Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Higher cognitive functions'

CONSELHO NACIONAL DE DESENVOLVIMENTO CIENTÍFICO E TECNOLÓGICO
Esta tese investiga a possível relação existente entre dois aspectos tidos como centrais na cognição humana: a capacidade de qualquer criança sem impedimentos de ordem neurológica ou social adquirir uma língua e a possibilidade de habilidades cognitivas superiores que, tais como a língua, são específicas da espécie, serem desenvolvidas. No que tange às habilidades superiores, são focalizadas habilidades numéricas dependentes do cálculo com quantidades exatas e a habilidade de integrar informações provenientes de diferentes domínios cognitivos. Esse tópico é explorado tomando como eixo duas propriedades cruciais das línguas: representacionalidade e recursividade. Ambas estão vinculadas ao fato de as línguas serem sistemas de natureza representacional – dado que incluem um léxico – e incorporarem um sistema computacional que opera recursivamente. Parte-se de uma proposta teórica (Corrêa, 2005-2009; Correa & Augusto, 2007) que visa a articular uma teoria psicolingüística da aquisição e do processamento da linguagem com a concepção de língua expressa no Programa Minimalista (Chomsky, 1995-2007), aliada à idéia de que a língua forneceria o suporte necessário para a combinação de informação advinda de diferentes sistemas de representação vinculados a vários domínios da cognição (Spelke, 1992-2010). A hipótese de trabalho que orienta esta pesquisa é a de que o papel da língua no desenvolvimento das habilidades superiores em questão vincula-se diretamente às duas propriedades cruciais mencionadas: representacionalidade – no caso da cognição numérica, o fato de a língua poder vir a fornecer uma representação exata para a numerosidade por meio dos numerais – e recursividade, definida como um mecanismo que possibilita a integração de informação de natureza diversa e como propriedade compartilhada por estruturas que podem estar associadas a diferentes domínios da cognição. São reportados dois conjuntos de experimentos, cada um voltado para questões centradas na representação e na recursividade, respectivamente. Cinco experimentos foram conduzidos com crianças de 2-6 anos, tendo um grupo de adultos como controle. Um experimento elaborado com vistas a verificar se haveria priming de estruturas recursivas entre os domínios lingüístico e matemático foi conduzido apenas com adultos. Adicionalmente, o desempenho de quatro adultos com quadros de afasia foi avaliado em uma tarefa de cada conjunto de experimentos. Os resultados dos experimentos vinculados à representacionalidade sugerem uma sensibilidade precoce das crianças às propriedades que distinguem numerais de outras formas de expressão de quantidade. Numerais parecem ser associados preferencialmente à codificação de quantidades exatas mesmo antes de a aquisição do significado de cada item (um a cinco) ser completada. Os resultados de dois experimentos relacionados à recursividade indicam que as dificuldades atribuídas a crianças de até 6 anos de idade com estruturas recursivas podem ser decorrentes de fatores não-lingüísticos assim como de possíveis problemas metodológicos. Não foram encontrados resultados compatíveis com um efeito de priming estrutural interdomínios, quando comparadas sentenças relativas e expressões numéricas recursivas. Tomados em conjunto, os resultados mostram-se consistentes com a hipótese de trabalho e podem ser considerados como indicativos de que a aquisição de uma língua contribui para o desenvolvimento de habilidades específicas relacionadas à cognição numérica, mas sugerem cautela quando transferências entre domínios cognitivos são consideradas.
This thesis investigates the possible relationship between two central aspects of the human cognition, namely, the capacity of any child to acquire a natural language (in the absence of neurological or social impairments) and the development of high cognitive abilities, which appear to be specifically human. As far as the latter is concerned, numeral abilities involving calculus with exact quantities and the ability to integrate information from different cognitive domains are focused on here. Two fundamental aspects of human languages are considered in this regard: representation, in so far as languages include a lexicon, and recursion, in so far as they incorporate a computational system that operates on lexical items recursively. This study is inserted into a research program aiming at articulating a minimalist conception of language with a theory of language processing and acquisition (Corrêa, 2005-2009; Correa & Augusto, 2007). The idea that language is crucial for the integration of information from different cognitive systems (Spelke, 1992-2010) is also incorporated here. The working hypothesis guiding this investigation is that the role of language in the development of numerical abilities can be related to those two fundamental aspects: language provides the means of representing exact quantities, in so far as the lexicon includes numerals (number words) and is endowed with recursive operations that enable information stemming from different domains to be integrated in a single linguistic expression. Moreover, recursion is a property that can be shared by systems pertaining to different cognitive domains. Two sets of experiments are reported, each of them devoted to questions pertaining to representation and recursion, respectively. Five experiments were conducted with 2-6 year olds and adults. An experiment carried out only with adults explored the possibility of a cross-domain priming effect to be obtained when recursive structures (sentences with relative clauses and recursive numeral expressions) are sequentially presented. Additionally, four aphasic patients were submitted to one task of each set of experiments. The results suggest early sensitivity to the distinction between numerals and other sorts of number words (quantifiers). Numerals appear to be associated with exact quantities even before their exact meaning (from 1- 5) has been acquired. Recursion appears to be operating before the age of six. Difficulties in dealing with the processing of recursive linguistic structures usually ascribed to children appear to be due to non-linguistic factors and/or to methodological problems in the assessment of children’s recursive abilities. Cross domain structural priming effects failed to be obtained. As a whole, the results are compatible with the hypothesis orienting this thesis, though caution is required when cross domain effects are considered.

An important aspect of cognitive neuroscience is to localise specific brain regions involved in cognitive tasks, and to determine the mediating brain processes. There are several investigative approaches towards this, but amongst them, only transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is able to interfere with the brain in such a way as to show the critical involvement of a brain region in a particular behaviour. TMS can be applied in normal subjects during the performance of a cognitive task and the resulting disruption of activity in the targeted brain region leads to an alteration in, or suspension of, behaviour consequent upon that brain activity. More recently, another brain stimulation technique has emerged that may also be able to contribute to the investigation of human cognition. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) applies a weak direct current to a targeted brain region, modulating cortical excitability and thereby altering the behavioural output. tDCS may be able to provide information that complements TMS and other investigative techniques by modulating behaviour in a way that depends on the role the brain region is carrying out in the task. This thesis describes a series of experiments in which TMS and tDCS were applied to two well-studied cognitive behaviours, working memory (WM) and mental rotation (MR). WM is the temporary retention of information that can be manipulated in order to guide behaviour. The most popular psychological model of WM proposes a multi-modal central executive (CE) that acts upon information stored in dedicated buffers (Baddeley, 1986). The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is a strong candidate as a key CE node (D'Esposito & Postle, 2000; Petrides, 2000b; Smith & Jonides, 1997; Stuss & Knight, 2002). MR is a visuo-cognitive process by which an image can be mentally modified into an orientation other than the one in which it is displayed (Corballis & McLaren, 1984). The area centred around the intraparietal sulcus is a brain key region for MR (Alivisatos & Petrides, 1996; Harris et al., 2000; Jordan et al., 2001). The work presented in this thesis examines the roles of the DLPFC and posterior parietal cortex (PPC) in WM and MR, respectively, and also highlights some of the methodological issues that are necessary to consider in order to produce reliable virtual lesions. The studies were carried out in young healthy volunteers, and were approved by the institutional ethics committee. In one study, repetitive TMS (rTMS) was shown to disrupt the manipulation of verbal information held in WM when administered over the right DLPFC, a result which supports a process-based segregation of the human prefrontal cortex for WM. Low- and high-frequency rTMS did not disrupt performance on another popular test of executive processing, n-back, a result which suggests that specific stimulation and task conditions must be met in order to produce virtual lesions, but also questions the critical importance of recruitment of the DLPFC for a running span task. rTMS applied to the right PPC replicated results from a previous TMS investigation, supporting the critical role this region in the rotation of images (Harris & Miniussi, 2003). When the left PPC was stimulated, impairment was produced only for the rotation of inverted stimuli. A role for the left PPC in the rotation of objects-as-a-whole is proposed based on these findings. The use of tDCS in the investigation of WM and MR is amongst the first to be described. Stimulation of the left DLPFC led to decreased performance accuracy on a verbal WM task in a polarity-specific manner. The pattern of results produced supports the role of the DLPFC as a node of a CE. tDCS over the left DLPFC did not modulate n-back task performance, a result which supports the TMS results that the involvement of the left DLPFC is not critical to the successful performance of the n-back task, although methodological issues remain of concern in relation to this conclusion. MR was not affected by tDCS applied to the right PPC and this result is most likely a direct demonstration of the importance of electrode montage. In conclusion, these studies show that rTMS and tDCS can be usefully applied to create virtual cortical lesions or modulate cortical excitability during the performance of cognitive tasks in humans, and can play an important role in investigating cognitive neuropsychological models. More widespread use of these techniques to complement lesion studies and functional neuroimaging is recommended.

Ce travail de thèse s’articule autour de trois études complémentaires. La première aborde la validation française d’un test rapide d’évaluation des fonctions supérieures: le Barrow Neurological Institute Screen for higher cerebral functions (B.N.I.S). Cette étude a permis de rendre disponible en langue française un outil rapide qui évalue les fonctions cognitives classiques mais aussi les capacités émotionnelles et sociocognitives, fonctions généralement non intégrées dans ce type de test. La seconde étude, menée auprès de participants présentant un Mild Cognitive Impairment (M.C.I), a ensuite permis de mettre en évidence la nécessité de prendre en compte l’évaluation émotionnelle. Les participants M.C.I présentent un profil spécifique au B.N.I.S., notamment aux subtests d’affectivité, d’orientation, de mémoire et d’auto-évaluation de la performance mnésique. Enfin, la troisième étude analyse les performances de reconnaissance faciale des émotions et de raisonnement social au cours du vieillissement normal, le Mild Cognitive Impairment et la démence de type Alzheimer (DTA) au stade débutant. Nous observons un déclin des capacités de reconnaissance faciale des émotions et de raisonnement social au cours du vieillissement normal qui s’accentue significativement au cours de la DTA. Un profil spécifique est retrouvé pour le M.C.I avec un déclin en raisonnement social mais des capacités de reconnaissance faciale émotionnelle comparables aux sujets âgés du groupe contrôle. L’évaluation des capacités émotionnelles devrait être davantage intégrée aux bilans neuropsychologiques afin de mieux orienter les modalités de prise en charge de la population vieillissante
This research presents three complementary studies: (1) the french validation of the Barrow Neurological Institute Screen for higher cerebral functions (B.N.I.S), developed by G. Prigatano in 1991. We have assessed 167 subjects from 15 to 84 years within a french population. The goal is :1) to promote a new short screening instrument dedicated to cognitive and emotional functions, usually emotional functions are not integrated in neuropsychological assessments ; (2) to apply the B.N.I.S to Mild Cognitive Impairment (M.C.I) subjects (N=39) in order to highlighted the importance of the emotional assessment in this type of population and found a specific profile at the substests named: affectivity, orientation, memory and self-assessment of the mnesic performance ; (3) to analyze, with more precision, the performance of emotional facial recognition and social reasoning during normal ageing (N=54), M.C.I (N=25) and Alzheimer disease (AD) at the early stage (N=17). A decline of sociocognitive capacities is observed during the ageing and seems to become more important during the course of M.C.I and the AD. A specific profile was found for each group. The assessment of emotional capacities seems relevant and should be more integrated into the neuropsychological assessments, in order to improve diagnosis and to propose the best modalities of care for the ageing population

PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO
CONSELHO NACIONAL DE DESENVOLVIMENTO CIENTÍFICO E TECNOLÓGICO
PROGRAMA DE SUPORTE À PÓS-GRADUAÇÃO DE INSTS. DE ENSINO
Nesta tese, investiga-se a hipótese de que a aquisição de um traço sintático de Ponto de Vista (PoV) e sua codificação em CPs de orações completivas subcategorizadas por verbos de crença seja condição necessária para o desenvolvimento pleno de Teoria da Mente (TM), caracterizado pelo domínio da habilidade de raciocinar e prever ações de indivíduos que possuem uma Crença Falsa (CF), atingido por crianças aproximadamente aos quatro anos de idade (cf. DE VILLIERS E DE VILLIERS, 2009) (doravante, Hipótese PoV-CF). Especificamente, esta pesquisa visou a: averiguar em que medida a HPoV-CF pode ser sustentada; avaliar a possibilidade de se incorporar um traço PoV a um modelo online de computação sintática baseado nos pressupostos minimalistas (CORRÊA E AUGUSTO, 2007; 2011); e caracterizar o processo de aquisição do conhecimento relativo a esse traço à luz de uma teoria procedimental de aquisição da linguagem (CORRÊA, 2009). São apresentadas três possíveis análises de PoV codificado como traço formal ou semântico em completivas. Argumenta-se que, independentemente da caracterização desse traço, a aquisição do conhecimento que este representa dependeria inevitavelmente de um bootstrapping semântico, o que pressupõe a habilidade cognitiva de distinguir pontos de vista. No que concerne à investigação empírica, oito experimentos foram conduzidos. Os experimentos 1 a 6 visavam a investigar a habilidade de crianças de 3;3-3;5 anos em lidar com diferentes demandas requeridas à realização das tarefas tradicionais de CF e de Memória para Complementos (cujos resultados corroboram a HPoVCF), como a habilidade em lidar com interrogativas QU de objeto, a factividade de verbos mentais e factualidade. Foi também investigada a habilidade dessas crianças em lidar com tarefas linguísticas que incluem uma situação de CF. No Experimento 7, foi avaliada a habilidade das crianças em atribuir valores-verdade a completivas e a ambas as orações da sentença complexa. No experimento 8, o papel da recursividade linguística para o raciocínio sobre CFs de primeira e segunda ordem foi investigado, com crianças de 6;2 anos. De um modo geral, os resultados sugerem que i) as crianças não dominam demandas inerentes às tarefas tradicionais, indicando que seu insucesso nessas tarefas pode não refletir uma dificuldade em lidar com completivas ou com CFs; ii) as crianças atribuem corretamente valores-verdade a completivas, embora a atribuição de valor-verdade à oração principal (sentença completa) independentemente do valor da completiva seja mais custosa; iii) o raciocínio de CFs de primeira e segunda ordem pode ser conduzido por meio de estruturas não recursivas, embora estruturas recursivas pareçam facilitá-lo. Tendo-se em vista os resultados obtidos e à luz do possível processo de aquisição assumido, considera-se que a HPoV-CF não pode ser sustentada. Habilidades metacognitivas parecem ser requeridas para que a criança ignore o valor-verdade da completiva ao atribuir um valor-verdade à sentença completa. Argumenta-se que um possível papel para as completivas no desenvolvimento de TM seria o de prover uma representação que pode ser usada como recurso para facilitar (não sustentar) o raciocínio sobre CFs.
This dissertation investigates the hypothesis that acquiring knowledge concerning the syntactic feature Point-of-View (PoV) in CPs of complement clauses (CCs) subcategorized by verbs of belief is a necessary condition for children to achieve a fully developed Theory of Mind (ToM) – the ability to ascribe false beliefs (FBs) to others and to predict their reasoning and action based on it (usually achieved by 4 years of age) (cf. DE VILLIERS AND DE VILLIERS, 2009) (henceforth, PoV-FBHypothesis). In particular, this study aimed to verify the extent to which PoV-FBH can be maintained; to evaluate the possibility of incorporating a PoV feature in an on-line model of syntactic computation grounded in minimalist assumptions (Corrêa & Augusto, 2007; 2011) and to characterize the developmental course of the acquisition of knowledge concerning this feature in the light of a procedural theory of language acquisition (Corrêa, 2009). The possibility of PoV being represented as a formal feature or as a semantic feature was considered in three analyses of CCs. It is argued that no matter how this feature is characterized, the acquisition of the knowledge it represents would inevitably rely on semantic bootstrapping, which presupposes the cognitive ability of distinguishing points of view. As for the empirical investigation, 8 experiments were conducted. Experiments 1-6 aimed at assessing 3;3-3;5 year olds ability to cope with a number of the demands of the traditional FB and Memory for Complements (MC) tasks, which supports PoVFBH, such as the ability to cope with object WH, the factivity of mental verbs and factuality. The production of CCs and childrens ability to cope with a linguistic task that includes a FB situation were also investigated. In experiment 7, childrens ability to assign truth-values to CCs and for both clauses of the complex sentence was evaluated. In Experiment 8 the role of language recursion for first- and second-order FB reasoning was investigated with 6;2 year-old children. In general, the results suggested that i) childrens failure on the traditional FB and MC tasks does not necessarily mean difficulty in dealing with CCs or FBs, insofar as they do not cope with most of the demands these tasks presuppose; ii) 3 year olds correctly assign truth-values to CCs, though assigning the truth-value for the main clause (the whole sentence) independently of the truth-value of the CC is particularly costly; iii) first- and second-order FB reasoning can be undertaken on the basis of non-recursive structures, although recursive structures seem to facilitate it. In sum, both in the light of the possible developmental courses of acquisition considered here and on the basis of the results obtained, it would be hard for the PoV-FBH to be maintained, as it stands. Metacognitive abilities may be required for children to be able to ignore the truthvalue of the CC when assigning a truth-value for the complex sentence. It is argued that the possible role of CCs in the development of ToM is to provide a representation that can be used to facilitate FB reasoning, not to support it.

Iskustvo u radu sa studentima pokazalo je da studenti nedovoljno ĉesto ostvaruju zadovoljavajuće ishode uĉenja na lingvistiĉkim predmetima na studijama engleskog jezika, što je takoĊe opisano i u stranoj literaturi. Kao jedan od razloga navodi se nastava koja upućuje studente na pasivnost, te oni pribegavaju memorisanju i reprodukciji materijala kao najĉešćim ishodima uĉenja. Biggs (1999) razraĊuje koncepte dubinskog i površinskog pristupa uĉenju, koje relevantna literatura smatra kljuĉnim faktorima za kvalitet ishoda uĉenja. Dubinski pristup uĉenju korelira sa kvalitetnim ishodima uĉenja i funkcionalnim znanjem, a karakterišu ga motivacija, zadovoljstvo usled uĉenja, studentska aktivnost i to aktivnost visokih kognitivnih funkcija. Visoke kognitivne funkcije (Bloom i dr. 1956, Anderson i dr. 2001) i povezane kognitivne radnje (rešavanje problema, analitiĉko, kritiĉko i kreativno razmišljanje) jesu najvaţniji ciljevi visokog obrazovanja jer samo one, usled primene transfera uĉenja, govore o steĉenom i primenljivom, tj. funkcionalnom znanju. Obuka i razvoj visokih kognitivnih funkcija omogući će studentima da uĉenju pristupe dubinski što je još jedan razlog da budu osnovni nastavni cilj svih predmeta na ustanovama tercijarnog obrazovanja. U skladu sa ovim teorijskim postavkama postavljene su osnovna i pomoćna hipoteza: upotreba posebno konstruisanih veţbi za aktivaciju viših kognitivnih funkcija u nastavi lingvistiĉkih predmeta dovešće do sticanja funkcionalnog znanja na teorijskom i praktiĉnom nivou; steĉeno znanje kroz ovakvu eksperimentalnu nastavu i upotreba tog znanja odraţavaće kognitivne funkcije ne samo niţeg nego i višeg reda: primeniti, analizirati, proceniti, stvoriti, kao i kritiĉko i kreativno razmišljanje i rešavanje problema. Kako bi se proverile hipoteze, sproveden je eksperiment sa studentima prve godine engleskog jezika (N=34) na Fakultetu za pravne i poslovne studije dr Lazar Vrkatić u Novom Sadu. U istraţivanju sa paralelnim grupama, eksperimentalna grupa je imala veţbe sa aktivnostima koje razvijaju više kognitivne funkcije na predmetu uvod u opštu lingvistiku tokom zimskog semestra školske 2012/2013. godine. UporeĊeni su kvantitativni rezultati kolokvijuma eksperimentalne i kontrolne grupe na kraju semestra, a potom je sproveden intervju sa po pet studenata iz svake grupe radi utvrĊivanja kvalitativnih razlika u kognitivnim procesima kod ove dve grupe. Obe grupe su ostvarile podjednak uspeh na kolokvijumu, te je osnovna hipoteza odbaĉena. Kodirani podaci iz intervjua pokazali su da obe grupe podjednako koriste kognitivne funkcije po broju i distribuciji, te je i pomoćna hipoteza odbaĉena. Kao objašnjenje za odsustvo većeg uspeha EG navedena su metodološka ograniĉenja istraţivanja: duţina eksperimentalne nastave, problem dokazivosti transfera i problem kodiranja intervjua. Drugi faktori koji mogu objasniti neuspeh su: prethodno steĉene navike u uĉenju, neshvatanje svrhe izuĉavanja predmeta i dr. UporeĊeni su rezultati boljih i slabijih studenata, te je utvrĊeno da bolji studenti pokazuju veći stepen samostalnosti, da upotrebljavaju više kognitivne funkcije kao i duţe nizove kognitivnih radnji. Posmatrajući kvalitativne podatke, bolji studenti eksperimentalne grupe pokazali su promenu gledanja na svet usled izuĉavanja lingvistike i izrazili su zadovoljstvo zbog uĉenja ovog predmeta. Oni pokazuju i upotrebu najduţih nizova vezanih kognitivnih radnji. Iz ovoga se moţe zakljuĉiti da su oni pristupili uĉenju dubinski i zbog toga ostvarili kvalitetnije ishode uĉenja. U cilju donošenja ĉvrstih zakljuĉaka neophodno je sprovesti dugotrajniji i obuhvatniji multidiciplinarni istraţivaĉki projekat, s obzirom da bi pozitivni rezultati bili od velikog znaĉaja za poboljšanje ishoda uĉenja na tercijarnom nivou obrazovanja. Ključne reči: uĉenje i nastava na tercijarnom nivou, taksonomija obrazovnih ciljeva, pristupi uĉenju, više kognitivne funkcije, transfer uĉenja, funckionalno znanje.
The experience of working with university students has shown that the learning outcomes of linguistic courses are infrequently satisfactory, which is also described in literature worldwide. Teaching philosophy in which students are forced into passives roles is one of the causes since such teaching results in low motivation with memorizing and reproduction of learned materials as the most frequent outcomes of learning. Biggs (1999) develops the concepts of deep and superficial learning approaches which have been declared in the relevant literature as key factors for the quality of learning outcomes. Deep approach to learning correlates with high quality learning outcomes, and is characterized by high motivation, satisfaction with learning and student activity of appropriately high cognitive levels. Higher cognitive functions (Bloom et. al. 1956, Anderson at al. 2001) and related cognitive activities (problem solving, analytical, critical and creative thinking) are the most important goals of higher education since these thinking skills are transferable and therefore represent applicable and functional knowledge. The training and development of the higher cognitive skills enables students to use deep approaches to learning, which is an additional reason to consider them as fundamental teaching goals in all courses in tertiary education. Based on this theoretical framework the main hypothesis and sub-hypothesis were formulated as follows: the use of specially designed practices which activate higher cognitive functions (HCF) will result in acquiring functional knowledge at both theoretical and practical levels; the knowledge gained through such teaching will reflect the use of higher cognitive functions: apply, analyze, evaluate, create, as well as show problem solving skills and critical and creative thinking. To test the hypotheses an experiment was conducted with the first year English language students (N=34) at the Faculty of Legal and Business Studies dr Lazar Vrkatić in Novi Sad. In the parallel groups design, the experimental group (EG) was involved with activities which develop HCFs in the course of Introduction to General Linguistics during the winter semester of the 2012/2013. Quantitative data were collected at the end of the semester (the final test) and compared between the two groups to determine whether the EG scored better results than the control group (CG). This was followed by interviews with five respondents from each group to qualitatively compare the cognitive processes. No statistically significant difference between test results in the two groups was found and so the main hypothesis was rejected. The coded data from the interviews showed an equal number of identified CFs with both groups with similar distribution patterns, thus the sub-hypothesis was also rejected. The absence of better scores of the EG can be explained by some methodological limitations of the experiment, such as the length of the experimental activities, the problem of proof of transfer and the coding of the interview data. Other factors include the existing learning habits of students, the inability to grasp the purpose of studying linguistics, etc. The results of better students were compared to those of the weaker ones, which showed that better students are more autonomous, use a greater number of HCFs and string more CFs into a complex response. Qualitative data also showed that better students of the experimental group expressed a change in how they see the world around them and express satisfaction because of studying linguistics. They also string the longest chains of cognitive activities. These findings lead to a conclusion that better students of the EG used deep approaches to learning which resulted in higher quality learning outcomes. In order to achieve conclusive results, a comprehensive long-term multidisciplinary research project should be carried out, since its results would have a significant impact on the quality of learning outcomes in tertiary education.

