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Relevant bibliographies by topics / History of cities

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Academic literature on the topic 'History of cities'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 4 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "History of cities"

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Monkkonen, Eric H. "As Cities Become History." Urban Studies 24, no. 1 (February 1987): 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00420988720080011.

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Li, Lillian M. "Cities in Chinese History." Journal of Urban History 38, no. 1 (January 2012): 164–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0096144211420652.

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Plane, Ann Marie. "Editor's Corner: Cities of History." Public Historian 25, no. 2 (April 2003): 7–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3379044.

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Ortman, Scott G., José Lobo, and Michael E. Smith. "Cities: Complexity, theory and history." PLOS ONE 15, no. 12 (December 8, 2020): e0243621. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243621.

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In recent decades researchers in a variety of disciplines have developed a new “urban science,” the central goal of which is to build general theory regarding the social processes underlying urbanization. Much work in urban science is animated by the notion that cities are complex systems. What does it mean to make this claim? Here we adopt the view that complex systems entail both variation and structure, and that their properties vary with system size and with respect to where and how they are measured. Given this, a general framework regarding the social processes behind urbanization needs to account for empirical regularities that are common to both contemporary cities and past settlements known through archaeology and history. Only by adopting an explicitly historical perspective can such fundamental structure be revealed. The identification of shared properties in past and present systems has been facilitated by research traditions that define cities (and settlements more broadly) as networks of social interaction embedded in physical space. Settlement Scaling Theory (SST) builds from these insights to generate predictions regarding how measurable properties of cities and settlements are related to their population size. Here, we focus on relationships between population and area across past settlement systems and present-day world cities. We show that both patterns and variations in these measures are explicable in terms of SST, and that the framework identifies baseline infrastructural area as an important system-level property of urban systems that warrants further study. We also show that predictive theory is helpful even in cases where the data do not conform to model predictions.

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Ferrer, Olga Sendra. "Barcelona: Cities in World History." Hispanic Research Journal 21, no. 2 (March 3, 2020): 201–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14682737.2020.1807189.

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Massard-Guilbaud, Geneviève, and Peter Thorsheim. "Cities, Environments, and European History." Journal of Urban History 33, no. 5 (July 2007): 691–701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0096144207301414.

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Konvitz, Josef W. "Port Cities and Urban History." Journal of Urban History 19, no. 3 (May 1993): 115–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009614429301900307.

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Vlassopoulos, Kostas. "Greek History." Greece and Rome 64, no. 2 (October 2017): 193–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0017383517000109.

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Three cities dominated the late antique eastern Mediterranean: Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch. Constantinople was the late Roman re-foundation of an archaic Greek apoikia, Byzantion; Alexandria and Antioch were cities created by Alexander and his Hellenistic successors. This review includes two important books that examine the long-term history of two of these cities: Byzantion and Antioch. Both books stress the need to situate these cities within the landscapes and territories from which they drew their economic, political, and spiritual sustenance; both also adopt a long-term perspective, covering roughly a millennium each, which makes it possible to trace wider continuities, trends, and changes.

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de Vries, Jan. "Renaissance Cities." Renaissance Quarterly 42, no. 4 (1989): 781–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2862282.

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“What does economic history have to do with Renaissance scholarship?” This is the question I asked myself when I was asked to participate in a panel with the title “Recent Trends in Renaissance Scholarship: Economic History.” Over a generation ago economic history escaped from the confines of conventional historical periodization, in which the Renaissance functions as the keystone, with its claim to being the origin of modernity. This conventional periodization, with its inconsistent mingling of political and cultural criteria for the organization of the narrative of modern history, makes whole categories of historical questions almost impossible to ask, let alone to answer. For many economic historians—and I count myself among them—it was a liberation to abandon all this in favor of a periodizing structure determined by long trends in population, price levels, relative prices, and other phenomena associated with these.

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Oxunov, Saydullo. "From The History Of The Emergence Of Cities In The Mirzachul Region." American Journal of Interdisciplinary Innovations and Research 02, no. 09 (September 30, 2020): 85–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/tajiir/volume02issue09-14.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "History of cities"

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Nawotka, Krzysztof. "Western Pontic cities : history and political organization /." Amsterdam : A. M. Hakkert, 1997. http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb39274280d.

