Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Historical masonry'

The conservation of historic structures has been given special attention due to their cultural, social and economic importance. However they often show considerable structural vulnerability and have been seriously damaged by natural disasters including earthquakes. An excessive loss of architectural heritage has occurred because of earthquakes. A safety assessment and restoration practice on historical structures has been tackled extensively by professionals including architects and engineers. However, structural assessment of historical buildings is a complex task. Complexity comes from insufficient understanding of the characteristic of historical materials, limited knowledge of the seismic response of historical structures and yet-unknown structural deterioration due to the past natural disasters. Today it is perceived that nonlinear FEM analysis permits detailed study of historical masonry structures. However, in some cases, its application poses difficulties. The difficulties derive from the definition of material properties, the definition of a complex geometry and the analysis procedures. The results depend on the material properties considerably. However, it is not easy to describe appropriately the behaviour of historical materials including masonry in the FEM analysis. The definition of a complex geometry is challenging although the discretisation of accurate geometry is crucial. As for the analysis procedure, one of the difficulties is observed in seismic assessment. FEM-based nonlinear dynamic analysis permits close observation of seismic response of a historical masonry structure but it requires excessive computational effort, for a large-scale structure in particular. On the other hand, pushover can be adopted more efficiently than nonlinear dynamic analysis but the obtained result can be less reliable. All these considerations indicate that the understanding of FEM approaches still needs to be deepened to adopt more accurately and at the same time efficiently for the analysis of historical structures. The present research discusses the applicability of existing nonlinear FEM approaches to the study of masonry historical structures. The FEM analysis is adopted to the analysis of real and complex structures including mixed steel and masonry vaulted systems belonging to the Hospital de Sant Pau in Barcelona and a large single-nave church damaged by the 2009 Abruzzo earthquake. As a final outcome of the research, the conclusions provided criteria and guidelines for the analysis of these types of structures under vertical loading and seismic forces. The achievement of the research will contribute to both engineers and researchers who are involved in the conservation of historical masonry structures especially by means of FEM analysis.
La conservación de las estructuras históricas llama la atención debido a su importancia cultural, social y económica. Sin embargo, muestran considerablemente vulnerabilidad estructural y se han dañado seriamente por desastres naturales como terremotos. La excesiva pérdida de patrimonio arquitectónico ha ocurrido a causa de los terremotos. Se ha llevado a cabo la evaluación de la seguridad y la práctica de restauración de estructuras históricas ampliamente por los profesionales incluso arquitectos e ingenieros. No obstante, la evaluación estructural de los edificios históricos es una tarea compleja. La complejidad viene de la comprensión insuficiente de las características de los materiales históricos, conocimiento limitado de la respuesta sísmica de estructuras históricas y deterioro estructural todavía desconocido debido a los desastres naturales pasados. Hoy en día se percibe que el análisis de elementos finitos (FEA) no lineal permite el estudio detallado de las estructuras de mampostería históricos. Con todo, en algunos casos, no es sencilla la aplicación de ello. Las dificultades vienen de la definición de las propiedades del material, la definición de una geometría compleja y los procedimientos de análisis. Los resultados dependen de las propiedades del material considerablemente. Sin embargo, no es fácil describir adecuadamente en el FEA el comportamiento de materiales históricos como mampostería. Es difícil definir la geometría compleja es crucial aunque la discretización de la geometría exacta. En cuanto al procedimiento de análisis, se observa una de las dificultades en la evaluación sísmica. Análisis dinámico no lineal del FEA permite la observación precisa de la respuesta sísmica de las estructuras de mampostería histórica pero requiere el esfuerzo computacional excesivo, especialmente por una estructura a gran escala. Por otro lado, pushover puede ser más eficiente que el análisis dinámico no lineal pero el resultado obtenido por ello puede ser menos fiable. Estas consideraciones indican que la compresión del FEA necesita profundizarse para que se adopte FEA más precisamente y más eficientemente para el análisis de estructuras históricas. La presente investigación analiza la aplicabilidad del FEA no lineal acerca del estudio de las estructuras históricas de mampostería. El FEA se adopta para el análisis de las estructuras reales y complejas incluso los sistemas abovedados de la combinación del acero y mampostería pertenecientes al Hospital de Sant Pau de Barcelona y una gran iglesia de una sola nave dañada por el terremoto de Abruzzo 2009. Como resultado final de la investigación, las conclusiones presentan criterios y directrices para el análisis de estés tipos de estructuras bajo cargas verticales y sísmicas. El fruto de la investigación contribuirá a ambos ingenieros e investigadores que participan en la conservación de las estructuras de mampostería históricos sobre todo por medio del FEA.

Historical masonry structures are important cultural assets which reveal the social, archaeological, aesthetic, economical, political, architectural and technical features of their times. Within the course of the time, the structures have been exposed to the destructive effects of the nature and the man. Some has been able to survive somehow and others were totally ruined. Most of the remained structures are in vulnerable condition to upcoming effects and for the continuity of their presence, structural strengthening applications are needed. A variety of applications are used with different levels of respect to original fabric and different extents of intervention within the principles of international charters that regulate the intervention on historical monuments. In this study, a method of strengthening for the historical masonry constructions is developed in a general sense by the use of steel skeleton systems. In the proposed methodology, it is aimed to approach the intact structural conditions as much as possible in the strengthened structure. For the study a 3D model is created to compare the behaviors of the intact and the modified structure. In the modified model some structural elements are replaced by the steel skeleton system as a strengthening application. The behavioral investigation of the two models is performed in the finite element platform. Finally, it is certified that this methodology successfully efficient in approaching the original intact condition of the structure under concern as well as complying with the restoration principles.

