneusta and Pterobranchia)." Palaeoworld 28, no. 1-2 (March 2019): 58–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palwor.2018.07.002.

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27

Dautov, S. Sh, L. P. Nezlin, and V. V. Yushin. "Structure of the digestive tract of tornaria larva inEnteropneusta (Hemichordata)." Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen 48, no. 1 (March 1994): 107–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02366205.

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28

Pettit, George R., Yoshiaki Kamano, Claude Dufresne, Masuo Inoue, Nigel Christie, Jean M. Schmidt, and Dennis L. Doubek. "Isolation and structure of the unusual Indian Ocean Cephalodiscusgilchristi components, cephalostatins 5 and 6." Canadian Journal of Chemistry 67, no. 10 (October 1, 1989): 1509–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/v89-231.

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The Indian Ocean (South African) marine worm Cephalodiscusgilchristi (Hemichordata phylum) has been found to contain a series of unusual disteroidal alkaloids, designated the cephalostatins, that possess exceptionally potent lymphocytic leukemia (murine P388) cell line inhibitory activity (to ED50 10−9 μg/mL). Two of the less prominent members with P388 ED50 10−3–10−2 μg/mL, cephalostatins 5 (2) and 6 (3), were isolated and assigned structures based on rigorous interpretation of two-dimensional 400-MHz 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance. Keywords: cephalostatins 5 and 6, disteroidal alkaloids, lymphocytic leukemia, cytostatic, Cephalodiscusgilchristi.

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29

Holland, Nicholas D., William J. Jones, Jacob Ellena, Henry A. Ruhl, and Kenneth L. Smith. "A new deep-sea species of epibenthic acorn worm (Hemichordata, Enteropneusta)." Zoosystema 31, no. 2 (June 2009): 333–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5252/z2009n2a6.

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30

Ejova, O. V., and V. V. Malakhov. "The morphology of the skeletal element of Saccoglossus mereschkowskii (Hemichordata, Enteropneusta)." Doklady Biological Sciences 417, no. 1 (December 2007): 439–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s0012496607060087.

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31

Dilly, P. N. "The habitat and behaviour of Cephalodiscus gracilis (Pterobranchia, Hemichordata) from Bermuda." Journal of Zoology 207, no. 2 (August 20, 2009): 223–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1985.tb04926.x.

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32

Cannon, Johanna T., Amanda L. Rychel, Heather Eccleston, Kenneth M. Halanych, and Billie J. Swalla. "Molecular phylogeny of hemichordata, with updated status of deep-sea enteropneusts." Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 52, no. 1 (July 2009): 17–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2009.03.027.

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33

Stolyarova, M. V. "Electron microscopic study of intestinal epithelium of Saccoglossus mereschkowskii (Enteropneusta, Hemichordata)." Cell and Tissue Biology 5, no. 4 (August 2011): 406–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1990519x11040109.

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34

Maletz, Jörg, and Michael Steiner. "Graptolite (Hemichordata, Pterobranchia) preservation and identification in the Cambrian Series 3." Palaeontology 58, no. 6 (October 9, 2015): 1073–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pala.12200.

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35

Hart, M. W., R. L. Miller, and L. P. Madin. "Form and feeding mechanism of a living Planctosphaera pelagica (phylum Hemichordata)." Marine Biology 120, no. 4 (November 1994): 521–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00350072.

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36

Osborn, Karen J., Linda A. Kuhnz, Imants G. Priede, Makoto Urata, Andrey V. Gebruk, and Nicholas D. Holland. "Diversification of acorn worms (Hemichordata, Enteropneusta) revealed in the deep sea." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1733 (November 16, 2011): 1646–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1916.

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Enteropneusts (phylum Hemichordata), although studied extensively because of their close relationship to chordates, have long been considered shallow-water, burrowing animals. The present paper more than doubles the number of enteropneust species recorded in the deep sea based on high-resolution imaging and sampling with remotely operated vehicles. We provide direct evidence that some enteropneusts are highly mobile—using changes in posture and currents to drift between feeding sites—and are prominent members of deep, epibenthic communities. In addition, we provide ecological information for each species. We also show that despite their great morphological diversity, most deep-living enteropneusts form a single clade (the rediagnosed family Torquaratoridae) on the basis of rDNA sequences and morphology of the proboscis skeleton and stomochord. The phylogenetic position of the torquaratorids indicates that the group, after evolving from near-shore ancestors, radiated extensively in the deep sea.

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37

Takacs, Carter M., Vanessa N. Moy, and Kevin J. Peterson. "Testing putative hemichordate homologues of the chordate dorsal nervous system and endostyle: expression of NK2.1 (TTF-1) in the acorn worm Ptychodera flava (Hemichordata, Ptychoderidae)." Evolution and Development 4, no. 6 (November 2002): 405–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-142x.2002.02029.x.

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38

Castresana, Jose, Gertraud Feldmaier-Fuchs, Shin-ichi Yokobori, Noriyuki Satoh, and Svante Pääbo. "The Mitochondrial Genome of the Hemichordate Balanoglossus carnosus and the Evolution of Deuterostome Mitochondria." Genetics 150, no. 3 (November 1, 1998): 1115–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/genetics/150.3.1115.