Higher-order cognitive functions, such as executive function (EF) and intelligence, are crucial to the everyday functioning of human beings. Gaining knowledge about these functions is important for our general understanding of human nature as well as for our ability to help those who may not develop these processes optimally. The present thesis focused particularly on the EF component working memory (WM), described as the ability to maintain informa-tion in consciousness during short time periods with the purpose of using that information in complex cognition. The major aims of the thesis were to increase our understanding of higher-order cognition in children as well as of deficiencies in intelligence found in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). We approached these aims by studying the interrelations among EF-related components in terms of their independent contributions to intellectual functioning. We also studied whether the lower intelligence in children with ADHD was mediated by fundamental EF-related components or whether these deficiencies went beyond the weaknesses in these specific cognitive functions.

Interpreting the present data, we suggest that intellectual functioning in children is best viewed as representing a system of primarily independent parts that may be accompanied by an overarching common mechanism. The multiple components involve, but are surely not limited to, WM functions, inhibitory functions, sustained attention, and processing speed. One of these functions, WM, was found to be further partitioned into domain-specific executive WM processes and domain-specific short-term storage processes, all of which constitute important aspects of higher-order cognitive functioning. We have further learned that deficits in fluid intelligence in children with ADHD may entail more than weaknesses in specific central cognitive functions. This additional deficit is cautiously interpreted as involving supe-rior executive attention functions setting the stage for the development and integration of the EF system as well as the “intelligence system”.

Decision confidence offers a window on introspection and onto the evaluation mechanisms associated with decision-making. Nonetheless we do not have yet a thorough understanding of its neurophysiological and computational substrate. There are mainly two experimental paradigms to measure decision confidence in animals: post-decision wagering and uncertain option. In this thesis we explore and try to shed light on the computational mechanisms underlying confidence based decision-making in both experimental paradigms. We propose that a double-layer attractor neural network can account for neural recordings and behavior of rats in a post-decision wagering experiment. In this model a decision-making layer takes the perceptual decision and a separate confidence layer monitors the activity of the decision-making layer and makes a judgment about the confidence in the decision. Moreover we test the prediction of the model by analyizing neuronal data from monkeys performing a decision-making task. We show the existence of neurons in ventral Premotor cortex that encode decision confidence. We also found that both a continuous and discrete encoding of decision confidence are present in the primate brain. In particular we show that different neurons encode confidence through three different mechanisms: 1. Switch time coding, 2. rate coding and 3. binary coding. Furthermore we propose a multiple-choice attractor network model in order to account for uncertain option tasks. In this model the confidence emerges from the stochastic dynamics of decision neurons, thus making a separate monitoring network (like in the model of the post-decision wagering task) unnecessary. The model explains the behavioral and neural data recorded in monkeys lateral intraparietal area as a result of the multistable dynamics of the attractor network, whereby it is possible to make several testable predictions. The rich neurophysiological representation and computational mechanisms of decision confidence evidence the basis of different functional aspects of confidence in the making of a decision.
El estudio de la confianza en la decisión ofrece una perspectiva ventajosa sobre los procesos de introspección y sobre los procesos de evaluación de la toma de decisiones. No obstante todav'ia no tenemos un conocimiento exhaustivo del sustrato neurofisiológico y computacional de la confianza en la decisión. Existen principalmente dos paradigmas experimentales para medir la confianza en la decisión en los sujetos no humanos: apuesta post-decisional (post-decision wagering) y opción insegura (uncertain option). En esta tesis tratamos de aclarar los mecanísmos computacionales que subyacen a los procesos de toma de decisiones y juicios de confianza en ambos paradigmas experimentales. El modelo que proponemos para explicar los experimentos de apuesta post-decisional es una red neuronal de atractores de dos capas. En este modelo la primera capa se encarga de la toma de decisiones, mientras la segunda capa vigila la actividad de la primera capa y toma un juicio sobre la confianza en la decisión. Sucesivamente testeamos la predicción de este modelo analizando la actividad de neuronas registrada en el cerebro de dos monos, mientras estos desempeñaban una tarea de toma de decisiones. Con este análisis mostramos la existencia de neuronas en la corteza premotora ventral que codifican la confianza en la decisión. Nuestros resultados muestran también que en el cerebro de los primates existen tanto neuronas que codifican confianza como neuronas que la codifican de forma continua. Más en específico mostramos que existen tres mecanismos de codificación: 1. codificación por tiempo de cambio, 2. codificación por tasa de disparo, 3. codificación binaria. En relación a las tareas de opción insegura proponemos un modelo de red de atractores para opciones multiplas. En este modelo la confianza emerge de la dinámica estocástica de las neuronas de decisión, volviéndose así innecesaria la supervisión del proceso de toma de decisiones por parte de otra red (como en el modelo de la tarea de apuesta post-decisional). El modelo explica los datos de comportamiento de los monos y los registros de la actividad de neuronas del área lateral intraparietal como efectos de la dinámica multiestable de la red de atractores. Además el modelo produce interesantes y novedosas predicciones que se podrán testear en experimentos futuros. La compleja representación neurofisiológica y los distintos mecanísmos computacionales que emergen de este trabajo sugieren distintos aspectos funcionales de la confianza en la toma de decisiones.

Objective. The goal of the present study was to investigate whether high frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (HFS STN), for the treatment of motor signs and symptoms characteristic of Parkinson disease (PD), has detrimental consequences for cognitive processing. Methods . An extensive battery of neuropsychological tests was administered to 15 PD patients with bilateral implantation of high frequency stimulators of the subthalamic nucleus for the treatment of PD. Patients were tested in two sessions: during one session the stimulator was set to a satisfactory therapeutic level and in the other the stimulator was set to OFF. Results. Statistically significant differences between sessions were not observed on task variables measuring executive function, verbal working memory, attention, language, visuospatial perception and verbal and visuospatial memory. In contrast, significant improvements with stimulation were observed for motor signs and symptoms and on tasks measuring skilled motor function. Conclusion. We investigated the specific cognitive effects of HFS STN in non-demented patients diagnosed with late stage PD. Our findings suggest that in relatively young patients with no symptoms of dementia or psychiatric disorder, the impact on cognitive processing is minimal.

Bipolar disorder (BD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) are characterised by a fundamental disturbance of mood, with strong support for overlapping causal pathways. Structural brain and neurocognitive abnormalities have been associated with mood disorders, but it is unknown whether these reflect early adverse effects predisposing to mood disorders or emerge as a consequence of illness onset. The Bipolar Family Study is well-suited to examine the origin of structural brain and neuropsychological abnormalities in mood disorders further. The volumes of subcortical brain regions, cortical thickness and surface area measures of frontal and temporal regions of interest and neuropsychological performance over a two-year time interval was compared at baseline and longitudinally between three groups: young individuals at high risk of mood disorders who subsequently developed MDD during the follow-up period (HR-MDD), individuals at high risk of mood disorders who remained well (HR-well), and healthy control subjects (HC). The longitudinal analysis of cortical thickness revealed significant group effects for the right parahippocampal and right fusiform gyrus. Cortical thickness in both of these brain regions across the two time points was reduced in both high-risk groups relative to controls, with the HR-MDD group displaying a thinner parahippocampus gyrus than the HR-well group. Moreover, a significant interaction effect was observed for the left inferior frontal and left precentral gyrus. The HR-well subjects had progressive thickness reductions in these brain regions relative to controls, while the HR-MDD group showed cortical thickening of these areas. Finally, longitudinal analyses of neuropsychological performance revealed a significant group effect for long delay verbal memory and extradimensional set-shifting performance. Reduced neurocognitive performance during both tasks across the two time points was found in the HR-well group relative to controls, with the HR-MDD group displaying decreased extradimensional set-shifting abilities as compared to the HC group only. These findings indicate, that reduced left parahippocampal and fusiform thickness constitute a familial trait marker for vulnerability to mood disorders and may thus form potential neuroanatomic endophenotypes. Particularly strong thickness reductions of the parahippocampal gyrus appear be linked to an onset of MDD. Moreover, progressive thickness reductions in the left inferior frontal and precentral gyrus in early adulthood form a familial trait marker for vulnerability to mood disorders, potentially reflecting early neurodegenerative processes. By contrast, an absence of cortical thinning of these brain regions in early adulthood appears to be linked to the onset of MDD, potentially reflecting a lack or delay of normal synaptic pruning processes. Reduced long delay verbal memory and extradimensional set-shifting performance across time constitute a familial trait marker for vulnerability to mood disorders, likely representing disturbances of normal brain development predisposing to illness. These findings advance our understanding of the origin of structural brain and neurocognitive abnormalities in mood disorders.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2006.
Title from electronic title page (viewed Oct. 10, 2007). "... in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Psychology." Discipline: Psychology; Department/School: Psychology.