Masonry has been used for millennia to build all sort of constructions. As a result, a significant part of the building stock around the world is made of masonry. In the need of structural assessment, structural analysis tools, as well as strength criteria proposed in building codes, require the knowledge of the mechanical properties of the materials. However, the mechanical characterisation of masonry is still difficult and challenging, due to its composite nature and its complex mechanical behaviour. In fact, it is possible to find contradictions among standards, lack of definition for certain procedures, or even lack of standards for certain tests. This thesis aims to contribute with the critical analysis of some of these testing procedures and provide possible improvements for a specific type of masonry. Four lines of research have been identified, which cover tests in laboratory and in situ to characterise the behaviour in compression and in shear. The specific type of masonry on which the experimental campaigns are carried out is the traditional type of brickwork that was extensively used in Barcelona during the 19th and 20th c. In spite of its relevance, this type of masonry is in need of further characterisation. A preliminary research was necessary to find a historical-like mortar with a relatively fast hardening and low mechanical properties. The modification of hydraulic lime based commercial mortars with the addition of limestone filler is investigated. Small amounts of filler enhance the mechanical properties of the mortar. High amounts of filler reduce the mortars’ strengths and make it suitable to replicate historical-like masonry in laboratory. The first line of research on testing procedures covered the compressive characterisation of masonry on prismatic standard specimens. European and American standards differ in the type of specimen to consider, running bond walls and stack bond prisms, respectively. This work compares experimental results obtained from both types of specimen and also obtained from two types of loading, monotonic and cyclic. The second line of research involves an experimental campaign that investigates the possibility of using 90 mm cylinders extracted from existing walls to characterise the compressive behaviour of masonry. Four examples of masonry have been investigated, including cylinders extracted from three existing buildings of Barcelona. The results obtained with 90 mm cylinders compare well to those obtained with the well-known 150 mm cylinders. The third line of research deals with the characterisation of the shear response of masonry in laboratory. The standard triplet specimen consisting of three units and two mortar joints present some interpretation problems related to the non-simultaneous failure of the two joints. This experimental campaign studies the possibility of using couplet specimens of only one mortar joint to determine the shear parameters. For the two types of brickwork investigated, couplets provide higher estimations of the shear parameters with respect to triplets. The last line of research investigates the diagonal compression test, a testing procedure applicable both in situ and in laboratory for shear characterisation. First, an experimental campaign is presented. The experimental results are used to calibrate a numerical model, which is applied to investigate the actual states of stresses and to find correlating coefficients between the test results and the mechanical properties of masonry. The combination of all the former researches provides a set of reference values for the mechanical properties of the traditional brickwork of Barcelona. Nevertheless, the scientific findings, methods, and criteria presented in this thesis, even if derived for a specific type of brickwork, may be of application for the characterisation of other types of masonry around the world.
L’obra de fàbrica ha estat utilitzada durant mil·lennis per construir tota mena d’estructures. Davant la necessitat de verificacions estructurals, les eines d’anàlisi, així com els criteris de resistència dels codis de construcció, requereixen el coneixement de les propietats mecàniques dels materials. Malauradament, la caracterització mecànica de l’obra de fàbrica no es tasca fàcil i continua suposant un desafiament, per la seva natura composta i el seu complex comportament. De fet, és possible trobar contradiccions entre normes, manca de definició per alguns procediments i, inclús, inexistència de normes per alguns tipus de test. Aquesta tesi aspira a contribuir a l’anàlisi crítica d’algunes d’aquestes tècniques d’assaig i proveir-ne possibles millores per a un tipus d’obra de fàbrica específic. Quatre línies de recerca s’han identificat, que abasten tests en laboratori i in situ per caracteritzar el comportament a compressió i a tallant. El tipus específic de material sobre el qual es duran a terme les campanyes experimentals és la fàbrica de maó tradicional que va ser extensament utilitzada a Barcelona durant els segles XIX i XX. Tot i la seva rellevància, aquest tipus de material continua necessitant una caracterització més detallada. Una recerca preliminar fou necessària per trobar un morter pseudo-històric amb febles propietats mecàniques. La modificació de morters comercials de calç hidràulica amb l’addició de filler calís és investigada. Petites quantitats de filler milloren les propietats mecàniques del morter. Majors quantitats de filler redueixen les resistències del morter i el fan apropiat per replicar fàbriques de tipus històric al laboratori. La primera línia de recerca sobre tècniques d’assaig va estudiar la caracterització a compressió amb espècimens prismàtics estàndards. Les normes americanes i europees difereixen en el tipus d’espècimen considerat, prismes apilats i petits murets, respectivament. Aquest treball compara resultats experimentals obtinguts amb els dos tipus d’espècimen i també obtinguts amb dos tipus d’aplicació de càrrega, monòtona i cíclica. La segona línia de recerca desenvolupa una campanya experimental que investiga la possibilitat d’utilitzar cilindres de 90 mm de diàmetre extrets de murs existents per caracteritzar la resposta a compressió. Quatre exemples d’obra de fàbrica s’han investigat, incloent cilindres xvi extrets de tres edificis de Barcelona. Els resultats obtinguts amb els cilindres de 90 mm es comparen satisfactòriament amb els obtinguts amb els ja coneguts cilindres de 150 mm. La tercera línia de recerca tracta la caracterització en laboratori de la resposta a tallant de l’obra de fàbrica. La tripleta estàndard formada per tres maons i dos junts de morter presenta alguns problemes d’interpretació relacionats amb la fallada no simultània dels dos junts. La campanya estudia la possibilitat d’utilitzar bipletes composades de tan sols un junt de morter per determinar els paràmetres a tallant. Pels dos tipus de material estudiats, les bipletes proporcionen majors estimacions de les propietats a tallant que les tripletes. L’última línia de recerca estudia el test de compressió diagonal, una tècnica aplicable in situ i al laboratori per caracteritzar el comportament a tallant. Es presenta una campanya experimental, els resultats de la qual s’utilitzen per calibrar un model numèric. Aquest s’aplica per investigar els estats de tensions reals i trobar coeficients de correlació entre els resultats del test i les propietats mecàniques de l’obra de fàbrica. La combinació de les investigacions prèvies proporciona un conjunt de valors de referència per a les propietats mecàniques de la fàbrica de maó tradicional de Barcelona. Les conclusions científiques, mètodes i criteris presentats en aquesta tesi, tot i haver estat derivats per un tipus específic de fàbrica, poden ser d’aplicació per a la caracterització d’altres tipus de fàbrica arreu del món
La obra de fábrica ha sido utilizada durante milenios para construir toda clase de estructuras. Ante la necesidad de verificaciones estructurales, las herramientas de análisis, así como los criterios de resistencia de los códigos de construcción, requieren el conocimiento de las propiedades mecánicas de los materiales. Desafortunadamente, la caracterización mecánica de la obra de fábrica no es una tarea fácil y continúa suponiendo un desafío, por su naturaleza compuesta y su complejo comportamiento. De hecho, es posible encontrar contradicciones entre normas, falta de definición en algunos procedimientos o, incluso, inexistencia de normas para algunos tipos de test. Esta tesis aspira a contribuir en el análisis crítico de algunas de estas técnicas de ensayo y proveer posibles mejoras en ellas para un tipo de obra de fábrica específico. Se han definido cuatro líneas de investigación que abarcan ensayos en laboratorio e in situ para caracterizar el comportamiento a compresión y a cortante. El tipo específico de material sobre el que se llevan a cabo las campañas experimentales es la fábrica de ladrillo tradicional que se usó extensamente en Barcelona durante los siglos XIX y XX. A pesar de su relevancia, este tipo de material continúa necesitando una caracterización más detallada. Una investigación preliminar fue necesaria para encontrar un mortero pseudo-histórico con débiles propiedades mecánicas. La modificación de morteros comerciales de cal hidráulica con la adición de filler calizo es investigada. Cantidades pequeñas de filler mejoran las propiedades mecánicas del mortero. Mayores cantidades de filler reducen sus resistencias y lo hacen apropiado para replicar obras de fábrica de tipo histórico en el laboratorio. La primera línea de investigación sobre técnicas de ensayo estudió la caracterización a compresión con especímenes prismáticos estandarizados. Las normas americanas y europeas difieren en el tipo de espécimen considerado, prismas apilados y pequeños muretes, respectivamente. Este trabajo compara resultados experimentales obtenidos con los dos tipos de espécimen y también obtenidos con dos tipos de aplicación de carga, monótona y cíclica. La segunda línea de investigación gira sobre una campaña experimental que investiga la posibilidad de utilizar cilindros de 90 mm de diámetro extraídos de muros existentes para caracterizar la respuesta a compresión. Se han investigado 4 ejemplos de fábrica, incluyendo cilindros extraídos de 3 edificios de Barcelona. Los resultados obtenidos con los cilindros de 90 mm se comparan satisfactoriamente con los obtenidos en los ya aceptados cilindros de 150 mm. La tercera línea de investigación trata la caracterización en laboratorio de la respuesta a cortante de la obra de fábrica. La tripleta estándar formada por tres ladrillos y dos juntas de mortero presenta algunos problemas de interpretación relacionados con el fallo no simultáneo de las juntas. La campaña estudia la posibilidad de utilizar bipletas con una sola junta de mortero para determinar los parámetros a cortante. Para los dos tipos de material estudiados, las bipletas proporcionan mayores estimaciones de las propiedades a cortante que las tripletas. La última línea de investigación estudia el ensayo de compresión diagonal, una aplicable in situ y en laboratorio para caracterizar el comportamiento a cortante. Se presenta una campaña experimental cuyos resultados se utilizan para calibrar un modelo numérico. Este se aplica para investigar los estados reales de tensiones y encontrar coeficientes de correlación entre los resultados del ensayo y las propiedades mecánicas de la obra de fábrica. La combinación de las investigaciones previas proporciona un conjunto de valores de referencia para las propiedades mecánicas de la fábrica de ladrillo tradicional de Barcelona. Las conclusiones científicas, métodos y criterios presentados en esta tesis, aun habiendo sido derivados para un tipo específico de fábrica, pueden ser aplicados para la caracterización de otros tipos de fábrica en otras áreas geográficas.

The assessment of historical structures is a significant need for the next generations, as historical monuments represent the community’s identity and have an important cultural value to society. Most of historical structures built by using masonry which is one of the oldest and most common construction materials used in the building sector since the ancient time. Also it is considered a complex material, as it is a composition of brick units and mortar, which affects the structural performance of the building by having different mechanical behaviour with respect to different geometry and qualities given by the components.

Historical monuments are the most invaluable reflections of our architectural heritage and cultural identity, both of which have significant roles to create a strong link between the past and the present. They should be conserved in their own settings with their original characteristics or with as minimum changes as possible. However, natural or man-made hazards cause a serious risk for the survival of historical monuments. While some of them require to be strengthened only, some should be relocated to a new site since there are no means to save them without transporting. In this study, an innovative methodology is developed in a general sense for transporting historical masonry monuments without destructing their unity. In the proposed methodology, which is applicable especially to the slender historical structures, it is aimed to transport the structure by tilting it up to a horizontal ground level without dismantling into pieces. Due to the fact that masonry is a very brittle material, externally located prestressed cables are used to strengthen the structure against tension forces, which occur at the time of tilting. Hasankeyf, which is the cradle of various civilizations, is an impressive medieval city located in Mesopotamia region in Turkey. Unfortunately, this unique heritage will be flooded by the reservoir of Ilisu Dam unless the project is cancelled. Therefore, a masonry minaret located in Hasankeyf is selected as a case for this study. Because of the non-homogeneous characteristics of the structural material, Finite Element Method, as a powerful analytical modeling tool, is used in order to evaluate the validity and effectiveness of the proposed methodology. Finally, it is certified that this methodology is successfully applicable for the relocation of historical masonry monuments.

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) and Rebound test as non-destructive techniques may effectively contribute to in situ analysis of bricks and masonries elements for the restoration, rehabilitation and strengthening of historic buildings. Fired-clay bricks were commonly used in buildings in ancient China, but there is few knowledge on their behaviour in environmental conditions. Moisture is one of the main factors that cause deterioration in historic building, in particular in areas with natural freeze-thaw cycles. In this work, two laboratory experiments were carried out, at Tongji University, China, and DICAM Department of Bologna University, Italy, respectively. Fired-clay bricks about 200 years old were collected from demolished buildings in Changzhi City in Shanxi Province, belonging to the Yellow River Region, where the climate involves natural freeze-thaw cycles. The aim was to evaluate how the frost damage changes the physical and mechanical properties of Chinese historical bricks and masonries. Several non-destructive methods were used, focusing on the effectiveness of Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) for evaluating physical and mechanical properties of Chinese historic grey bricks and masonries. Destructive tests were also used to evaluate compressive strength and static elastic modulus. The samples showed a reduction of their properties due to freeze-thaw cycles. The presence of water affected the values of the analysed parameters, leading to a decrease of UPV. The trend determined by these methods can be used to assess the uniformity of bricks and to detect areas of poor quality or deteriorated masonry structures.

The retrofitting interventions on historical masonry structures are still an open issue in the preservation field. Multiple aspects must be considered for the design of a strengthening intervention, such as compatibility and durability of materials. Fiber-reinforced composites with inorganic matrix (FRCM) have been recently proposed as a more compatible solution with respect to FRPs (fiber-reinforced polymers), but their application in aggressive environments is still a matter of investigation. In this study, the behaviour of historical masonry specimens subjected to salt conditioning and reinforced with externally bonded steel-fiber reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) is investigated. Specimens were tested in pure tension to direct shear tests. Material characterization tests were carried out to analyse the salt content and the porosity of the substrate and of the matrix. These data were contextualised to investigate the influence of the substrate properties on the mechanical behaviour of FRCM-masonry joints. Test results demonstrate that FRCM composite showed a good performance on different substrates, thus confirming its compatibility with ancient masonry typologies, but a more in-depth chemical-physical analysis is desirable to predict the mechanical behaviour on variable substrates such as historical masonries.

Historic structures form a very important part of our cultural heritage and should be well protected. Therefore, full comprehension of the structural behavior of historic structures is of prior importance. A seriously damaged single domed mosque of 16th century Classical Ottoman Architecture was investigated in this study. Serious damages have been observed at various structural elements including the dome and the structural masonry walls, recently leading the structure'
s closure to service. The main objective of this study is to find out the possible reasons of the damage. The Mosque was constructed on silty-clay soil and the water table has been changed considerably due to the drought in recent years causing soil displacements. The structure is modeled with linear finite element approach. The masonry walls are modeled with homogenized macro shell elements. The change in water table is imposed on the Mosque as displacement at foundation joints. The results of the analyses have been compared with the observed damage and the finite element model has been calibrated according to the observed damage. Some rehabilitation methods have also been proposed. Mini pile application up to firm soil (rock) was recommended to prevent the soil displacement. A steel ring around the damaged dome base was proposed to avoid any further propagation of cracks. Furthermore, the cracks on the masonry walls should also be repaired with a suitable material that is also compatible with the historic texture.