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Abstract The complete nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial genome of the hemichordate Balanoglossus carnosus (acorn worm) was determined. The arrangement of the genes encoding 13 protein, 22 tRNA, and 2 rRNA genes is essentially the same as in vertebrates, indicating that the vertebrate and hemichordate mitochondrial gene arrangement is close to that of their common ancestor, and, thus, that it has been conserved for more than 600 million years, whereas that of echinoderms has been rearranged extensively. The genetic code of hemichordate mitochondria is similar to that of echinoderms in that ATA encodes isoleucine and AGA serine, whereas the codons AAA and AGG, whose amino acid assignments also differ between echinoderms and vertebrates, are absent from the B. carnosus mitochondrial genome. There are three noncoding regions of length 277, 41, and 32 bp: the larger one is likely to be equivalent to the control region of other deuterostomes, while the two others may contain transcriptional promoters for genes encoded on the minor coding strand. Phylogenetic trees estimated from the inferred protein sequences indicate that hemichordates are a sister group of echinoderms.

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39

Miller, DC. "Response of Saccoglossus kowalevskii (Phylum Hemichordata, Class Enteropneusta) to changes in diet." Marine Ecology Progress Series 87 (1992): 41–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps087041.

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40

Dilly, P. N. "Feeding and gut contents inCephalodiscus nigrescens(Hemichordata, Pterobranchia) from the Weddell Sea." Journal of Zoology 230, no. 1 (May 1993): 63–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1993.tb02672.x.

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41

Rigby, Susan. "Erect tube growth inRhabdopleura compacta(Hemichordata: Pterobranchia) from off Start Point, Devon." Journal of Zoology 233, no. 3 (July 1994): 449–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1994.tb05276.x.

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42

Dilly, Peter Noel, Ulrich Welsch, and Gerd Rehkämper. "On the Fine Structure of the Alimentary Tract ofCephalodiscus gracilis(Pterobranchia, Hemichordata)." Acta Zoologica 67, no. 2 (June 1986): 87–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-6395.1986.tb00852.x.

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43

Dobbs, FC, and JB Guckert. "Microbial food resources of the macrofaunal-deposit feeder Ptychodera bahamensis (Hemichordata: Enteropneusta)." Marine Ecology Progress Series 45 (1988): 127–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps045127.

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44

Osborn, Karen J., Andrey V. Gebruk, Antonina Rogacheva, and Nicholas D. Holland. "An Externally Brooding Acorn Worm (Hemichordata, Enteropneusta, Torquaratoridae) from the Russian Arctic." Biological Bulletin 225, no. 2 (October 2013): 113–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/bblv225n2p113.

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45

King, G. M., C. Giray, and I. Kornfield. "Biogeographical, biochemical and genetic differentiation among North American saccoglossids (Hemichordata; Enteropneusta; Harrimaniidae)." Marine Biology 123, no. 2 (August 1995): 369–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00353628.

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46

FRANZÉN, ÅKE. "Sperm ultrastructure in the enteropneustSchizocardium sp(Hemichordata, Enteropneusta) and possible phylogenetic implications." Invertebrate Reproduction & Development 39, no. 1 (April 2001): 37–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07924259.2001.9652465.

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Dautov, S. S., and L. P. Nezlin. "Nervous System of the Tornaria Larva (Hemichordata: Enteropneusta). A Histochemical and Ultrastructural Study." Biological Bulletin 183, no. 3 (December 1992): 463–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1542023.

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Smith, Shannon E., Rob Douglas, Karen Burke da Silva, and Billie J. Swalla. "Morphological and molecular identification of Saccoglossus species (Hemichordata: Harrimaniidae) in the Pacific Northwest." Canadian Journal of Zoology 81, no. 1 (January 1, 2003): 133–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z02-228.

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Abstract:

Hemichordates, especially enteropneust worms, have become increasingly important in phylogenetic studies to test theories of chordate evolution. However, there are many populations of enteropneusts along the Pacific Northwest coast of North America that have not been identified. Here we show that two common Pacific Northwest enteropneust species, Saccoglossus pusillus and Saccoglossus bromophenolosus, can be distinguished by both morphological and molecular characters, and we identify several populations of both species. We compare them with a closely related species, Saccoglossus kowalevskii, from the Atlantic coast of North America. We compile the morphological characters used to distinguish harrimaniid enteropneusts, and we describe a new staining method to examine the gill bars and proboscis skeleton of enteropneusts to aid in identification. Using 18S and 16S ribosomal DNA sequences, we determine that the range of S. pusillus extends from southern California, where the worm was first identified, to southern Canada. This previously unknown large range shows a dramatic geographic cline in adult body size, with the smallest populations found in the south and the largest adults near Vancouver Island. In contrast, S. bromophenolosus may be a Pacific Northwest species that was relatively recently introduced from the Atlantic Ocean.

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Dilly, Peter Noel, Ulrich Welsch, and Gerd Rehkämper. "Fine Structure of Heart, Pericardium and Glomerular Vessel inCephalodiscus gracilisM'Intosh, 1882 (Pterobranchia, Hemichordata)." Acta Zoologica 67, no. 3 (September 1986): 173–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-6395.1986.tb00861.x.

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Dilly, Peter Noel, Ulrich Welsch, and Gerd Rehkämper. "Fine Structure of Tentacles, Arms and Associated Coelomic Structures ofCephalodiscus gracilis(Pterobranchia, Hemichordata)." Acta Zoologica 67, no. 3 (September 1986): 181–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-6395.1986.tb00862.x.

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