Exercise programmes with functional exercises improve lower-limb strength, balance, and gait ability in older people. Exercising at high intensity produce better results than low-intensity training. Perceptions and experiences of exercise impact on motivation to and attendance in exercise programmes. An intake of protein immediately before or after exercising has shown an increase of the exercise effects on muscle mass and strength. However, there are few studies investigating the effects, perceptions or experiences of high-intensity physical exercise in older people with pronounced physical or cognitive impairment. The aims of the thesis were to evaluate the effects on physical performance of high-intensity functional exercise programmes among older people with physical or cognitive impairments, to evaluate the perceptions and describe the experiences of participating, and to investigate whether an intake of protein-enriched energy supplement immediately after the exercises increases the effect of the training. In a single subject experimental design, three frail older women with residual problems after hip fracture performed a functional exercise programme using a weighted belt. Visual and statistical analyses of graphs showed improvements in dynamic balance and in comfortable and maximum gait speed for all three participants. The results were difficult to interpret for isometric knee extension strength and indicated no or very small improvements. One hundred and ninety-one older people with a Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) score of 10 or more, dependent in activities of daily living, and living in residential care facilities, participated in a randomized controlled trial using the intention-to-treat principle. They were randomized to exercise intervention or control activity, both of which included 29 sessions over three months, and to protein-enriched energy supplement or placebo taken immediately after each session. At a three-month follow up the exercise group had improved significantly regarding comfortable gait speed. At six months comfortable gait-speed, Berg Balance Scale, and one repetition maximum in leg press, all improved compared with the control group. The intake of protein- enriched energy supplement did not increase the effects of the exercise. Participants with a MMSE score of 21 or more from the exercise group (n=20), and from the control group (n=28), answered a questionnaire. The perceptions of having participated in the activities were reported in a similarly positive way in both groups. However, significantly more respondents in the exercise group prioritized the exercise above other activities, had had positive outcome expectations, and felt encouraged during the sessions. They reported that, as a result of the exercise, they felt less tired and perceived improvements in lower-limb strength, balance, and safety and security when mobile, to a significantly greater degree than the participants in the control group. The experience of participating in the high-intensity functional exercise programme was described in interviews conducted with nine of the exercise participants. The interviews were analysed using qualitative content analysis. The findings show that the informants believed in positive effects and had a strong will to be active in order to avoid decreased capacity. They were struggling with failing bodies that constituted barriers to exercise. The support from the supervisors and belief in personal success facilitated performance of the exercise. The informants told of improvements in body and soul and that exercising in groups created a sense of togetherness. In conclusion, among older people with physical or cognitive impairments, high-intensity exercise programmes resulted in improved physical performance, both when measured by physical tests and when reported as subjective perceptions. A protein-enriched energy supplement, however, did not increase the exercise effects. Although bodily limitations could constitute barriers to exercise, the respondents communicated positive perceptions and experiences of participating in the high-intensity exercise programmes and reported a low rate of discomfort.

Godkänd; 2008; 20080201 (andbra)

Background An increasing body of research is suggesting that childhood trauma and adversity may be associated with various adverse mental health outcomes, including psychosis. Cognitive functioning is often compromised in psychosis, and research has shown that there may be a link between early trauma and cognitive impairment in people with psychosis. No systematic review of the literature of this link has been undertaken, and very few studies have examined samples of individuals at high clinical risk for psychosis, to assess whether the potential link between adversity and cognitive functioning exists, without the confounding factors of length of illness, antipsychotic medication and chronicity of symptoms. Method The systematic review of all relevant electronic databases investigates the research to date on the association between childhood adverse experiences and cognitive ability in psychosis, and the conclusions that can be drawn from the existing literature, taking into account relevant considerations regarding sample, methodology and statistical analysis. The subsequent empirical study utilizes a sample at clinical high risk of developing psychosis, and a healthy control group to investigate whether any putative association in specific domains of cognitive functioning, or global cognitive ability and childhood adversity exist in those at clinical high risk, compared to controls. Results The systematic review indicated that at present, the literature looking into childhood adversity and cognitive ability in relation to psychosis is heterogeneous, with some studies finding that this association only occurs in patients, whilst others suggest it only occurs in the control groups. Some studies found it to be specific to certain cognitive domains, whilst others suggest it was a more global impairment. Methodology, samples and analysis differed considerably across studies, and likely contribute to the heterogeneity of the literature. The empirical paper showed a significant interaction effect between group (high risk versus controls) in the high childhood adversity group, in relation to global cognitive ability. Interestingly, this was not related to psychotic symptom severity or distress. Conclusion Several limitations of the existing studies limit the conclusions that can be drawn from the existing evidence regarding the link between childhood adversity and cognitive ability, and future research in prodromal samples is essential. The empirical study showed that there is a link between childhood adversity and cognitive ability in those at clinical high risk of developing psychosis, before disorder onset, that is not present in controls. This suggests that this may form a vulnerability in those at high risk for psychosis, rather than a more general mechanism present in the typical population.

xvi, 68 p. : ill.
Approximately 1.5 million concussions occur annually in the United States, many affecting individuals between the ages of 15 and 18. Little is known about this age group's response to a concussion as they have been thought to respond differently than adults due to immature brain development. Additionally, relying on symptoms alone to determine level of brain function may lead to early return back to sport participation. Through the use of 3 computerized tests, neuropsychological and attentional deficit recovery post concussion was assessed between 12 subjects with concussions and 12 controls up to 2 months after injury. Memory tasks and symptoms resolved within a week after injury. Executive function tests showed small group differences up to two months post injury, suggesting these types of tests may be a useful tool in the evaluation of concussion recovery and provide an objective measure in evaluation.
Committee in charge: Dr. Li-Shan Chou, Chair; Dr. Lou Osternig, Member; Dr. Sierra Dawson, Member; Dr. Grace Golden, Member

Thesis (M.A.)--Kent State University, 2009.
Title from PDF t.p. (viewed April 16, 2010). Advisor: John Gunstad. Keywords: HIV; executive function; adherence. Includes bibliographical references (p. 41-54).

Introduction: Impaired inhibitory control, one of the core executive functions, is common among individuals with mental illness. However, inhibitory control is essential for successful treatment and recovery. Inhibitory control is extremely vulnerable to developmental disruption during adolescence, a time when mental illness is first diagnosed. An acute bout of exercise has been shown to improve inhibitory control in healthy adolescents, however, to our knowledge there are no studies evaluating this effect in adolescents with mental illness. Purpose: The primary goal of this project was to examine the effect of an acute bout of high-intensity interval training on inhibitory control immediately, and 30 minutes following exercise in adolescents hospitalized for mental illness. The secondary goal was to assess the feasibility of using this type of exercise as an adjunct to current treatment. Methods: Participants were recruited through the inpatient mental health unit at the Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario. They performed exercise and control conditions in a randomized, counterbalanced manner. The Colour-Word Stroop Task was assessed pre, post, and 30-minutes-post on both days. The exercise condition included a 12 minute HIIT circuit, consisting of body weight exercises performed in a 1:1 work to rest ratio. The control condition involved reading magazines. Repeated-measures ANOVA evaluated changes in Interference Cost, the reaction time cost of responding to trials where the ink and colour do not match, and overall accuracy. Feasibility was assessed through recruitment and completion rates, as well as changes in affect and acceptability of the high-intensity interval training. Results: There was a significant interaction between condition and time for the Interference Cost measure, F(1.6,43.3)=13.6, p<.0001, η2=.34. Interference Cost was similar for both conditions at baseline (Mdiff = 12.4±11.11, p=.28). Interference Cost was significantly reduced immediately (Mdiff = 78.8±14.91, p<.001) and 30-minutes post-exercise (Mdiff = 59.6±15.14, p=.001) compared to control. Response accuracy did not differ by time, F(2,54)=.14, p<=.87, η2=.01 nor condition, F(1,27)=2.25, p=.15, η2=.08. After exercise, participants increased positive affect (mean difference = 4.3±8.09, p=.009) and were willing to perform the exercise before therapy sessions (rating = 6.4±2.75 out of 10). Conclusion: These findings suggest that high-intensity interval training could be used to improve inhibitory control in adolescents with mental illness, which has the potential to enhance the efficacy of their treatment. Future research should determine the impact of individual factors, such as diagnosis, medication, age of illness onset, length of hospitalization, and treatment history, on inhibitory control improvement after exercise.