Environment conditions and moisture presence in masonry structures may affect durability or even mechanical properties of architectural heritage. Among all the deterioration causes, the degradation of historic masonry by freeze-thaw cycles and different moisture amount are considered to evaluate their influence on elastic properties. Therefore, two experimental campaigns were carried out in the present study. The first one was performed at the Dept. of Geotechincal Engineering at Tongji University, to assess the influence of freeze-thaw cycles on elastic modulus of historic Chinese brick. The static elastic modulus was evaluated from the compressive strength test on masonry specimens subjected to different numbers of freeze-thaw cycles. Moreover, strength decay of the masonry was investigated, also analysing data obtained during ultrasonic test (UPV, non-destructive test). The aim of this step was to obtain the dynamic elastic modulus. Thanks to interpolation of the obtained data it was possible to improve the knowledge of the Elasticity modulus’ reduction of historic masonry subjected to freeze-thaw cycles. The second experimental campaign was performed at DICAM, University of Bologna, on ancient Chinese and Italian bricks, to assess the sensitivity of dynamic elastic modulus to moisture amount. In particular the influence of water presence in the material pores on the UPV measurements. The close relationship between the ultrasonic pulse velocity and the moisture content was investigated on brick cores in dry, 50% saturated and saturated conditions. Practical value and one of the main contribution of the experiments was the investigation of external factor and intrinsic properties of porous materials which directly influence the ultrasonic pulse velocity test.

The seismic vulnerability of urban assets exposed to earthquake hazard represents a growing concern in the engineering field due to the potential risk of collapse for the buildings, and the associated devastating consequences for the inhabitants. This concern has led to the development of novel strategies for the assessment of the seismic vulnerability of the existing buildings. An accurate evaluation of the seismic vulnerability constitutes the point of departure for the implementation of the necessary mitigation strategies aimed at increasing the seismic resilience of the cities. Seismic vulnerability assessment (SVA) at large-scale requires robust knowledge of the existing structural typologies, often biased by the intrinsic uncertainties related to local construction materials and techniques, especially in territories composed of historical and vernacular constructions. A propaedeutic stage of SVA is the definition of building taxonomies to characterize the structural features of the buildings and their main sources of vulnerabilities. This difficult task requires the availability of consistent technical data, which are commonly scarce in cities with historical constructions. This doctoral thesis contributes to the development of suitable methodologies for the systematic surveying of urban buildings in historical urban centres, by proposing four complete survey forms for timber, masonry, reinforced concrete and steel/iron structural typologies. This tool aims to improve and optimize the complex process of collecting and gathering data about the structural characteristics of the existing building stock. This thesis also contributed to the calibration of simplified numerical models for the assessment of the seismic vulnerability of traditional buildings composed of timber frame and masonry wall structures. The nonlinear behaviour is simulated through the adoption of Lumped Plasticity Models (LPM) for timber frames, and continuum Finite Element (FE) models for masonry walls. The calibration of these models is pursued based on rigorous comparisons with numerous experimental tests available in the scientific literature. The developed simplified numerical models for timber frame and masonry wall structures are used to assess the seismic vulnerability of two existing buildings located in the historical centre of the city of Valparaíso, Chile. The numerical models are employed afterwards to analyse the different structural configurations of timber-masonry buildings of the study area. The examined structural configurations differ in the organization of the resisting systems, number of storeys, and presence of structural irregularities. The different pushover analyses show the influence of the aforementioned parameters on the seismic behaviour of the buildings. This research proposes a tentative set of scores and weights for the application of the Vulnerability Index Method (VIM) to traditional buildings composed of timber frame and masonry wall structures based on a numerical investigation. The resulting VIM form is calibrated by applying the N2 method to determine the seismic performance of the representative typologies within the study area. This study is based on the results of a numerical study, unlike other available VIM forms available in the existing literature are based on past post-earthquake surveys of damaged buildings. The thesis ends in a prospective study on the seismic vulnerability by VIM of 111 buildings located in three neighbourhoods of the historical centre of Valparaíso. This is an area of special interest, as it includes two of the main evacuation routes for the city in case of a tsunami, and congregate different typologies of heritage buildings, made of timber, masonry, and reinforced concrete. The obtained results are used to create seismic vulnerability maps in a GIS environment that may be used for future works aimed at the definition of proper policies for the implementation of mitigation strategies.
La vulnerabilidad sísmica de zonas urbanas expuestas a terremotos representa una creciente preocupación en el campo de la ingeniería debido al potencial riesgo de colapso de los edificios, y las consecuencias devastadoras que afectan a sus habitantes. Esta inquietud ha motivado el desarrollo de nuevas estrategias para la evaluación de la vulnerabilidad sísmica de los edificios existentes en centros urbanos. Un correcto estudio de la vulnerabilidad sísmica constituye el punto de partida para la correcta implementación de estrategias de mitigación enfocadas a aumentar la resiliencia sísmica de las ciudades. Los estudios de vulnerabilidad sísmica a escala urbana requieren un alto nivel de conocimiento respecto a las tipologías constructivas existentes, información comúnmente sesgada por las incertidumbres intrínsecas de los edificios, asociadas a los materiales y técnicas de construcción locales, especialmente en territorios compuestos por construcciones históricas o de naturaleza vernácula. Una etapa propedéutica de este tipo de estudios es la definición de una taxonomía de edificios, que permita caracterizar los sistemas estructurales existentes y detectar sus principales fuentes de vulnerabilidad. Esta tesis doctoral contribuye al desarrollo de una metodología para el levantamiento sistemático de edificios históricos en centros urbanos, basada en la formulación de cuatro formularios de encuestas para tipologías estructurales de entramado de madera, mampostería, hormigón armado y acero/hierro forjado. Otra importante contribución de esta tesis se centra en la calibración de modelos numéricos simplificados y orientados a la práctica para la evaluación de la vulnerabilidad sísmica de edificios tradicionales compuestos por muros de entramados de madera y mampostería. El comportamiento no lineal dichas estructuras es simulado mediante el uso de Modelos de Plasticidad Concentrada para muros de entramado de madera, y modelos continuos de Elementos Finitos para muros de mampostería. La calibración de estos modelos se lleva a cabo en base a rigurosas comparaciones entre diferentes ensayos experimentales disponibles en la literatura científica. Los modelos propuestos se utilizan para la evaluar la vulnerabilidad sísmica de dos edificios existentes situados en el centro histórico de la ciudad de Valparaíso, Chile. Este caso de estudio se caracteriza por su singular entorno urbano, donde predominan los sistemas estructurales compuestos por muros de entramados de madera y mampostería. Los modelos numéricos se utilizan para analizar diferentes configuraciones estructurales de los edificios de entramado de madera y mampostería localizados en tres barrios históricos del centro de la ciudad de Valparaíso. Este estudio examina diferentes configuraciones estructurales que difieren en la organización de los sistemas resistentes, número de plantas y la presencia de irregularidades estructurales. La siguiente etapa de esta investigación propone una calibración preliminar del Método del Índice de Vulnerabilidad (MIV) para edificios de entramado de madera y mampostería. Una nueva ficha de vulnerabilidad se calibra en base a una investigación numérica y en la aplicación del Método N2 para determinar el rendimiento sísmico de los edificios. Esta tesis culmina con un estudio prospectivo de la vulnerabilidad sísmica aplicando el MIV a 111 edificios ubicados en tres barrios del centro histórico de Valparaíso. Esta incluye dos de las principales rutas de evacuación de la ciudad en caso de tsunami y alberga diferentes tipologías de edificios patrimoniales, hechos de entramados de madera, mampostería y hormigón armado. Los resultados obtenidos se utilizan para crear mapas de vulnerabilidad sísmica en el entorno GIS que pueden utilizarse para llevar a cabo planes futuros para la implementación de estrategias de mitigación de la vulnerabilidad.

The thesis moves from the need of understanding how a historical building would behave in case of earthquake and this purpose is strongly linked to the fact that the majority of Italian structures are old ones placed in seismic sites. Primarily an architectural and chronological research is provided in order to figure out how the building has developed in time; then, after the reconstruction of the skeleton of the analyzed element (“Villa i Bossi” in Gragnone, AR), a virtual model is created such that the main walls and sections are tested according to the magnitude of expected seismic events within the reference area. This approach is basically aimed at verifying the structure’s reliability as composed by single units; the latter are treated individually in order to find out all the main critical points where rehabilitation might be needed. Finally the most harmful sections are studied in detail and proper strengthening is advised according to the current know-how.