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Nawotka, Krzysztof Dariusz. "The Western Pontic cities : history and political organization /." The Ohio State University, 1991. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1487694702785773.

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Stringer, Bryan Pascal. "Cities Divided: The Spatial Legacy of Apartheid." Ohio University Honors Tutorial College / OhioLINK, 2019. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ouhonors155628942846541.

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Benitez, Ignacio. "Cities as symbols Jerusalem and Babylon in history and eschatology /." Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN) Access this title online, 2006. http://www.tren.com/search.cfm?p034-0045.

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Hurtt, Eric Benjamin. "Cities of history preservation and interpretation in the design process /." College Park, Md. : University of Maryland, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/1903/1358.

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Thesis (M. Arch) -- University of Maryland, College Park, 2004.
Thesis research directed by: School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation. Title from t.p. of PDF. Includes bibliographical references. Published by UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Mich. Also available in paper.

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Freestone, Robert. "The Australian garden city: a planning history 1910-1930." Australia : Macquarie University, 1985. http://hdl.handle.net/1959.14/71351.

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"September, 1984".
Thesis (PhD)--Macquarie University, Centre for Environmental and Urban Studies, 1985.
Includes bibliography : leaves 405-418, and index.
Introduction -- The peaceful path to real reform -- The garden city movement -- An international phenomenon -- Australia: setting the scene -- Importing the garden city -- Overview of theory and practice -- An environmental ideal -- Garden city principles -- Garden towns -- Garden villages -- Garden suburbs -- The metropolitan scale -- Conclusion.
The garden city tradition in estate and metropolitan design derived its name from the garden cities advocated by Ebenezer Howard in To-Morrow (1898). A major force in the history of British planning, its influence was felt around the world. This thesis is the first overview of Australian theory and practice, focusing on the period between 1910 and 1930. Five basic tasks are attempted: an outline of the original garden city idea; an examination of the general ideology and organization of the garden city movement; clarification of the international context; specification of the general character and distinctiveness of garden city advocacy in Australia; and a systematic record of actual projects. -- The discussion indicates that the nature of the Australian response reflected the interaction of imported ideas with local circumstances. As in other countries, Howard's 'peaceful path' to 'a better a brighter civilization' was not fully followed. Instead, the garden city assumed three main guises. First, it functioned as an inspirational environmental ideal. Second, it brought together concrete principles for improved lay out that were advocated for and implemented in three different settings: special purpose 'garden towns'; 'tied' housing estates for industrial employees; and residential suburbs and subdivisions. These 'garden suburbs' dominated the local scene but, as with the other developments, translation of the ideal into reality was imperfect, being deleteriously affected by financial, political, and administrative factors in particular. Third, and at a larger scale, the garden city helped to introduce certain tentative ideas regarding the desirable size, shape and structure of the metropolis. -- The approach adopted is basically empirical, with the most important source material being the contemporary Australian planning literature. The structure is best described as 'stratified chronology'. The analytical framework combines three main approaches to planning historiography: the societal (setting planning events and developments in their broadest economic, political, cultural, and institutional context), the biographical (emphasizing the important role of individuals in the importation, diffusion and implementation of garden city thought), and the morphological (a spatial emphasis involving an inventory of landscape impacts). The major theme permeating the thesis is that of the 'diluted legacy': the drift in the garden city tradition away from Howard's holistic, radical manifesto through liberal environmental reforms to actual schemes which compromised or even totally contradicted the original idea in physical, economic and social terms. The extension and conceptualization of this idea provides one of several important areas for future research highlighted by the thesis.
Mode of access: World Wide Web.
xi, 424 leaves ill

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Orto, Julie M. "From Steel Cities to Steal Cities: Is Rusty Risky for High Crime?" Youngstown State University / OhioLINK, 2013. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ysu1390337303.