La réhabilitation respiratoire (RR) est recommandée dans la prise en soin des patients atteints d’un handicap ventilatoire afin d’améliorer leur qualité de vie. Malgré une efficacité clairement établie, très peu de patients en bénéficient et les modalités optimales d’entrainement restent à définir. L’utilisation des outils existants et des nouveaux outils pour optimiser l’accès au programme et ses effets représentent des développements majeurs qui méritent d’être évalués. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, nous avons cherché à aborder ces deux problématiques (1) en tentant de proposer un modèle de RR délocalisée hors des centres tout en évaluant les freins à ce modèle et (2) en explorant la place de différents adjuvants à la RR afin d’en optimiser les bénéfices. Dans la première partie, nous avons montré, à travers plusieurs études rétrospectives et une contribution originale prospective multicentrique, que le test stepper de six minutes peut être utilisé pour prescrire l’entrainement en endurance, particulièrement pour les patients présentant une forme légère à modérée de bronchopneumopathie chronique obstructive (BPCO), mais pas pour prescrire le renforcement musculaire. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré dans une population de 105 patients adressés en RR que l’utilisation d’un dispositif de telemonitoring était faisable, valide et largement accepté. Enfin, nous avons exploré la prévalence des dysfonctions cognitives, autre conséquence systémique de la BPCO qui pourrait compromettre la délocalisation du programme, et avons montré que cette prévalence était très élevée (environ 75% des patients) mais que ces troubles cognitifs pouvaient s’améliorer après la RR et ne semblaient pas influencer l’utilisation d’un dispositif de telemonitoring. Dans la seconde partie, nous avons évalué la place de différents adjuvants à la RR utilisés pour en potentialiser les bénéfices. Dans une étude en cross-over menée chez 21 patients atteints de BPCO, nous avons montré que la ventilation non invasive ne permettait pas d’améliorer la capacité à l’exercice en endurance en raison d’une limitation technologique du ventilateur. A travers une étude contrôlée randomisée multicentrique menée chez 73 patients atteints de BPCO sévère à très sévère, nous avons montré que la stimulation électrique excito-motrice à domicile, réalisée en plus d’un programme de RR, n’apportait pas davantage de bénéfices sur la qualité de vie ou la capacité à l’exercice. Enfin, à travers une étude randomisée en cross-over et en double aveugle menée chez 10 patients, nous n’avons pas pu montrer l’intérêt de la stimulation électrique nerveuse transcutanée pour améliorer leur capacité à l’exercice en endurance. Enfin, dans la dernière partie, nous avons présenté les recherches actuellement menées au sein de notre laboratoire, faisant suite aux contributions originales décrites au cours de cette thèse, ainsi que de nouvelles pistes de recherche afin de poursuivre les thématiques explorées. Ainsi, deux revues de littérature et méta-analyses (l’une d’elle portant sur le haut débit nasal et l’autre sur l’utilisation des technologies de santé avancées pour réaliser la RR respiratoire à domicile) serviront de base pour de futurs travaux
Pulmonary rehabilitation (PR) is recommended in the management of subjects with ventilatory impairment to improve their quality of life. Although a large body of evidence support its use, only few subjects benefit from it and the optimal training modality has not been determined yet. In this context, the use of new and existing tools to optimize access as well as the effects of the program are major developments that deserve to be studied. As part of this thesis, we sought to explore these two major issues (1) by considering a rehabilitation model relocated outside the PR centres while assessing the obstacles to this model and (2) exploring the effectiveness of different add-on to PR in further optimizing the benefits of the program. In the first part, we have shown, through several retrospective studies and an original prospective multicentre contribution, that the six-minute stepper test can be used to prescribe endurance training, particularly for those patients with a mild to moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but not to prescribe muscle strengthening. Furthermore, we have shown in a cohort of 105 subjects referred for PR that the use of a remote tele monitoring device was feasible, valid and widely accepted. Finally, we explored the prevalence of cognitive dysfunction, another systemic impairment of COPD that could compromise the relocation of the program, and showed that it was a very common condition (around 75% of the subjects) but that it could improve following PR and did not seem to influence the use of a remote tele monitoring device. In the second part, we evaluated the effects of different add-on used to potentiate the benefits of the PR program. In a cross-over study of 21 COPD patients, we showed that non-invasive ventilation did not improve endurance exercise capacity due to technological limitation of the ventilator. Through a multicentre randomized controlled study carried out in 73 patients with severe to very severe COPD, we have shown that neuromuscular electrical stimulation at home, performed in addition to a PR program, did not provide further benefits on quality of life or exercise capacity. Finally, through a randomized cross-over double-blind study carried out in 10 patients, we were unable to show the effectiveness of transcutaneous nerve electrical stimulation in improving their endurance exercise capacity. Finally, in a last part, we highlighted the research currently carried out in our laboratory following the original contributions described during this thesis, as well as new area of research in order to pursue the themes explored. Thus, two systematic reviews and meta-analysis (the first about nasal high flow therapy in subjects with stable COPD and the second about the use of advanced telehealth technologies to deliver PR) will serve as a basis for future research

Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências da Saúde
In recent years, the understanding of synaptic modulation by neuron-astrocyte interactions has evolved considerably, contributing to build up the concept of the “tripartite synapse”. This concept is based on the dynamic dialogue between astrocytes and neurons that complements and modulates the communication between pre- and post-synaptic structures. However, it remains elusive how this interaction between neurons and astrocytes translates into network computation of behavior. Astrocytes were described to release gliotransmitters (such as glutamate, GABA, ATP or D-Serine) by means of several mechanisms, being exocytosis the more extensively studied. This process is mediated by the vesicular machinery and SNARE complex formation between vesicles and the target membrane, ultimately resulting in the release of the vesicular content. Transmitter release is essential for astrocyte signaling and a disruption of this phenomenon is expected to impact on the function of neuronal networks, with consequences for the computation of higher brain functions. In this thesis, our main goal was to evaluate the influence of transmitter release by astrocytes on brain circuits responsible for cognitive functions, such as learning and memory. Throughout this work, we studied the transgenic dnSNARE mouse model that displays a conditional blockade of transmitter release by exocytosis, selectively in astrocytes. This was achieved by allowing the conditional expression of the dominant negative domain of vesicular SNARE protein synaptobrevin II (dnSNARE), which interferes with the SNARE complex formation, impairing vesicular release. Four weeks after the induction of transgene transcription, the levels of transgenic protein reached its maximum. The dnSNARE transgenes are expressed exclusively by astrocytes and display inter-subject variability. The quantification of dnSNARE transgene expression levels allowed to discriminate high “expressor” subjects to be analyzed throughout. Mice were first evaluated by performing in vivo electrophysiological recordings of local field potentials from neuronal populations of cognitive related brain regions: dorsal hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. This functional network evaluation was followed by a thorough assessment of cognitive ability of these mice, by performing a battery of behavioral tests. These tests addressed different cognitive tasks mainly dependent from the performance of the hippocampus-prefrontal network. This functional assessment was complemented by a morphological characterization of neurons and astrocytes to address structural correlates of network function. Our findings demonstrated a specific neural desynchronization in the theta rhythm between the dorsal hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in the dnSNARE mice, without any alteration of levels of neuronal activity. Moreover, the blockade of gliotransmitter release in astrocytes triggers a critical cognitive impairment in tasks classically attributed to neuronal circuits of the hippocampusprefrontal cortex network. More specifically, dnSNARE mice faced an increased difficulty when performing in reference memory tasks of Morris water maze (MWM) and hole-board test (HB), and revealed a clear deficit in tasks involving spatial recognition and long-term memory, such as the novel object recognition (NOR) and two-trial place recognition (2TPR) tests. Further analysis of electrophysiological recordings showed a direct correlation between the loss of theta coherence in dorsal hippocampus-prefrontal link and poor consolidation of reference memory. The structure evaluation of the dorsal hippocampus and prefrontal cortex revealed that the neuronal dendritic trees appear to be intact in dnSNARE mice. However, astrocytes undergo drastic process atrophy, specifically in GFAP+ cells that also express dnSNARE transgenes. Interestingly, the intraperitoneal supplementation with the NMDAR co-agonist D-serine — that is known to be released by exocytosis in astrocytes and to be significantly decreased in the brains of dnSNARE mice — completely restored theta synchronization and rescued the learning and memory deficits in transgenic mice. In conclusion, this PhD thesis provides the evidence of a mechanism by which astrocytic signaling is required for entrainment of distant cortico-limbic circuits, being mandatory for cognitive performance. Moreover, our findings suggest that D-serine may be the gliotransmitter maintaining the synchronization of the theta rhythm between these circuits required for learning and memory consolidation. Further studies should be performed to unravel the astrocytic contribution to different cognitive tasks, as well as the therapeutic potential of astrocyte signaling to the development of new approaches to treat disorders of the central nervous system, characterized by cognitive decline.
Nos últimos anos, a compreensão da modulação sináptica através de interações neurónio-astrócito tem evoluído consideravelmente, contribuindo para o aparecimento do conceito da "sinapse tripartida". Este conceito é baseado no diálogo dinâmico entre astrócitos e neurónios que complementa e modula a comunicação entre as estruturas pré e pós-sinápticas. No entanto, continua por esclarecer de que forma essa interação entre neurónios e astrócitos se traduz na produção de comportamentos pelo cérebro. Os astrócitos libertam gliotransmissores (tais como glutamato, GABA, ATP ou D-serina) através de diversos mecanismos, sendo a exocitose o mais amplamente estudado. Este processo é mediado pela maquinaria vesicular e pela formação do complexo SNARE entre vesículas e a membrana alvo, resultando, em última instância, na libertação do conteúdo vesicular para o exterior. A libertação de transmissores é essencial para a sinalização dos astrócitos e seria de esperar que a interrupção desse fenómeno afectasse a função das redes neuronais, com consequências para a computação de funções cerebrais superiores. Assim, o principal objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a influência da libertação de transmissores pelos astrócitos nos circuitos cerebrais responsáveis pelas funções cognitivas, como a aprendizagem e o processamento de memória. Ao longo deste trabalho utilizámos o modelo de murganho transgénico dnSNARE que apresenta um bloqueio condicional da libertação de transmissores por exocitose, selectivamente em astrócitos. A ocorrência deste bloqueio é devida à expressão condicional do domínio negativo dominante da sinaptobrevina vesicular II (dnSNARE), que interfere com a formação do complexo SNARE e, consequentemente, com a libertação vesicular. O transgene atinge o seu pico de expressão quatro semanas após a indução da sua expressão. A mesma é exclusiva dos astrócitos e apresenta variabilidade entre indivíduos. A quantificação da expressão do transgene dnSNARE permitiu identificar os animais com níveis elevados de expressão transgénica, que foram utilizados ao longo do trabalho para comparação com os respectivos controlos. Os murganhos dnSNARE, e respectivos controlos, foram primeiramente avaliados através da realização de registos electrofisiológicos de potenciais de campo locais, in vivo, de populações neuronais de regiões do cérebro implicadas na função cognitiva: o hipocampo e o córtex préfrontal. Esta análise funcional da integridade da rede foi complementada com uma avaliação completa da capacidade cognitiva destes animais, procedendo-se para esse fim, à realização de uma bateria de testes comportamentais. Os testes utilizados abrangiam diferentes funções, principalmente dependentes do desempenho da rede hipocampo–cortex pré-frontal. Além desta caracterização funcional, procedeu-se ainda a uma caracterização morfológica de neurónios e astrócitos, com o intuito de avaliar possíveis correlatos estruturais das funções da rede. Os resultados principais desta tese demonstram uma desincronização neuronal específica no ritmo teta, entre o hipocampo dorsal e o córtex pré-frontal em murganhos dnSNARE, sem qualquer alteração dos níveis basais de atividade neuronal. Além disso, o bloqueio da libertação de gliotransmissores em astrócitos desencadeia um défice cognitivo severo em tarefas classicamente atribuídas aos circuitos neuronais do hipocampo dorsal e do córtex pré-frontal. Mais especificamente, os murganhos dnSNARE enfrentaram uma maior dificuldade na realização de tarefas de memória de referência no teste da pisicna de Morris (MWM) e no teste do Hole-Board (HB). Estes animais revelaram ainda um claro défice em tarefas que envolviam o reconhecimento espacial e memória de longo prazo nos testes de reconhecimento de novos objectos (NOR) e espaços (2TPR). Análises adicionais de registros electrofisiológicos mostraram a existência de uma correlação significativa entre a perda de coerência teta na ligação hipocampo dorsal-cortex préfrontal e a consolidação de memória de referência. A análise estrutural do hipocampo dorsal e do córtex pré-frontal revelou que a estrutura neuronal permance intacta nos murganhos dnSNARE. No entanto, os astrócitos GFAP-positivos que também expressam transgenes dnSNARE parecem sofrer uma drástica atrofia. Curiosamente, a suplementação intraperitoneal com D-serina – um co-agonista dos receptores NMDA, libertado por exocitose nos astrócitos e significativamente diminuído nos cérebros de murganhos dnSNARE – restaurou completamente a sincronização em teta e, recuperou os défices de aprendizagem e memória nos mesmos animais. Em conclusão, esta tese de doutoramento apresenta resultados relativos à evidência de um mecanismo pelo qual a sinalização astrocítica é necessária para o estabelecimento da comunicação entre circuitos cortico-límbicos distantes, revelando a sua importância para o desempenho cognitivo. Estes resultados sugerem que a D-serina pode ser o gliotransmissor responsável pela sincronização do ritmo teta entre os circuitos necessários para os processos de aprendizagem e consolidação de memória. Estudos adicionais deverão ser realizados para dissecar a contribuição astrocítica para outras tarefas cognitivas e, para avaliar o potencial terapêutico da sinalização de astrócitos para o desenvolvimento de novas abordagens, capazes de tratar distúrbios do sistema nervoso central caracterizados pelo declínio cognitivo.
The work presented in this thesis was performed in the Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), Minho University. Financial support was provided by a PhD grant (SFRH/BD/89714/2012) from the FCT – Foundation for Science and Technology, by FEDER funds through the Operational Programme Competitiveness Factors - COMPETE and National Funds through FCT under the project POCI-01-0145- FEDER-007038; and by the project NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000013, supported by Norte Portugal Regional Operational Programme (NORTE 2020), under the PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).