Mestrado em Engenharia Civil
As construções históricas são uma parte importante do património mundial construído, símbolos arquitetónicos das cidades, países e culturas. Os museus, monumentos, castelos, igrejas, catedrais, entre outros, são edifícios e locais que oferecem experiências únicas tornando-se difusores de conhecimento. Estes edifícios históricos são alvo da comunidade turística que representa recursos económicos importantes. Por estas razões, a sociedade realiza grandes esforços técnicos e económicos para a conservação e valorização do seu património histórico. Ao longo do tempo, desde a sua construção até aos dias de hoje, um edifício histórico é exposto a diversos fatores que afetam o seu estado de conservação tais como, a degradação e envelhecimento do material, alterações arquitetónicas, desastres naturais com grandes períodos de retorno, destruição causada por algum tipo de conflito, ações de reabilitação e reforço, entre outros. Assim, a avaliação de construções históricas é um tópico que detém alguma preocupação, não só do ponto de vista da preservação do património, mas também pela segurança estrutural e durabilidade dos edifícios ao longo do tempo. A análise estrutural é bastante importante para a identificação do motivo pela qual os edifícios exibem danos e deformações e também para compreender o seu efeito no equilíbrio estrutural do edifício. Através de uma abordagem correta e apropriada é possível avaliar a capacidade estrutural de um edifício histórico e definir e validar uma futura estratégia de reabilitação, tentando assim recuperar e manter o comportamento da estrutura original. O principal objetivo desta dissertação é avaliar a capacidade estrutural de duas construções históricas, a Catedral de Palma de Mallorca (Mallorca, Espanha) e um edifício de alvenaria que faz parte do complexo do Castelo de São Jorge (Lisboa, Portugal). Para os casos de estudo apresentados realizou-se modelação numérica recorrendo a diversos softwares de elementos finitos, desenvolvendo um estudo paramétrico para compreender a influência das propriedades dos materiais no comportamento global de uma estrutura e ainda se definiram e analisaram diferentes estratégias de reabilitação.
The historical constructions are an important part of the world built heritage, architectural valued symbols of their cities, countries and cultures. Museums, monuments, castles, churches, cathedrals, among others, are buildings and sites that offer unique experiences as centres of knowledge. These historical buildings are the target of the tourist community which represent important economic resources. For these reasons, the society holds great technical and economical effort for the conservation and value of their historical heritage. Overtime, since their construction until the present day, a historical building is exposed to several factors that could affect their state of conservation such as, the material degradation and aging, architectural alterations, natural disasters with high return periods, destruction in occasion of conflicts, retrofitting actions, amongst others. Therefore, the assessment of historical constructions is a concerning subject, not only from the heritage safeguarding point of view, but also from the structural safety and durability over time. The structural analysis is of full importance to identify the origin of existing damage and deformations and their effect on the durability of the structure. With the correct and appropriate approach, it is possible evaluate the structural capacity of the historical construction in analysis and define/validate future rehabilitation strategies, strengthening and maintaining an improved behaviour of the original structure. The main focus of this dissertation is to evaluate the structural capacity of two historical constructions, the Palma Mallorca Cathedral (Spain) and one-story masonry arched building of the Castelo of São Jorge complex (Lisbon, Portugal). For these case studies were performed numerical modelling resourcing to different finite element software’s, developing a parametric study to understand the influence of the material properties on the overall behaviour of the structures, as well as proposing and analysing retrofitting strategies.

Gli eventi sismici significativi che hanno colpito la nostra penisola, hanno evidenziato l’elevata vulnerabilità sismica del patrimonio architettonico italiano, caratterizzato da costruzioni in muratura di grande valore storico e artistico. Il patrimonio edilizio, tramandato nei secoli e portatore dell’identità dei nostri luoghi, merita di essere preservato con attenzione e precauzione al fine di salvaguardare il portato di informazioni che contiene e garantire la sicurezza delle persone di fronte a eventi calamitosi come i terremoti. È proprio a tale scopo che questa tesi si propone di indicare una procedura consequenziale ben definita per una corretta prevenzione. Il primo passo è quello di individuare, all’interno di un campione, i centri storici più a rischio (fase 1: valutazione a scala urbana); all’interno di quest’ultimi il passo successivo è quello di individuare, quali sono gli aggregati edilizi più vulnerabili e quindi meritevoli di attenzioni maggiori (fase 2: valutazione a scala aggregato). Questo permette di individuare all’interno dei centri storici zone dell’edificato con maggior criticità e le Amministrazioni Pubbliche possono di conseguenza convogliare su di esse le risorse per indagare sulla vulnerabilità degli edifici in muratura mediante analisi strutturali dettagliate e per intervenire al fine di ridurre o eliminare le vulnerabilità riscontrate. Esperienze del passato hanno mostrato come gli edifici storici in muratura sotto l’azione sismica tendono a discretizzarsi per parti ben distinte (macroelementi): pertanto l’approccio utilizzato in questa tesi è proprio quello di rappresentare e analizzare il comportamento strutturale dei singoli edifici, nei confronti delle azioni sismiche, mediante analisi per meccanismi locali di collasso. Con questo stesso approccio è poi stata affrontata la problematica del dimensionamento degli interventi al fine di ottenere un miglior comportamento e una maggior sicurezza della fabbrica storica nei confronti del sisma (fase 3: valutazione a scala edificio). A conclusione della ricerca è stato implementato un metodo per la creazione di mappe di isorischio degli aggregati edilizi visualizzando uno scenario di danno atteso, derivante dalla vulnerabilità sismica dell’edificato e dalla pericolosità sismica locale.

After the second world war, cavity walls became a widespread external wall type in the North Western Europe including the Netherlands. Cavity walls consist of two leaves separated by a hollow space (cavity). The leaves are commonly made by masonry bricks, blocks, and wall ties. Wall ties are used to connect the two leaves of a cavity wall and are installed during construction. The ties are meant to withstand wind pressure mostly. Recently in the north of the Netherlands induced earthquakes took place. As consequence, many cavity walls may fail due to the crisis of the ties subjected to seismic solicitations for which they were not designed. The present work investigate numerically the behaviour of cavity masonry wall systems with or without wall ties. The models were implemented taking into account the physical and geometric nonlinearities. Both nonlinear static and dynamic analyses have been performed by means of the �nite element software DIANA.

The aim of this thesis is project documentation of the revitalization of a farming estate for living purposes. The complex includes four buildings in the city of Vitín in Southern Bohemia. Originally built in the 17th century, this estate falls under the care of historical monuments. This thesis deals with rehabilitation of wet masonry and reconstructing three buildings of the estate. The original perimeter walls are mixed, a gabled roof. Building A and C are two floored, building B is one floor. Presently only building C is used for living, the others serve as storage. Part of the reconstruction includes an extension wind lobby, indoor parking for a personal automobile, and a conservatory. The new structures are designed from aerated concrete Ytong blocks, Liapor and sprayed insulation made of polyurethane foam.

Historical masonry buildings, either monumental or minor buildings, have a need to be preserved in the correct way. The start point for that aim is to have or to be able to build up an extended knowledge of the constructions of interest. In Italy, an advanced document was put forward at national level some 15 years ago, proposing a diagnostic process to be followed in order to produce the necessary knowledge leading to a correct diagnostic evaluation. Relevant information can be extracted from many different sources, both on-site and off-site. Visual inspections and adavanced non-destructive techniques are part of the prescribed knowledge path and are particularly suitable for cultural heritage. They are used to indirectly assess the materials’ nature and characteristics, detection of damage and degradation, as well as for uncovering the past asset of the building and the compatibility of possible past interventions. This dissertation uses a case study consisting of a masonry building, situated in Guiglia, Modena, to adopt the knowledge process and conduct a personal experience of its application through various inspections, surveys and NDT tests such as IR thermography. Although the diagnostic work undertaken was initial and very partial, it resulted in discovering many peculiar aspects of the construction simply by contactless observations. These would be useful for further phases of the evaluation and assessment of the building and could make up the ground base for any preservation and intervention design.

The inherent complexities of masonry structures make prediction of their life expectancy very challenging. Moreover, the combined actions of time-dependent defects in structures under sustained stress greatly influence the stability and safety of these structures. Consequently, it is very difficult to identify and simulate such defects in a realistic manner without the knowledge of, and access to, the mechanical properties of the constituent materials, the construction details and the long-term effects of weathering. As a result, it is difficult to make any accurate predictions of the long-term deformation, stability and safety of the historic masonry. This thesis describes a computational modelling strategy for the structural analysis of historic masonry structures subjected to static loading. The modelling strategy includes loss of section effects (caused by freeze-thaw action, salt crystallisation damage and exfoliation); creep and creep-induced cracking. The proposed strategy also includes the effects of reconstruction and repair. This approach should help those responsible for the operation and management of historic masonry structures to make better informed decisions about safety, stability and maintenance in the future. The computational strategy employs the finite element method, using an elastic-plastic constitutive law for masonry, to develop a computational tool using Abaqus software. The tool was used to predict the structural response of a tall solid brickwork pier of a multi-span Victorian former railway viaduct in Whitby, Northern England. The pier is known to have suffered from a loss of section caused by frost damage and parts of it have been repaired with replacement brickwork. The pier also has clear visible signs of vertical cracking in the regions above its foundation. As there are no signs of settlement, it has been assumed that these cracks have been induced by long-term creep effects. In spite of the inherent variability of masonry and the uncertainties in the material parameters and mechanical behaviour, quite good correlation was obtained between the crack patterns in the pier predicted using the computational tool and those observed in the real viaduct, thus, validating the strategy. The findings of this research allow for simple, flexible and reliable structural analysis of present state and predictions of future conditions of historic masonry structures.

Nel corso degli ultimi decenni, le costruzioni in terra cruda sono tornate al centro del dibattito tra architetti e ingegneri di tutto il mondo, non solo perché costituiscono una vasta porzione del patrimonio architettonico mondiale, ma anche perché rappresentano una valida alternativa nell’ambito della sostenibilità alle tradizionali tipologie costruttive. In Portogallo, fino alla metà del XX secolo, ebbero molta diffusione gli edifici realizzati in adobe, ovvero in muratura di mattoni in terra cruda. Ad oggi, molte di queste architetture, di cui alcune in stile Art Noveau di grande valore storico e artistico, si trovano in pessimo stato di conservazione. Risulta quindi fondamentale promuovere programmi di ricerca multidisciplinari finalizzati a fornire validi strumenti per il recupero e il rinforzo strutturale di questi edifici. In questo contesto, il presente studio ha come obiettivo quello di implementare la conoscenza delle proprietà della muratura in adobe e in particolare dei parametri di resistenza meccanica. A questo scopo, ho condotto test sperimentali su mattoni provenienti dalla città portoghese di Aveiro per meglio caratterizzare le proprietà e la natura del materiale. Nello specifico, ho analizzato campioni cubici di adobe tramite prova di assorbimento d’acqua, analisi della distribuzione granulometrica, calcimetria e diffrattometria a raggi X. Sono stati poi effettuati test di compressione assiale su dodici provini cubici di adobe con diversi tenori di umidità per verificare in che modo e in che misura la presenza di umidità influenzi il comportamento meccanico e la resistenza di questo materiale. Ho inoltre realizzato la calibrazione di un programma di modellazione numerica (Nastra In-Cad) e, nella parte finale della ricerca, lo stesso programma è stato utilizzato per prevedere il comportamento di porzioni murarie in adobe con diversi tenori di umidità, utilizzando i valori ottenuti dai test di compressione sperimentali.

The use of lime mortars with pozzolanic additives is of special importance for the repair of historic masonry. In this study, the effect of pozzolanic materials on the final characteristics of mortars was investigated. Metakaolin, fly ash and historic brick powder were used as pozzolanic materials in mortar mixes with varying binder:pozzolan:aggregate ratios. Historic mortar samples from rubble stone masonry of Kahta Castle, a medieval structure in close vicinity of the Nemrut Dag Monument, were also investigated to serve as a starting point for the preparation of repair mortars. Physical and physicomechanical tests, optical microscopy, chemical tests, SEM-EDX and XRD analyses were used to assess the properties of the historic mortars and repair mortars. Fat lime was found to be used in historic mortars with a high binder/aggregate ratio. They were observed to have relatively low density and high porosity with an average compressive strength of 7.4 MPa. Historic mortars were determined to have relatively high water vapour permeability and low water impermeability characteristics. In repair mortars setting was found to be predominantly due to carbonation along with pozzolanic reactions. However, abundant presence of stratlingite in mortars with added metakaolin indicated that the pozzolanic reactions preceded carbonation in those mortars. Use of pozzolanic materials increased the uniaxial compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of mortars compared with control samples. Using the same binder:pozzolan:aggregate ratio, highest increase was observed on mortars prepared with added fly ash at the end of 90 days. Durability parameters of repair mortars defined as wet to dry compressive strength were in the very good to excellent range according to Winkler&rsquo
s classification. By using fly ash, design of lime mortars with high water impermeability and high water vapour permeability characteristics was accomplished.

This research establishes the concept of ‘Green Maintenance’ modelling for historic masonry buildings. It recognises the important role of maintenance and repair in reducing embodied carbon expenditure, thus minimising the Environmental Maintenance Impact (EMI) typically associated with the deterioration of external stone masonry walls. The model was developed using a mathematical framework, and it generated results described in terms of EMI. This model utilises life-cycle assessment (LCA) ‘cradle-to-site’ over a selected maintenance period. The work evaluates embodied carbon expenditure from different stone masonry wall repair techniques for historic masonry buildings during their maintenance phase. It was discovered that embodied carbon expenditure for these repair techniques are highly influenced by the number of maintenance interventions, longevity of repairs, total wall surface repaired (m2), the embodied carbon coefficient value (‘cradle-to-gate’) and kg/km emission factors (‘gate-to-site’) associated with materials and repair processes. Based on the EMI in terms of embodied carbon expenditure generated from the results of ‘Green Maintenance’, the efficiency of stone masonry wall repair techniques can be determined. This not only aids in maintenance decisions making processes, but also contributes in substantiating the philosophical defensibility and sustainability of interventions. In the broader sense, this model is not simply confined to masonry and will be of use to those entrusted with the repair of other elements and components.

40% of the total energy consumed in Europe is consumed by building operation and usage (Itard, et al., 2008). In the temperate climate of central and northern Europe, a significant proportion of this consumption is attributed to building heating during the winter months. Although recent trends in European legislation favor an increase in thermal efficiency of building enclosures for new constructions, the majority of the building stock consists of buildings built to a lower standard of energy efficiency. Over 56 % of the building stock in the central and northern European countries was built before 1970, when the first building energy efficiency regulations were adopted across Europe (Itard, et al., 2008). Even if current regulations require significant energy efficiency measures (EnEV 2009 in Germany requires a maximum heating energy consumption of 50 kWh/m2a) and the trend is to increase the standards even more, a vast portion of the building stock will have been built to much lower standards. Retrofitting existing buildings represents thus a priority, if a significant reduction in energy usage for buildings is to be achieved. There is a great opportunity in tackling this problem, especially when keeping in mind the fact that most of these inefficient building require significant renovation measures, as the lifespan of their systems comes to an end The case of historic masonry buildings across Europe is especially relevant, as they pose special challenges related to the historic preservation of facades and even interiors. It is thus the aim of the present research to compile a set of principles and technologies that can be used for the thermal retrofit of historic buildings.

The in-situ examination of historical structures for diagnostic and monitoring purposes is a troublesome work that necessitates the use of non-destructive investigation (NDT) techniques. The methods of quantitative infrared thermography (QIRT) and ultrasonic testing have distinct importance in this regard. The key concern of the study was developing the in-situ use of QIRT for assessment of stone masonry wall sections having different sublayer(s) and failures. For that purpose, the non-destructive in-situ survey composed of QIRT and ultrasonic testing was conducted on a 16th century monument, Cenabi Ahmet PaSa Camisi, suffering from structural cracks, dampness problems and materials deterioration. The combined use of these two methods allowed to define the thermal inertia characteristics of structural cracks in relation to their depth. The temperature evolution in time during the controlled heating and cooling process was deployed for the cracks/defects inspection. The superficial and deep cracks were found to have different thermal responses to exposed conditions which made them easily distinguishable by QIRT analyses. The depth of cracks was precisely estimated by the in-situ ultrasonic testing data taken in the indirect transmission mode. The inherently good thermal resistivity of the wall structure was found to have failed due to entrapped moisture resulting from incompatible recent plaster repairs. The IRT survey allowed to detect the wall surfaces with different sublayer configurations due to their different thermal inertia characteristics. The knowledge and experience gained on the experimental set-ups and analytic methods were useful for the improvement of in-situ applications of QIRT and ultrasonic testing.

In February 2021, in San Pio delle Camere, on the Navelli plateau south-east of L'Aquila, a masonry building collapsed suddenly, after repair work had just begun on the damage caused by the 2009 earthquake. The current study, after a detailed examination of all the design documentation and the comparison of the post-earthquake damage with the results of the analysis on the model, finding an excellent correspondence, went to research the possible causes of the structural collapse, which occurred in static conditions. The masonry texture was then analysed, consisting of unworked natural stones of medium-small size bound by poor quality mortar, parameterising the mechanical characteristics with in situ tests, the Masonry Quality Index and the values proposed in NTC 2018. Then, the analysis of the global model lead to the verification of the complexity of the aggregate induced greater pressures, and consequent deformations, precisely in the walls from which the collapse originated. With these assumptions, and from the evidence of the presence of a modest void in an internal facing, the study of the local mechanism was deepened, arriving at the presumption of the possible minimum dimensions of such a cavity and how this, even if minimal, could have been the cause if concomitant with the degradation of the bonding mortar induced by the absence of maintenance and the loss of even minimal resistance capacities.

I aktuellt läge [2019] brister Sverige på att tillhandahålla förberedande planer för eventuella brandolyckor i byggnader med kulturhistoriskt värde. Brandolyckor på kulturminnesmärkta byggnader är inte frekventa och det saknas en standardiserad metod på hur återställandet kan hanteras efter en brandolycka på ett produktivt och hållbart sätt. Syftet med rapporten är att komma fram till en förenklad och mätbar standardiserad arbetsprocess genom att förbättra arbetet kring en brandolycka på kulturminnesmärkta byggnader, där förebyggande åtgärder, förbättringar under brandförloppet och återställande av objekt ingår. Rapporten görs med målen att bevara en god social hållbarhet och bevara det svenska kulturarvet för framtida generationer. Målet vid återställandet av en kulturhistorisk byggnad är att utseendet ska förbli oförändrat och att bevara det traditionella och ursprungliga skicket. Huvudobjekt som undersöks är kulturminnesmärkta byggnaden Kasern II på Skeppsholmen tillsammans med de två referensobjekten Katarina kyrka och Vildmannen 7. Huvudobjektet där en brandolycka bryter ut i september år 2016 håller idag [2019] på att återställas efter omfattande fuktskador från släckningsarbetet och brandskador på material som blev utsatta för höga temperaturer. Del av den standardiserade processen är att redovisa hur val av släckmedel kan avgöra omfattningen av fuktskador på materialet i byggnaden och hur släckmedlet och brandrester påverkar närliggande miljö ur ett hållbarhetsperspektiv. Även förebyggande brandskydd och önskvärt brandskydd efter restaureringsarbetet tas med. Rapporten bearbetar materialmässigt främst tegel och trä som oftast utgör den bärande stommen respektive bjälklaget i en kulturhistorisk byggnad. Genom att observera hur trämaterial och murverk reagerar vid hög temperatur och fukt vill författarna bedöma om de kan saneras och återanvändas eller behöver kasseras. Dessutom undersöks med fokus på återställande av konstruktionen, saneringsmetoder för att ta bort brandlukt och mikrobiologisk påväxt på trämaterial. Då målet vid återställande av en kulturminnesmärkt byggnad är att behålla den traditionella utformningen saneras det massiva teglet och träbalkarna i den utsträckning som går för att bevara dem. Dimensionering av brandskydd varierar för olika kulturminnesmärkta byggnader beroende på objektets utformning och ändamål. Som exempel för installation av sprinkler görs en avvägning mellan risk för brand och risk för eventuella fuktskador vid brand. Compressed air foam system [CAFS] är den släckningsutrustning som används under släckningsarbetet på Kasern II, som jämfört med andra släckningssystem avger mindre vatten och på så sätt minimerar fuktskador. Under brandförloppet hjälper aktuella ritningar, dokumentation och insatsplaner räddningstjänsten att utföra ett funktionellt släckningsarbete. Tegel är beständigt mot brand då det bränns under tillverkningsprocessen. Vid en brandolycka kan tegel spricka om sintringstemperatur överstigs eller vid snabb avkylning under släckningsarbete. Sprickor kan åtgärdas med förstärkning av murverk. Sprickor i tegel som är synligt för blotta ögat återanvänds om det inte finns en synlig fysisk skada på materialet. Trämaterialets hållfasthet försämras inte vid exponering av hög temperatur förutom i den brännskadade delen som kallas förkolningsdel och ligger i ytskiktet på balken efter brand. Förkolningsdelen kan mekaniskt hyvlas bort vid sanering. Mekanisk hyvling anses som en relativt enkel saneringsmetod och kräver inga kemiska miljöpåverkande ämnen.
In current situation [2019], Sweden is failing to provide preparatory plans for possible fire accidents in buildings with cultural-historical value. Because fire accidents on monumental buildings do not occur frequently, there is no standardized method on how to manage the restoration after the accident in a productive and sustainable manner. Purpose of the report is to produce a simplified standardized and measurable work process on how to improve arrangements during a fire accident on monumental buildings, where preventive measures, improvements during fire process and restoration of the building are included. The report is written with the aim of preserving good social sustainability and for preserving the Swedish cultural heritage for the future. The goal when restoring a cultural-historical heritage building is to maintain the classical appearance and to preserve the traditional and original condition. The main object reviewed is the cultural heritage building Kasern II on Skeppsholmen together with two more reference objects. The main object, where the fire accident takes place in September 2016, is today [2019] being restored after extensive moisture damage from the extinguishing work and fire damage to the material which was exposed to high temperature. Part of the standardized process is to describe how the choice of extinguishing agent can determine the extent of moisture damage to the material of the building and how pollution from the extinguishing agent and fire residues affect the neighboring environment from a sustainable point of view. Preventive fire protection and desirable fire protection after restoration work are also included. The report materially presents bricks and wood, which most often constitute the supporting structure and the floor structure of a cultural-historical building. By observing how wood materials and masonry react at high temperature and humidity, an assessment is made whether these materials can be decontaminated and reused or need to be discarded. In addition, with focus on restauration of the construction, decontamination methods for removal of fire odor and microbiological growth on wood materials are studied. Goal when restoring a building with cultural heritage is to maintain the traditional construction, therefore the solid brick and wooden beams are to be remedied to the extent required to preserve them. The choice of fire protection installations varies depending on the building's design and purpose. An example is the installation of sprinklers, which is a tradeoff between the risk of fire and the risk of possible moisture damage in the event of fire. Compressed air foam system [CAFS] is the extinguishing equipment used during extinguishing work on Kasern II which, compared to other extinguishing systems, emits less water therefore minimizing moisture damage. During the fire accident, updated drawings, documentation and action plans help the rescue service perform a functional extinguishing work. Bricks are resistant to fire as bricks are burned during manufacturing process. During a fire accident, bricks may crack if the sintering temperature is exceeded or in case of a rapid cooling during extinguishing work. Cracks can be restored with reinforcement on masonry. As cracks in brick are usually visible to the naked eye, bricks are reused if there is no visible physically damage to the material. The strength of wood material does not deteriorate when exposed to high temperature except in the burned part called char, which lies on the surface layer of the beam after fire exposure. The charring part can be mechanically planed away during sanitation. Mechanical planning is regarded as a relatively simple sanitation method and does not require any chemical environmentally impacting substances.