The literature on age-related cognitive changes suggests that some older adults may begin to experience cognitive declines resulting in difficulty engaging in adaptive behavior necessary for functional independent living. Understanding the relationship between these cognitive and functional changes will be important for guiding researchers and clinicians in addressing this issue. Many theories regarding the underlying causes of cognitive aging have been proposed. Most causes appear to be related to changes in the efficiency and accuracy with which information is processed. Two current, competing hypotheses of cognitive aging include the processing speed theory of aging and the frontal lobe theory of aging; however, these theories propose two different mechanisms of cognitive change. Processing speed theory suggests that cognitive aging is a bottom-up process in which diffuse declines in a foundational cognitive process impact higher order cognitive functions. In contrast, frontal lobe theory suggests a top down process in that frontal lobe functions decline first and influence other processes in the brain. The current project examined data collected from a large multi-site sample during the Staying Keen in Later Life (SKILL) study. Specifically, the current study investigated both processing speed and frontal lobe theories of aging in an effort to determine which hypothesis best fit the data. It was observed that each model fit the data equally well, thus suggesting that both processes play a critical role in daily functioning. Additionally, the constructs overlapped substantially suggesting that the cognitive constructs may not be as separable as traditionally thought. Finally, the model was invariant across age groups and no differences were observed between young-old, middle-old, and old-old groups.

碩士
國立臺灣體育運動大學
運動健康科學系碩士班
105
Background:Taiwan is an island topography, along the high-altitude development of the road, can visit the beautiful mountain scenery, but the alpine environment is different from the ground, altitude, climate and temperature changes affect human physiological function, it is important to understand the different altitude of cognitive function . Methods:This study was designed to explore the effects of different altitudes on human cognition. Sixteen subjects were involved in this study. The subjects were from the plains to the high altitude mountains and hiking. And to explore the difference of the response time and the correctness of the cognitive function between the different altitude differences in the mountain and the high altitude mountain. Results: The reaction time in Flanker tasks at high altitudes was significantly shorter than in plain (p> 0.05) , with no significant differences in other tasks. Flanker tasks of the reaction time in congruent at the high altitudes was significantly shorter than the plains (p <.05). The reaction time of incongruent in Stroop tasks was significantly shorter than plains (p <.05).The accuracy in cognitive function between plain and high altitude was no significant difference (p> .05). Conclusions: The results of ours study showed that hypobaric hypoxic conditions did not make a difference on cognitive function. Differences of the data in cognitive function may come from the subject's body mass index and other reasons, however, it still needs further studies.

abstract: Military veterans have a significantly higher incidence of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), depression, and Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) compared to civilians. Military veterans also represent a rapidly growing subgroup of college students, due in part to the robust and financially incentivizing educational benefits under the Post-9/11 GI Bill. The overlapping cognitively impacting symptoms of service-related conditions combined with the underreporting of mTBI and psychiatric-related conditions, make accurate assessment of cognitive performance in military veterans challenging. Recent research findings provide conflicting information on cognitive performance patterns in military veterans. The purpose of this study was to determine whether service-related conditions and self-assessments predict performance on complex working memory and executive function tasks for military veteran college students. Sixty-one military veteran college students attending classes at Arizona State University campuses completed clinical neuropsychological tasks and experimental working memory and executive function tasks. The results revealed that a history of mTBI significantly predicted poorer performance in the areas of verbal working memory and decision-making. Depression significantly predicted poorer performance in executive function related to serial updating. In contrast, the commonly used clinical neuropsychological tasks were not sensitive service-related conditions including mTBI, PTSD, and depression. The differing performance patterns observed between the clinical tasks and the more complex experimental tasks support that researchers and clinicians should use tests that sufficiently tax verbal working memory and executive function when evaluating the subtle, higher-order cognitive deficits associated with mTBI and depression.
Dissertation/Thesis
Doctoral Dissertation Speech and Hearing Science 2017

碩士
國立高雄師範大學
體育學系
103
The Effects of 12-Week Aerobic Exercise on High School Female Student's Cognitive Functions Abstract Purpose: This study was aimed to investigate the effect of 12-week aerobic exercise on the cognitive functions of high school female students. Forty high school female students, aged between 15-16, participated. Methods: The participants were publicly recruited on campus and were divided into an experimental group (n = 20) and a control group (n = 20). The experimental group took a 30-min aerobic dance program from 07:30 to 08:00, three times a week, for 12 consecutive weeks, while the control group maintained their usual activities without participating in the exercise program throughout this period of time. The cognitive functions of all the participants were assessed using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) before and after the exercise intervention. Data were analyzed by two-way mixed-design (group×time; 2×2) ANOVA to find the effectiveness of the exercise intervention. The level of significance for the test was α=.05. Results: (1) The main effect of time: All the participants showed a significant improvement in correct categories (F=18.70, p<.01), perseverative responses (F=12.78, p<.01); perseverative errors (F=5.94, p<.05), non-perseverative errors (F=37.36, p<.01); and conceptual level responses (F=6.45, p<.05). (2) The main effect of group: No significance difference existed between the experimental group and the control group. (3) The interaction effect between time and group: Differences were significant only in terms of correct categories (F=7.39, p<.01) and non-perseverative errors (F=5.64, p<.05). Conclusion: The 12-week aerobic exercise intervention was effective in improving parts of the cognitive functions assessed by the WCST of high school female students. Keywords: cognitive function; aerobic exercise; high school female student.

Introduction: Excessive consumption of high fat, high sugar foods may precipitate cognitive decline. This effect may be more pronounced during cognitive development. The present single-blind randomized controlled trial (RCT) was conducted to examine the effect of a moderate fat, low added sugar (MF/LS) dietary intervention on cognitive function in 8-11 yr old preadolescents with a pre-established high fat, high sugar (HF/HS) dietary pattern. Participants included 17 non-obese (BMI Percentile: 25.4 - 91.3) low to middle income preadolescents randomized to 2 weeks of their usual HF/HS diet (control) or a MF/LS intervention diet. Method: The MF/LS intervention diet was restricted to 25% of calories/day from total fat and <10% of calories from added sugar while the HF/HS control diet was maintained at > 40% of calories/day from total fat and >15.9% of calories from added sugar. All food served was measured to the tenth of a gram. Any uneaten portion of food was weighed to obtain accurate measures of actual intake. NDSR dietary analysis software was used to assess macronutrient, micronutrient and added sugar intakes. Participants were weighed weekly to ensure they remained in energy balance throughout the duration of the study. Pre-post cognitive assessment served as the primary outcome measure. A battery of age appropriate tests from the Penn Computerized Neurocognitive Battery (CNB) as well as the widely used and a previously validated Trail Making task were selected to assess executive function, speed of processing, working memory, attention and spatial ability. Results: Both ANCOVA and a repeated measures approach were used to evaluate the mean difference of post-intervention scores between conditions, controlling for pre-intervention scores and other covariates including age, gender, sleep and mood. For each statistical approach, 10 tests were run, encompassing each of the cognitive assessments given and, for some, their delayed counterpart. Based on the ANCOVA analysis, participants randomized to the MF/LS intervention had a faster median response time (RT) for correct responses on 2 of the 10 tests analyzed, including the initial facial recognition task and its delayed counterpart. Compared to controls, the intervention group displayed 1) a faster total correct RT while controlling for gender (p = 0.02), 2) a faster true negative RT when controlling for gender and age (p = 0.012), and 3) a faster delayed task median total correct RT when controlling for gender and age (p = 0.005). No significant differences between groups were detected for the other assessments. Based on a repeated measures approach, none of the 10 tests analyzed reached statistical significance. Multiple regression analyses revealed a dose response effect on face recognition RT based on % intake of daily calories from total sugar, added sugar, total fat and saturated fat such that a 10% increase in % calories from total sugar, added sugar and saturated fat decreased processing speed for total correct responses on the initial facial recognition task by 0.58 seconds whereas a 10% increase in % total fat decreased processing speed on the same task by 0.44 seconds. The multivariate regression analyses controlled for gender and pretest scores. Conclusions: A 2-week MF/LS dietary intervention may improve delayed face recognition in low to middle income preadolescents with a pre-established HF/HS dietary pattern. Although the intervention appeared to demonstrate a positive effect on 2 measures of cognitive function (initial and delayed facial recognition), after Bonferroni correction, these results only remained significant for the delayed task median total correct RT when controlling for gender and age (p = 0.005). Thus, study results must be interpreted with caution as they may simply be an artifact of chance finding in the ANCOVA statistical analysis. Further investigation of benefits proffered by decreasing % total sugar, % added sugar, % total fat and % saturated fat intake to preadolescent cognition is warranted. Future work should focus on replicating the present study in a larger sample, using hippocampal-dependent specific tasks.