Conventional methods used in the structural analysis are usually insufficient for the analysis of historical structures because of the complex geometry and heterogeneous material properties of the structure. Today&rsquo
s computing facilities and methods make FEM the most suitable analysis method for complex structural geometry and heterogeneous material properties. Even the shrinkage, creep of the material can be considered in the analysis. Because of this reason Finite Element Method (FEM) is used to analyze such structures. FEM converts the structure into finite number of elements with specific degree of freedoms and analyses the structure by using matrix algebra. However, advanced FEM methods considering the inelastic and time dependent behavior of material is a very complex and difficult task and consumes considerable time. Because of this reason, to analyze every historical structure is not feasible by applying advanced inelastic FEM, whereas elastic FEM analysis at low load levels is very helpful in understanding the behavior of the structure.The analysis of a masonry gate in the historical city, Hasankeyf is the case study of this thesis. Different common software are used in FEM to compare the stresses, deformations, modal shapes etc. of the same structure. Besides the inelastic behavior of the structure is investigated and compared with the elastic behavior of the structure. The study is intended to show that at the low load levels elastic FEM analysis is sufficient to understand the response of the structure and is preferable to the inelastic FEM analysis unless a very complex analysis is required

Craftsmen of past generations built to last, and the brick buildings they constructed can last for centuries if they are not mistreated. Although brick masonry is one of the most durable building materials, its durability can be threatened by improper cleaning and repointing techniques and materials. Many brick surfaces have been--and currently are being--disfigured, and the rate of deterioration often accelerated, because of the lack of knowledge of proper preservation techniques for historic bricks and mortar.This field guide provides a single source of information regarding inspection of historic brick buildings; the causes of deterioration, diagnoses and treatments; appropriate materials and methods for repointing; various cleaning methods; and surface coatings (including waterproof and water-repellent coatings, paint and stucco). This manual can be used to assist persons responsible for the care of old and historic brick buildings: owners of houses or commercial buildings, administrators, architects, contractors, and anyone else who wants to maintain or sympathetically restore or rehabilitate brick buildings.While masonry work generally should only be done by professionals, this field guide will enable a building owner or administrator to understand proper preservation techniques and oversee the project to ensure that the architect or contractor is following the recommended preservation procedures. The Mississippi Department of Archives and History will use this creative project as a reference manual and as a handout to persons undertaking restoration of historic brick buildings.Historic architecture is a viable link between generations of the past and those of the present and future. Proper maintenance and restoration techniques can ensure that a historic brick building will endure for generations to come.
Department of Architecture

The aim of this study is to investigate the physical and mechanical properties of construction materials in relation with the structural behaviour of a historic structure. Within this framework, the brick masonry superstructure of Tahir ile Zuhre Mescidi, a XIIIth century Seljuk monument in Konya was selected as case study. The study started with the determination of the basic physical (bulk density, effective porosity, water absorption capacity), mechanical (modulus of elasticity, uniaxial compressive strength), durability and pozzolanic properties of original brick and mortar by laboratory analysis. The obtained data was utilized as material information at the modelling of superstructure, by means of structural analysis software, SAP2000. At the modelling stage, finite element method was used and the complexity of masonry in terms of nonlinearity and heterogeneity was taken into account within practical limits. The constructed model was investigated under dead load, wind load, snow load, temperature load and earthquake load and their possible combinations. Structural investigation was continued with two scenarios representing possible wrong interventions i.e. completion of the partially collapsed superstructure with concrete and the concrete coating over superstructure. These cases were investigated under uniform and randomly distributed temperature loads. The results approved the safety of the superstructure under normal service conditions, defined as the appropriate combinations of dead load, snow load, wind load and temperature load. The structure appeared to be safe under the earthquake load too. The analyses carried out to simulate the inappropriate restoration works demonstrated the structural damage formations at the original structure.

La méthode des éléments distincts est devenue l'une des méthodes de modélisation numériques les mieux adaptées à l'analyse du comportement des massifs rocheux fractures. Principalement dédiée à l'analyse des milieux discontinus, la méthode des éléments distincts est utilisée ici pour étudier le comportement d'ouvrages réalisées en maçonnerie et soumis à des sollicitations sismiques. Une méthodologie s'appuyant sur cette méthode de modélisation est donc proposée pour l'analyse de la vulnérabilité sismique des ouvrages historiques. Après avoir rappelé les fondements du génie parasismique en général, nous nous attachons a présenter de façon exhaustive les difficultés liées à l'analyse structurale des ouvrages historiques en maçonnerie et les méthodes jusqu'à maintenant employées pour réaliser ces analyses. Vient ensuite une présentation des méthodes de modélisation numérique et en particulier de la méthode des éléments distincts dont nous décrivons les principes de fonctionnement. Puis, nous expliquons comment il est possible d'utiliser cette méthode pour l'analyse structurale, en particulier dans le cas de sollicitations dynamiques, des ouvrages historiques réalisés en maçonnerie. Nous mettons notamment l'accent sur l'apport de cette méthode par rapport aux méthodes de modélisation plus traditionnelles telles que la méthode des éléments finis. Nous présentons ensuite une validation de notre approche s'appuyant sur la comparaison entre un modèle numérique simple et un modèle analytique reconnu. L’analyse systématique de cas simples telles que murs et arches, mise en rapport avec des observations réelles, nous permet ensuite de conclure à l'efficacité de la démarche et de la méthode employées. Enfin, nous présentons l'analyse dynamique de cas réels (égyptiens et grecs principalement), choisis pour leur représentativité de l'ensemble des ouvrages historiques ainsi que pour les problèmes particulier qu'ils posent

En esta tesis se plantea examinar la trayectoria de la masonería en el país en tanto organización donde se establecen redes de relaciones sociales; en este sentido, se establecen las siguientes interrogantes: ¿cuándo y cómo arribó la masonería a México? ¿Quiénes fueron los masones iniciales? ¿Quiénes eran los masones que les siguieron generacionalmente?, ¿A qué tipo de rito masónico pertenecían? ¿Cómo fue el proceso de implantación y desarrollo de la masonería en México? ¿Cuándo y cómo aparecieron los ritos nacionales? ¿Cómo fue la reacción de los no masones ante la aparición de una asociación definida como secreta? ¿Cómo definieron los no masones a la masonería?

La relevancia de dos entidades sociales como la clase media y la masonería no ha sido abordada de un modo satisfactorio en la historia reciente de nuestro país. Aún más. Son escasas las investigaciones que han dado luces sobre la relación entre estos “estamentos” que conviven, desde sus respectivos orígenes, profundamente imbricados. De este modo, esta tesis nace del asombro que provoca el amplio abanico conceptual que define a las capas medias, tanto en nuestra historiografía como en el uso actual. Asimismo, surge de la necesidad de conocer la influencia cotidiana de una organización secreta siempre presente en los avatares de las centurias republicanas de nuestra patria. A partir de entrevistas a masones, y de una revisión de bibliografía secundaria, tesis de grado, prensa y otras fuentes documentales, se persigue develar las mediaciones sociales entre la clase media y la masonería en nuestro país. Así, se ha escogido un período particular, 1970-1990, pues se sostiene que durante estos años se produce una severa transformación tanto de las capas medias como de las logias masónicas. Como también se ha delimitado el campo de estudio, en la ciudad de Valparaíso, por lo que hablaremos de masonería porteña, la cual se auscultará mediante los métodos de la microhistoria y la historia oral. A su vez, se busca establecer una discusión sobre la noción de clase social y, en especial, de la clase media nacional a partir de las más clásicas y también más recientes conceptuaciones teóricas. Esta aproximación se funda en la necesidad de contribuir a preguntas mayores sobre los rasgos característicos que conforman la sociedad chilena, en la que interrogantes acerca del tipo de clase media no sólo es un cuestionamiento trascendente, sino ineludible.

Lime mortar and plaster have been investigated with the aim to improve the knowledge on how to make them as durable as before the cement technology was developed. The background was the durability problems experienced for newly produced lime plaster on the medieval churches on the island of Gotland, Sweden. In some cases the new lime plaster façades showed severe frost damages after only one winter. Although the lime was burnt and produced according to old local traditions, the lime mortar was still mixed and worked onaccording to methods developed for lime-cement mortar. This often led to a very porous lime plaster with a lime shell in the surface and such a plaster has been shown to be sensitive to frost expansion. Field studies were combined with laboratory studies of thin section specimens. Optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy have been important analytical methods showing the porosity and the structure of the binder and aggregate materials. The investigations have been carried out on both historic and on newly made reference mortar and plaster. The field studies were carried out mainly on Gotland, using local materials. The influence of the raw materials, i.e. lime, aggregate and blending ratio was investigated. The focus has been on the workability of the fresh mortars as well as the pore structure of the carbonated plaster. The craftsmanship, meaning mixing and application of mortar and working the plaster surface, was studied in order to clarify its final pore structure. The pore structure in a material determines many of its technical properties, such as moisture transportation, compressive strength, permeability and frost resistance. All these properties are closely connected to the durability of the mortar and plaster. The permeability of the plaster has an impact also on the durability of the covered construction materials. Behind low-permeable plasters made with hydraulic binder, examples of extensive damages of rotten wood and leached lime have been shown. The investigations have shown the importance of choosing a mortar adjusted to the building construction. They also showed the importance of choosing a blending ratio adjusted to the specific binder and sand used in order to get a mortar with a suitable pore structure and good durability. It has also shown the importance of knowing when and how to work on the plaster surface in order to obtain a homogenous material that is well receptive for lime wash and has a good frost resistance. The combination of all the investigations has led to a method for reconstructing historic mortar and plaster with good durability.

Insulating the exterior wall of an historic property can have the benefits of increasing thermal comfort for occupants as well as reducing energy use for heating and cooling. Concerns expressed by preservationists that insulation can lead to the degradation of the building structure or its historic fabric. Using the Park Inn Hotel, an early twentieth century commercial property designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, the application, feasibility, ramifications and potential benefits of applying insulation to the exterior wall was studied. Analysis for insulation includes evaluation of the historic characteristics, construction of the exterior wall, heat loss calculations, and how moisture will be transported through the wall. It was found that the key to determining if the exterior wall of a historic building can be insulated successfully without damage to the historic characteristics of the building or to the building itself, is in understanding how the building was designed and how it deals with moisture. With a thorough understanding of these elements, one can ascertain if insulating the exterior wall of his/her historic building is appropriate.
Department of Architecture

Esta Tesis Doctoral analiza la represión franquista de la masonería en dos provincias del País Valenciano: Alicante y Castellón, a través de la aplicación de la Ley de 1 de marzo de 1940 sobre Represión de la Masonería y del Comunismo, que mediante la creación del Tribunal Especial de Represión de la Masonería y del Comunismo, afectó a la práctica totalidad de los masones de estas dos provincias, siendo uno de los ejes fundamentales de la represión franquista, junto a los consejos de guerra de la Jurisdicción Militar y los expedientes de Responsabilidades Políticas, que también afectaron a los masones valencianos. En los capítulos iniciales hemos investigado profundamente la implantación de las logias, triángulos y los organismos masónicos superiores en estas dos provincias, desde el periodo de la crisis finisecular (1893-1900) en el caso de Alicante y desde 1905 en el caso de la provincia de Castellón, hasta el final de la Guerra Civil en 1939 y su interrelación con la sociedad del momento, especialmente en el campo político. La desaparición de buena parte de la documentación masónica de las décadas de 1920 y 1930, nos ha impedido llegar a conocer completamente las actividades de la masonería en estas dos provincias, pero tras varios años de investigación hemos podido. identificar a la mayor parte de los masones de este periodo en ambas provincias, en unos porcentajes que superan el 90% de todos los iniciados. Serán 656 en el caso de Alicante y 33 en la de Castellón, aunque hemos hallado también a destacados castellonenses que fueron masones en logias de Valencia y Madrid. A través de la labor de investigación, especialmente en el Centro Documental de la Memoria Histórica de Salamanca, Archivo Provincial de Castellón, Archivo del Reino de Valencia y de la prensa de esos años, local y nacional, la identificación de los masones nos ha permitido interrelacionar la mutua influencia entre la masonería y la política, especialmente el republicanismo, en donde militaron la mayor parte de los masones alicantinos, desde la Unión Republicana de 1903, la Conjunción Republicano-socialista, el radicalismo, el reformismo y el republicanismo autónomo, pasando por los partidos creados durante la Dictadura de Primo de Rivera, los radical-socialistas del P.R.R.S. (al menos un 30% de los masones de Alicante de la década de 1930 militaron en este partido) y Acción Republicana, cuyos cuadros dirigentes se nutrieron profusamente de masones y por supuesto, a partir de 1934 Izquierda Republicana y Unión Republicana Nacional. Los socialistas, en el caso de Alicante y Castellón, tuvieron una representación mucho menor, aunque hubo destacados dirigentes de este partido que también fueron masones. En los años de mayor represión de las libertades públicas, con la Dictadura, las logias de Alicante y Castellón verán incrementados sus efectivos, puesto que la masonería se convirtió en el punto de encuentro y de lucha por las libertades de los adversarios del régimen. La llegada de la Segunda República, que los masones consideraban como obra suya, supuso paradójicamente, una ralentización en la actividad de las logias, pues la mayor parte de sus dirigentes primaron la actividad política sobre la masónica. Buena muestra de ello serán los 9 concejales masones elegidos en Alicante en abril de 1931 o como las alcaldías de Alicante, Elda, Elche, Burriana o Vila-real serán ocupadas por masones o antiguos masones o la presencia de masones entre los diputados de las tres legislaturas republicanas, especialmente en las Cortes Constituyentes de 1931, en las que, por ejemplo 10 de los 11 diputados elegidos por la circunscripción de Alicante fueron masones o antiguos masones y veremos a varios masones de Alicante y Castellón ocupar puestos de responsabilidad en los gobiernos republicanos. La guerra civil supuso una dura prueba para los masones de Alicante y Castellón. Al menos veinte fallecieron a causa de la represión durante la guerra y la posguerra o por los bombardeos. Con la derrota republicana la práctica totalidad de los masones fueron víctimas de la represión específica que supuso la Ley de 1 de marzo de 1940, incluidos masones ya fallecidos o que colaboraron con los sublevados a través de actividades quintacolumnistas o luchando en la zona franquista. Con la labor de los Servicios de Recuperación de Documentos, articulados en la Delegación del Estado y con la creación de un supuesto delito de masonería, pocos masones escaparon de su procesamiento y estos casos fueron debido a errores de identificación o por falta de datos suficientes para condenarlos, pero fueron excepcionales. La actuación del Tribunal Especial fue sistemática, pero también arbitraria. Hemos podido demostrar cómo algunos masones se vieron favorecidos por su significación política moderada o incluso favorable a las fuerzas sublevadas, aunque eso no significó su absolución. Solo hemos podido encontrar dos casos en que los masones fueran absueltos por el Tribunal Especial o por el Consejo de Ministros. Por actuaciones idénticas, algunos masones fueron condenados a pena de prisión, mientras que a otros se les sancionaba únicamente con las accesorias de separación e inhabilitación absoluta y perpetua. Las excusas absolutorias eran muy libremente interpretadas por el Tribunal. Esto se puede observar en las actuaciones muy severas que sufrieron los masones de Elda o de Nules, en contraposición con las más benignas de los masones de Vila-real. comenzaron muy pronto, en 1941 y se prolongaron en el tiempo hasta actuaciones realizadas en 1963 y 1964 cuando ya se había decretado la desaparición del Tribunal Especial. Los primeros condenados fueron masones destacados, tanto por su propia actividad en la masonería como por su proyección social y política, como en el caso de varios de los diputados de las Cortes republicanas. Hemos analizado un total de 385 sumarios del TERMC; de ellos 330 corresponden a masones de la provincia de Alicante y 55 a masones de Castellón o castellonenses que fueron masones en otras provincias, e incluso a personajes con relevancia política vinculados a Castellón, como es el caso de algunos diputados y gobernadores civiles. Las condenas oscilaron entre los 12 años y 1 día de reclusión menor y las accesorias, que se aplicaron a casi la mitad de los condenados, hasta penas superiores, llegando a la máxima de 30 años de reclusión mayor, especialmente a masones que habían alcanzado el grado 33 y fueron dirigentes destacados, aunque todos ellos se encontraban en el exilio o habían fallecido ya. Los sobreseimientos provisionales solían afectar a los sumarios de masones que no habían comparecido ante el Tribunal, por haberse exiliado o haber fallecido, sin que hubiera constancia fehaciente del suceso. Representan a más del 22’3 % de los sumarios, mientras que los sobreseimientos definitivos se decretaban por tener constancia fidedigna del fallecimiento del encartado y son el 11’69 % del total de los sumarios investigados. Un 7'80% de los sumarios sin embargo fueron condenados únicamente a la sanción de inhabilitación y separación absoluta y perpetua, que marcaban las penas accesorias. Las condenas fueron muy duras especialmente entre 1941 y 1943, aunque su aplicación fue suavizándose a partir de 1944, cuando a la mayor parte de los condenados se les aplicó el régimen de prisión atenuada, aunque con obligatoriedad de presentarse periódicamente ante las autoridades. Solo un 15% de los condenados sufrieron prisión efectiva, aunque en 1946 fueron todos liberados. Esta represión directa se vio acompañada en muchos casos por sanciones dimanadas de expedientes de Responsabilidades Políticas o por condenas por la Jurisdicción Militar.

L'estudi del comportament i la verificació resistent de construccions de maçoneria, entenent per maçoneria qualsevol fàbrica de maó, de tovot, de pedra de paredar o de carreus, presenta diverses particularitats. En general, es tracta de construccions existents amb la qual cosa és necessari un reconeixement de l'estructura in situ i, d'altra banda, són construccions realitzades amb materials, elements estructurals i tècniques constructives diferents a les emprades actualment. És conegut que la baixa o gairebé nul·la resistència a tracció de la maçoneria determina els tipus estructurals més adients a les seves característiques mecàniques: les parets de càrrega, els pilars i els arcs, és a dir, les geometries susceptibles de resistir les accions sotmetent els materials a estats bàsicament de compressió.