Tese de Doutoramento em Ciências da Saúde
The neuroimmunology field is at an exciting stage due to a set of revolutionary discoveries challenging the now old-fashioned dogma of the brain being “protected” from the peripheral immune system action. Immune components such as T lymphocytes and the cytokines they produce, once regarded as detrimental to the brain, are now considered integrant parts of the healthy nervous system since their regulated actions control immune surveillance but also modulate higher brain functions. The cytokine interferon-gamma (IFNγ), produced mainly by T lymphocytes, is a potent pro-inflammatory molecule, whose levels are altered in many neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. Though studies assessing the effects of this cytokine, when administered into the brain, have shown that it affects different cellular and synaptic mechanisms underlying behavioural dimensions, it is still unclear whether this is a collateral damage of the inflammatory response or if IFNγ indeed plays a role in the modulation of non-pathological brain function. As so, we sought to explore the role of this cytokine in the modulation of brain function in physiological conditions and also after exposure to chronic stress – a paradigm known to trigger the development of psychiatric complications and also accelerate neurodegenerative processes. In the first part of the thesis (2nd Chapter) we demonstrate that, in a healthy brain, the absence of IFNγ enhances dorsal hippocampus plasticity and associated cognitive function. At the structural level, an enlargement of the dorsal hippocampus volume contrasted with the absence of alterations observed in the ventral part, highlighting that the effects of this cytokine are more selective for cognitive behaviours. Moreover, the absence of this cytokine amplifies neuroplastic phenomena in the dorsal hippocampus, namely neurogenesis, size of neuronal dendritic arborisations and presynaptic functioning, most likely contributing for the enhanced cognitive performance. On the 3rd chapter, we demonstrate that there are gender-differences on the behavioural phenotype of IFNγ KO mice, and discuss the possible association of estrogen and the IFNγ expression in the central nervous system. In the following chapter (4th Chapter) we describe the optimisation of a chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) paradigm for use in C57BL/6 mice, a strain with higher resistance to stress. This mice model of stress-related disorders exhibits, beyond the stress-related neuroendocrine and behavioural alterations, mild changes in thymic cellular populations and relevant splenic myeloid cellular alterations, with an increased number of neutrophils as the most striking change. At last (5th Chapter), we discuss the contributory role of IFNγ for the development of the immune maladaptive response to chronic stress. By submitting mice to the optimized CUS protocol, it was observed that mRNA levels of Ifnγ are elevated in the brain, specifically in the medial prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortices. Moreover, exposure to chronic stress leads to an increase of the adrenergic innervation of the spleen as to alterations on the percentage of neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages populations in the spleen. Importantly, the absence of this cytokine blunts the stress-related changes on these cell populations in the spleen. The recognition of the proinflammatory cytokine – IFNγ, as a negative regulator of hippocampal plasticity and associated cognitive function, together with its contributory role for the stress-related immune dysfunction, suggests that this cytokine may articulate the complex network that underlies the inflammatory component of neuropsychiatric disorders.
A área da neuroimunologia está a atravessar uma fase excitante devido a um conjunto de descobertas revolucionárias que desafiam o seu agora antiquado dogma que visiona o cérebro como um órgão “protegido” da ação do sistema imunitário periférico. Componentes imunitários, tal como os linfócitos T e respetivas citocinas que estes produzem, outrora vistos apenas como prejudiciais para o cérebro, são agora considerados partes integrantes do sistema nervoso, uma vez que a sua ação regulada controla a vigilância imunitária mas também a modulação de funções cerebrais superiores. O interferão gama (IFNγ), uma citocina produzida principalmente por linfócitos T, é uma molécula proinflamatória cujos níveis estão alterados em diversas doenças neuropsiquiátricas e neurodegenerativas. Apesar de estudos demonstrarem que a administração desta citocina no cérebro afeta diferentes mecanismos celulares e sinápticos que estão na base de dimensões comportamentais, não é ainda claro se este efeito é um dano colateral da resposta inflamatória ou se o IFNγ tem de fato um papel na modulação da função do cérebro num contexto não patológico. Como tal, iremos aqui explorar o papel desta citocina na modulação de funções cerebrais em condições fisiológicas como também após exposição ao stress crónico – um paradigma que desencadeia o desenvolvimento de complicações psiquiátricas e acelera processos neurodegenerativos. Na primeira parte da presente tese (2º Capítulo) nós demonstramos que a ausência de IFNγ no cérebro saudável leva a uma melhoria da plasticidade do hipocampo dorsal e função cognitiva associada. Ao nível estrutural, um aumento do volume do hipocampo dorsal contrasta com a ausência de alterações volumétricas na parte ventral, sublinhando assim que esta citocina afeta seletivamente o comportamento cognitivo. A ausência desta citocina leva também a uma amplificação dos fenómenos neuroplásticos do hipocampo dorsal, nomeadamente da neurogénese, o tamanho da arborização dendrítica neuronal e o funcionamento pré-sináptico, contribuindo, muito provavelmente, para a melhoria da performance cognitiva. No 3º capítulo, nós demonstramos que existem diferenças entre géneros no fenótipo comportamental dos murganhos IFNγ KO, e discutimos a possível associação entre o estrogénio e a expressão de IFNγ no sistema nervoso central. No capítulo seguinte (4º Capítulo) descrevemos a otimização de um paradigma de stress crónico imprevisível (CUS) para murganhos C57BL/6, uma estirpe que apresenta uma maior resistência ao stress. Este modelo de murganho de disfunção associada ao stress apresenta para além das alterações neuroendócrinas e comportamentais relacionadas com o stress, alterações moderadas nas populações celulares do timo e importantes alterações celulares mielóides no baço, sendo o aumento de neutrófilos a alteração mais impressionante. Por último (5º Capítulo), discutimos o papel contributório desta citocina para o desenvolvimento da resposta imunitária maladaptativa ao stress crónico. Após expor murganhos ao protocolo otimizado de CUS foi observado um aumento nos níveis de mRNA de Ifnγ, mais especificamente nos córtices préfrontal medial e orbitofrontal. Para além disso, a exposição ao stress crónico leva a um aumento da inervação adrenérgica do baço assim como a alterações nas percentagens das populações de neutrófilos e monócitos/macrófagos no baço. A ausência de IFNγ preveniu as alterações induzidas pelo stress crónico nestas populações celulares do baço. O reconhecimento da citocina pró-inflamatória – IFNγ, como um regulador negativo da plasticidade hippocampal e função cognitiva associada, juntamente com o seu papel contributório para a disfunção imunitária associada com o stress sugere que esta citocina poderá articular a rede complexa que está na base da componente inflamatória das doenças neuropsiquiátricas.
This work was funded by the European Commission (FP7): “SwitchBox” (Contract HEALTH-F2- 2010-259772) and co-financed by the Portuguese North Regional Operational Program (ON.2 – O Novo Norte) under the National Strategic Reference Framework (QREN), through the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER). Susana Isabel Gonçalves Monteiro was supported by a PhD fellowship from the Portuguese Science Foundation (FCT)/MEC with the reference SFRH/BD/69311/2010.

碩士
淡江大學
資訊工程學系
90
In this paper, propose the easy and fast measure of how alternative percepts are formed from one moment to another, a process mimicking the brain state in which different thoughts and imageries compete for acecess to awareness. This was considered what kinds of neural processes can account for key properties of consciousness experience. Applying measures of neural integration and complexity, together with an analysis of extensive neurological data, leads to a testable proposal — the dynamic core hypothesis about the properties of the neural substrate of consciousness.

碩士
國立彰化師範大學
特殊教育學系所
96
A Study on the Relationship between Social Skills and Cognitive Functions of Junior High School Students with Learning Disabilities Jhih-Shan Ciou Abstract This thesis aims to study the social skills and cognitive functions of junior high school students with learning disabilities (LD). 317 research samples are taken from junior high school students with LD in Taichung City, Taichung County, Changhua County, and Nanto County. To collect the data, we adopt “Questionnaire Survey” and use “The social skill behaviors and characteristics scale for elementary and junior school (SSBCS) ” and “WISC-Ⅲ” as interview tools. The research results are as follows: 1. 37.5 percent of junior high school students with LD are bad at social skills, whereas 4.7 percent of junior high school students with LD are good at social skills. Besides, junior high school students with LD show significant differences in each aspect of social skills. 2. Junior high school students with LD are bad at cognitive functions, and they show significant differences in each cognitive function. 3. Junior high school students with LD with different gender and types of leaning disabilities show significant differences in social skills. 4. Junior high school students with LD with different gender, types of leaning disabilities, and intelligence show significant differences in cognitive functions. 5. There are significant correlations between cognitive functions and social skills of junior high school students with LD. 6. Based on the performance of cognitive function, we can predict how junior high school students with LD show their social skills. On the basis of above research results, we offer some suggestion for teachers and potential researchers. Key Words: Students with learning disabilities , social skill, cognitive functions

碩士
國立彰化師範大學
特殊教育學系所
96
A study on the relationship between social skills and cognitive functions of Vocational High School Students with Learning Disabilities Jen-Jen Huang Abstract The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between social skills and cognitive functions of Vocational High School Students with Learning Disabilities (VHSS LD). The study use cluster sampling and investigated 162 Vocational High School Students with Learning Disabilities in middle area of Taiwan。The instruments used in the study were “The social skill behaviors and charactics scale for elementary and junior school (SSBCS)” and “Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III )”. The data were analyzed by Mean, standard deviation, Pearson correlation, one-way ANOVA, and multiple stepwise regression. After analyzing data, the results are summarized as follows: 1. For VHSS LD’s social skill performance, there were no significant difference in the types of LD and intelligence. 2. On the interpersonal related behavior of social skills, the female LD was significantly better than male LD. 3. On VHSS LD ‘s all social skills, the self related behavior and interpersonal related behavior were both significantly than work related behavior. 4. There were significantly correlation among the Processing Speed of Cognitive Functions and the work related behavior, interpersonal related behavior and all of social skills. 5. The VHSS LD’s Cognitive Functions can make the predictability on the social skills. 6. The Processing Speed of Cognitive Functions can make the predictability on the social skills. Implications for special education services and further research are recommended on basis of the results of this study. Key words: students with learning disabilities, social skills, cognitive functions

In addition to the adverse effects of high blood pressure (HBP) on cardiovascular disease, HBP is also associated with increased risk of stroke, dementia, and neurocognitive dysfunction. Although aerobic exercise and dietary modifications have been shown to reduce blood pressure, no studies have examined the effects of a combined aerobic exercise and dietary intervention on neurocognition among individuals with HBP, a group at elevated risk for neurocognitive dysfunction. As part of a larger investigation, the ENCORE study, this study examined the effects of dietary modification alone and combined with aerobic exercise on neurocognitive function among individuals with HBP. One hundred twenty five individuals with high normal blood pressure were randomized to an aerobic exercise and dietary modification group (DASH + WM), dietary modification alone (DASH-A), or a usual care control group. Participants completed a battery of neurocognitive tests assessing executive function and vigilance at baseline and again following the four month intervention. Following the intervention, participants in the DASH + WM and DASH-A groups exhibited modest improvements in neurocognitive function relative to controls, and these changes appeared to be mediated by improved cardiovascular fitness and weight loss. A combined aerobic exercise and dietary intervention improves neurocognitive function among individuals with HBP.

Dissertation

By the year 2025, it is anticipated that over 300 million individuals world wide will have type 2 diabetes, with a projected increase from 84 to 288 million (170%) in developing countries and from 51 to 72 million (42%) in developed countries. Diabetes leads to a markedly increased risk of heart disease and renal failure and to expensive and debilitating retinopathy and neuropathy. Cognitive decline is also increased. As there is accumulating evidence of the beneficial effects of moderate carbohydrate, low fat dietary patterns compared to high carbohydrate diets, this thesis will focus on the effects of moderate carbohydrate high protein dietary patterns (total carbohydrate: protein: fat ratio of 40%:34%:26%) on glycemic control, risk factors for macrovascular disease and cognitive function. Information on two key areas in type 2 diabetes will be presented, 1. Acute effects of dietary patterns, moderately carbohydrate restricted and high in protein on glucose levels assessed using continuous glucose monitoring systems (CGMS) with verification of these results through a small repeat study. 2. Chronic effects of energy restricted dietary patterns, moderately carbohydrate restricted and high in protein on glucose levels, HbA1c, cognitive function, cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk markers and renal function. In the acute study, we recruited 23 subjects with type 2 diabetes. The participants were randomized to each of 4, 3-day interventions in a cross over design with a 4 day wash out period in which the carbohydrates were distributed differently at each meal; carbohydrates evenly distributed across the day, or carbohydrates loaded at breakfast, lunch or dinner. Glucose levels were continuously measured using CGMS. Outcomes were assessed by postprandial peak glucose (Gmax), time spent above 12 mmol/L (T>12) and total area under the glucose curve (AUC20). The intervention showed that an even distribution of carbohydrates did not optimise blood glucose control, whereas carbohydrates loaded at the lunch time meal provided the most favourable postprandial profile. To verify these results we conducted a repeat study. Six of the previous participants accepted the invitation to return and complete the even distribution arm of the study after a 20 week time lag. The intervention showed that although HbA1c, fasting blood glucose (FBG), AUC, exercise and ambient temperature remained constant there was a significant effect of change in sunlight hours on Gmax, suggesting an effect of sunlight. To assess the chronic effects of energy restricted dietary patterns on the determinants of HbA1c, cognitive function, CVD risk markers and renal function under conditions of weight loss, we recruited 82 participants with type 2 diabetes. These participants were randomised to one of two high protein energy restricted dietary patterns that differed in cholesterol content, for a 12 week period, in a parallel design. A sub group of these participants completed cognitive function testing with (n=34) or without (n=17) CGMS at baseline and at 8 weeks. After 8 weeks of the intervention the determinants of HbA1c under conditions of energy restriction were evaluated. The intervention showed the change in FBG accounted for most of the variance in change in HbA1c, but % energy reduction also contributed independently of FBG. Both energy restricted high protein diets equally improved glycemic control, particularly T>12, AUC, HbA1c and FBG. Fifty one participants completed cognitive testing to evaluate the effect of weight loss and blood glucose control on cognition. Cognitive function was not altered by time, diet, baseline lipid levels. Working memory was predicted by FBG. Short term memory was predicted by FBG, Gmax and AUC24. Sixty five participants completed 12 weeks of the intervention to assess CVD risk markers and renal function. Renal function was maintained and CV markers improved on both dietary patterns, with greatest improvement in HDL-C observed in the group consuming a high protein, energy restricted dietary pattern, high in dietary cholesterol. In conclusion, in the context of a high protein, carbohydrate restricted dietary pattern, cognitive function and renal function did not change, while glycemia and CV risk profiles improved with weight loss over the short term. Under conditions of energy balance diurnal glucose profiles were optimal when the carbohydrates were loaded in the lunch meal.
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Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, 2008

碩士
中原大學
數學研究所
100
In the latest "Course Outline of Senior High School" issued in 2008, the discussion of "concavity and convexity of the function figure" was put in the content of the exponent and logarithm functions in chapter 3 in the mathematics textbook I. This topic is a new concept for all the teachers and students in senior high school, even if "the concavity and convexity here are introduced simply and intuitionally by the chord is above or below the function figure" was especially indicated in the appendix of the "Course Outline". However, for teachers in senior high school, a new concept without any exact definition that regards as the foundation of teaching will probably bring about many blind spots of teaching. Therefore, the study is to investigate the cognition of the convex function of the present senior high school mathematics teachers in Taoyuan and Hsinchu regions, all kinds of difficulties of teaching and learning that teachers and students experienced, and to the last if the topic is suitable taught in the mathematics textbook I. This study is to carry on interview by way of questionnaire investigation, the objects are the senior high school mathematics teachers in Taoyuan and Hsinchu regions, and we use the convenient sampling method as the sampling model in this study without considering the random process, moreover, we adopt the qualitative research approach to analyze. The result of study shows, almost all the teachers regard "concave up function" as the "strictly convex function", over half of teachers are fuzzy on the cognition of "concavity and convexity of the function figure", the proportions of objection and agreement from teachers on "concavity and convexity of the function figure" put into the mathematics textbook I is nearly equal, the most problems of teaching and learning that teachers and students experienced are the invalid connection among algebra, geometry, expressed in writing words, and oral description.

Cognitive impairment in coronary artery disease (CAD) patients can predict poorer quality of life, dementia, and increased mortality. This study aimed to determine the association between long-term cortisol elevations and cognitive function in CAD patients. Participants were recruited at the beginning of a 1 year cardiac rehabilitation program and followed forward. Composite Z-scores were computed from tests measuring memory and executive function at baseline and 1 year. Cortisol deposition (3 months) was measured from a 20 mg, 3 cm hair sample. Analyses of covariance showed less improvement in memory function (F1,50=4.721, p=0.035) but not executive function (F1,49=0.318, p=0.575) in patients dichotomized into a high cortisol group based on a previously established reference range. Prolonged cortisol elevation may be associated with cognitive changes in subjects with CAD.

碩士
遠東科技大學
創新設計與創業管理研究所
102
The aim of this thesis is to investigate junior high school students’ functional cognition and their participatory satisfaction with a sports meet, and to further analyze the divergence based on different backgrounds of students. A questionnaire survey is applied and 450 questionnaires are distributed at random, with 407 being valid and the overall response rate 90.44%. Descriptive statistics, independent-sample T test, and one-way ANOVA are adopted in the questionnaire analysis. Findings are as follows. (1) Regarding functional cognition of a sports meet from students’ perspective, “health-facilitating function” takes up the most, “educational function” comes the second, while “recreational function” is the least perceived. (2) In terms of students’ participatory satisfaction with a sports meet, a high-intermediate satisfactory level is presented, among which “the execution of competition” and “the propaganda and service” are most lived up to, while “the planning and design” is the least satisfied. (3) There are discrepancies in students’ cognition of a sports meet when it comes to genders, grades, events, exercise habits, and exercise experience. (4) There are discrepancies in students’ satisfaction with a sports meet as far as genders, grades, events, exercise habits, and exercise experience are concerned.

碩士
遠東科技大學
創新設計與創業管理研究所
103
The thesis aims to investigate vocational high school students’ functional cognition and their participatory satisfaction with a sports competition, to further analyze the divergence based on different backgrounds of students, and to discuss whether students’ functional cognition affects their participatory satisfaction. A questionnaire survey is applied and 300 questionnaires are distributed at random, with 280 being valid and the overall response rate 93.34%. Descriptive statistics, independent-sample T test, and one-way ANOVA are adopted in the questionnaire analysis. Findings are as follows. (1) Regarding functional cognition of a sports competition from students’ perspective, “health-facilitating function” takes up the most, while “recreational function” is the least perceived. (2) There are discrepancies in students’ cognition of a sports competition when it comes to genders, grades, events, exercise habits, and exercise experience. (3) There are significantly positive correlations between the vocational high school students’ functional cognition and the participatory satisfaction. It means that students’ functional cognition has a positive effect on their participatory satisfaction.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Alcohol related problems and abuse continue to be serious problems in the U.S. today affecting nearly 17.6 million Americans. Understanding of the specific genes and related behaviors associated with alcohol use may provide substantial preventative measures for those who are at an increased risk. Genetically selected lines such as the high-alcohol preferring (HAP) and low-alcohol preferring (LAP) mice have been created to examine which endophenotypes co-segregate with alcohol preference. One behavioral trait that has been commonly associated with alcohol related problems is impulsivity. Impulsivity is the inability to withhold a response (motor impulsivity) or to act without forethought (cognitive impulsivity). The latter comprises much of the research and literature today using delay discounting models to tease out differences in subject’s wiliness to discount larger reinforcers for smaller immediate reinforcers. This study utilized relatively two newer paradigms associated with motor impulsivity in attempt to test differences in response disinhibition between two independent replicate HAP and LAP lines. It is hypothesized that the genes responsible for alcohol preference would be genetically correlated with motor impulsivity as HAP mice would display a greater degree of response disinhibition. Two independent replicates consisting of 48 mice (24 HAP II and 24 LAP II, representing the 37th generation; 24 HAP III and 24 LAP III, representing the 13th generation) were tested in two separate identical experiments. Each experiment was comprised of three phases. Phase I utilized a fixed interval (FI) 120s procedure for 30 days. After the 30 days of FI exposure mice were immediately moved to phase II for 10 days which implored a differential reinforcement of low rate procedure (DRL) at a time interval of 20s. Phase III used the same procedures as Phase II except the DRL was increased to 32s. As hypothesized, there was a moderate genetic correlation between alcohol preference and impulsivity as the HAP II mice displayed greater response disinhibition throughout all three phases compared to the LAP II mice. No differences were observed amongst the replicate III mice in any of the three phases. The findings from this study provide additional support that a genetic correlation between alcohol preference and impulsivity exists as seen in the delay discounting literature. Though this was observed in only one of the two replicates, interpretations must be taken at caution as the replicate III mice are still in the early stages of selection. It is possible at this stage in the selection process that increases in alcohol over successive generations are associated with selecting for taste until a threshold is met where selection shifts to pharmacologic drinking relevance. Until later generations of replicate III mice are studied where pharmacologic drinking occurs, conclusions from this study provide a moderate genetic correlation between alcohol preference and impulsivity.

In many international schools where English is the language of learning and teaching there are large percentages of students whose first language is not English. Many of these students may have low vocabulary levels which inhibits their chances of taking full advantage of their education. Low vocabulary levels can be a particular problem for students in mainstream classes where fluent English speaking teachers are using English to teach content areas of Mathematics, Science and History. Not only do students have to comprehend the low-frequency, academic and technical vocabulary pertaining to the subject, but they also need to know the higher frequency vocabulary that makes up general English usage. If students’ vocabulary levels fall too far below the vocabulary levels with which their teachers are speaking, then their chance of comprehending the topic is small, as is their chance of succeeding in their subjects. This study has two broad aims. Firstly, I have set out to assess the English vocabulary levels of students at an international school where English is the language of learning and teaching. The majority of students at this school do not have English as their first language. The second aim of this study is to explore the vocabulary profile of the teachers’ spoken discourse at the research school. By gaining a better understanding of the nature of teacher discourse – specifically the percentage of high, mid and low-frequency vocabulary, as well as academic vocabulary that they use – English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers will be in a stronger position to identify what the vocabulary learning task is and be able to assist students in reaching the vocabulary levels necessary to make sense of their lessons. This study revealed a large gap between the generally low vocabulary levels of ESL students and the vocabulary levels spoken by their teachers. As a result the need for explicit vocabulary instruction and learning is shown to be very important in English medium (international) schools, where there are large numbers of students whose first language is not English.
Linguistics and Modern Languages
M.A. (Applied Linguistics)