S'ha desenvolupat un model específic per a l'anàlisi resistent de construccions de maçoneria que té en compte els efectes del comportament no lineal del material i considera l'equilibri en la configuració deformada de l'estructura. Per això, s'ha adoptat la Formulació Matricial Generalitzada (FMG) per a l'anàlisi estàtica i dinàmica d'estructures formades per entramats espacials d'elements de directriu corba i secció variable. Aquesta formulació es fonamenta directament en l'equilibri entre càrregues exteriors i esforços interns seccionals i, per construcció, és exacta. En l'extensió de la FMG a l'anàlisi dinàmica destaca la construcció d'una matriu de massa elemental que, d'una banda, no requereix cap hipòtesi complementària sobre el camp de moviments i, d'altra banda, permet considerar de forma exacta la distribució de rigidesa i massa interior dels elements partint de la prèvia definició d'una matriu de massa seccional.

La implementació de l'anàlisi no lineal per al material, que inclou aspectes del comportament com ara la fissuració a tracció i la plastificació i l'aixafament a compressió, té la particularitat d'emprar dos esquemes iteratius: un a nivell elemental que permet verificar de forma exacta les condicions d'equilibri, compatibilitat i equació constitutiva en qualsevol punt interior de l'element i, en conseqüència, calcular exactament les forces resistides per a cada element coneguts els seus moviments nodals; i un altre a nivell estructura. En referència a l'anàlisi no lineal geomètrica, es presenta la formulació completa d'una matriu geomètrica de tensions inicials que, de la mateixa forma que la matriu de massa elemental, resulta coherent amb les hipòtesis de la FMG.

El model desenvolupat, una vegada implementat en programa d'ordinador, ha permès analitzar diversos exemples mitjançant els quals ha sigut possible comprovar l'exactitud del mateix, així com la seva eficiència numèrica i la capacitat de tractar satisfactòriament estructures complexes per la seva geometria o per la seva multiplicitat d'elements.
En particular, s'ha reproduït la resposta estàtica fins a ruptura i dinàmica d'estructures tals com edificis i ponts d'obra de fàbrica, o bé d'elements estructurals individuals. En tots els casos en què es disposava d'informació prèvia experimental, numèrica o analítica, s'ha trobat una bona coincidència de resultats.
El estudio del comportamiento y la verificación resistente de construcciones de obra de fábrica, entendiendo por obra de fábrica cualquier fábrica de ladrillo, de adobe, de mampostería ordinaria o de sillería, presenta diversas particularidades. En general, se trata de construcciones existentes con lo cual es necesario un reconocimiento de la estructura in situ y, por otra parte, son construcciones realizadas con materiales, elementos estructurales y técnicas constructivas diferentes a las empleadas actualmente. Es conocido que la baja o casi nula resistencia a tracción de la obra de fábrica determina los tipos estructurales más adecuados a sus características mecánicas: las paredes de carga, los pilares y los arcos, es decir, las geometrías susceptibles de resistir las acciones sometiendo los materiales a estados básicamente de compresión.

Se ha desarrollado un modelo específico para el análisis resistente de construcciones de obra de fábrica que tiene en cuenta los efectos del comportamiento no lineal del material y considera el equilibrio en la configuración deformada de la estructura. Para ello, se ha adoptado la Formulación Matricial Generalizada (FMG) para el análisis estático y dinámico de estructuras formadas por entramados espaciales de elementos de directriz curva y sección variable. Esta formulación se fundamenta directamente en el equilibrio entre cargas exteriores y esfuerzos internos seccionales y, por construcción, es exacta. En la extensión de la FMG al análisis dinámico destaca la construcción de una matriz de masa elemental que, por una parte, no requiere ninguna hipótesis complementaria sobre el campo de movimientos y, por otra parte, permite considerar de forma exacta la distribución de rigidez y masa interior de los elementos partiendo de la previa definición de una matriz de masa seccional.

La implementación del análisis no lineal por el material, que incluye aspectos del comportamiento como son la fisuración a tracción y la plastificación y aplastamiento a compresión, tiene la particularidad de emplear dos esquemas iterativos: uno a nivel elemental que permite verificar de forma exacta las condiciones de equilibrio, compatibilidad y ecuación constitutiva en cualquier punto interior del elemento y, en consecuencia, calcular exactamente las fuerzas resistidas por cada elemento conocidos sus movimientos nodales; y otro a nivel estructura. En referencia al análisis no lineal geométrico, se presenta la formulación completa de una matriz geométrica de tensiones iniciales que, de la misma forma que la matriz de masa elemental, resulta coherente con las hipótesis de la FMG.

El modelo desarrollado, una vez implementado en programa de ordenador, ha permitido analizar diversos ejemplos mediante los cuales ha sido posible comprobar la exactitud del mismo, así como su eficiencia numérica y la capacidad de tratar satisfactoriamente estructuras complejas por su geometría o por su multiplicidad de elementos. En particular, se ha reproducido la respuesta estática hasta a rotura y dinámica de estructuras tales como edificios y puentes de obra de fábrica, o bien de elementos estructurales individuales. En todos los casos en que se disponía de información previa experimental, numérica o analítica, se ha encontrado una buena coincidencia de resultados.
The study of the behaviour and strength of masonry constructions, made of brickwork, adobe or ashlar, presents some particular features. Because these constructions were built usually in the past it is necessary to carry out in situ inspection. On the other hand, these constructions are built of materials, structural elements and construction techniques quite different from present ones. It is well known that the low tensile strength of masonry determines the most appropriate structural elements regarding its mechanical characteristics such as bearing walls, columns and arches, in other words, geometries to make it possible for masonry to work under compression.

A specific model is developed for the strength analysis of masonry constructions that takes into account the effects of nonlinear behaviour of the material and imposes the equilibrium in the deformed geometry of the structure. For this purpose, a Generalized Matrix Formulation (GMF) is adopted for the static and dynamic analysis of 3D frame structures with curved elements having variable cross-sections. The most remarkable feature of GMF consists in the establishment of equilibrium in an "exact" way at any point within an element, so that no additional hypotheses are needed upon the displacement field. The extension of the GMF to dynamic analysis starts from the definition of an elemental mass matrix which, on one hand, does not require any additional hypothesis upon the displacement field, and, on the other hand, allows for an exact consideration of the distribution of both mass and stiffness throughout each element.

The numerical implementation of the nonlinear material analysis, which includes such features as cracking in tension and yielding and crushing in compression, has the peculiarity of including two iterative schemes. One, at the element level, that allows exact verification of the equilibrium, compatibility and constitutive relations through every point into the element, and, as a consequence, allows accurate calculation of the response stresses of the element from known nodal displacements. The other one is at structural level. In relation to geometric nonlinear analysis, the comprehensive formulation of an initial-stress matrix is presented that, like the elemental mass matrix, is consistent with the hypotheses of GMF.

The developed model, once implemented in a computer program, allowed the analysis of different examples that made it possible to verify, as well as its numerically efficient treatment of structures that are complex because of their geometry or multiplicity of elements. Particularly, the whole static response until failure and dynamic response of structures such as masonry buildings and bridges, as well as simple structural elements, are satisfactory compared with those attained by other authors using alternative formulations and experiments.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
O presente trabalho propõe apresentar o tipo de sociabilidade maçônica idealizada por Hipólito José da Costa, redator do Correio Braziliense (1808-1822), pioneiro da imprensa brasileira, apesar de não ser um reconhecimento unânime. Dessa forma será enfatizado à trajetória de vida de Hipólito e as muitas memórias construídas por seus biógrafos, que trazem à luz as dubiedades que cercam a figura do redator luso-brasileiro. Algumas interpretações que abordam as inúmeras facetas de Hipólito estarão presentes neste estudo, sobretudo, a sua faceta maçônica. Assim, com o objetivo de analisar a sociabilidade maçônica defendida e propagada por Hipólito da Costa, tomarei como base o discurso do redator registrado não só no Correio, mas também no Diário da minha viagem para Filadélfia, na Narrativa da Perseguição e nas Cartas sobre a Framaçonaria, obras que revelam a concepção de Maçonaria adotada por Hipólito: uma sociedade de homens virtuosos, cujo fim é fazer bem às famílias consternadas.
This paper proposes to present the kind of masonic sociability designed by Hipólito José da Costa, editor of the Correio Braziliense (1808-1822), pioneer of the Brazilian press, although not a unanimous recognition. Thus is emphasized the life trajectory of Hipólito and the memories built by his biographers, that bring to light the contradictions surrounding the figure of the writer. Some interpretations that address the many facets of Hipólito will be present in this study, especially about his masonic facet. Thus, in order to analyze the Masonic sociability defended and propagated by Hipólito da Costa, I will build on the speech of the writer not only in registered in the Correio, but also in the Diário da minha viagem para Filadélfia, in the Narrativa da Perseguição e in the Cartas sobre a Framaçonaria, works that reveal the design of Freemasonry adopted by Hipólito: a society of virtuous men, whose purpose is to do good to needy families.

Master of Arts
Department of English
Timothy A. Dayton
This thesis project seeks to reconcile the literary criticism of Marxist critic and advocate of literary realism Georg Lukács with the writing of postmodern author Thomas Pynchon in order to validate the continued relevance of Lukácsian aesthetics. Chapter 1 argues that Lukács’ The Historical Novel is not only a valid lens with which to analyze Pynchon’s own historical novel, Mason & Dixon, but that such analysis will yield valuable insight. Chapter 2 illustrates the aesthetic transition from the historical drama to the historical novel by using Lukács’ ideas to explicate The Courier’s Tragedy, a historical drama found within the pages of Pynchon’s The Crying of Lot 49. Chapter 3 applies Lukács’ ideas on the “world-historical” figure and the “mediocre” hero of the classic historical novel to Mason & Dixon. Chapter 4 asserts that Mason & Dixon enables contemporary readers to experience the novel as what Lukács calls a “prehistory” to the present. This chapter also illustrates how the prehistory of Mason & Dixon anticipates Pynchon’s nonfiction essay “A Journey into the Mind of Watts.” Finally, this chapter demonstrates how Pynchon avoids the pitfall of modernization in Mason & Dixon, which Lukács defines as the dressing up of contemporary crises and psychology in a historical setting. Chapter 5 ties together the work of the previous four chapters and offers conclusions on both what Pynchon teaches us about Lukács, as well as what Lukács helps us to learn about Pynchon.