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Raynor, Benjamin. "King, cities, and elites in Macedonia c. 360-168 BC." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2014. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:3abd80a4-471f-4f53-af71-2e0f85ca7fb6.

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This thesis investigates the nature of the relationship between cities and king in the late Classical and Hellenistic Macedonian kingdom. It will consider the cities from two main perspectives: the city as a community, and the city as a settlement. Section 1 re-examines the evidence most commonly used to argue for the Macedonian cities gaining substantial autonomy in this period. It will be argued that this evidence has less to tell us about the political autonomy of the Macedonian cities than their 'social relations' with other Greek communities: Macedonian cities engaged in international exchanges which did not represent any challenge to the authority of the monarch, but which could also be used to represent the relationship between king and city as cooperative. Such latitude was balanced, however, by forceful expressions of royal dominance in other arenas. Section 2 considers the position of the cities within the royal economy, and examines how, as a result of the king's monopolisation of Macedonia's resources, and the fact that the Macedonian elite was more interested in advancing their position at court than acting as civic benefactors, the cities were left economically subordinated to the king. Section 3 uses the increasingly abundant archaeological evidence to consider how royal building programmes served to project royal ideology into the localities. Royal palaces, large-scale urban development, and fortifications created an experience of urban space in Macedonia which emphasised the roles of the monarch as guardian, benefactor, and unifying figure. The picture that emerges is of a kingdom of civic communities which were engaged in meaningful exchanges with their peers outside Macedonia, but which were living in large and impressive urban settlements which stood as monuments to the extent and ubiquity of royal authority. Late-Classical and Hellenistic Macedonia was a kingdom of poleis, but that kingdom was first and foremost a royal space.

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Yuen, Wing-yee, and 袁詠儀. "The city in late imperial China and Tokugawa Japan." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2004. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B2989301X.

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Vall, Natasha Therese. "Explorations in comparative history : economy and society in Malmo and Newcastle since 1945." Thesis, Northumbria University, 2000. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.365570.

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Books on the topic "History of cities"

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Macdonald, Fiona. Cities: Citizens & civilizations. New York: Scholastic, 1994.

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Macdonald, Fiona. Cities: Citizens & civilizations. New York: F. Watts, 1992.

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Bellan, Ruben C. Canada's cities: A history. Winnipeg, MB: Whitefield Press, 2004.

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Bellan, Ruben C. Canada's cities: A history. Winnipeg: Whitefield Press, 2003.

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Cities: An environmental history. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.

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Cities. London: Heinemann, 2004.

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Cities. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2004.

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Cities in American political history. Washington, D.C: CQ Press, 2011.

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Dilworth, Richard. Cities in American Political History. 2300 N Street, NW, Suite 800, Washington DC 20037 United States: CQ Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781608718016.

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Macdonald, Fiona. Cities. New York: Franklin Watts, 1992.

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Book chapters on the topic "History of cities"

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Oliveira, Vítor. "Cities in History." In The Urban Book Series, 47–62. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32083-0_4.

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Abrahamson, Mark. "The history of globalization." In Globalizing Cities, 1–33. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2020: Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315181332-1.

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Houlbrook, Matt. "Cities." In Palgrave Advances in the Modern History of Sexuality, 133–56. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230501805_7.

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Pauly, Michel, and Martin Scheutz. "Space and history as exemplified by urban history research." In Cities and their spaces, 15–28. Köln: Böhlau Verlag, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.7788/boehlau.9783412216092.15.

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Smith, Brian K., Erik Blankinship, Alfred Ashford, Michael Baker, and Timothy Hirzel. "Image Maps: Exploring Urban History through Digital Photography." In Digital Cities, 326–37. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/3-540-46422-0_26.

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Morimoto, Akinori. "History of cities and transportation." In City and Transportation Planning, 1–18. London: Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781003119913-1.

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Tambling, Jeremy. "Russian Cities: A Summary History." In The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Urban Literary Studies, 1–10. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62592-8_297-1.

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Wolitz, Seth L., Brian Horowitz, and Zilla Jane Goodman. "Cities in Ashkenaz." In Comparative History of Literatures in European Languages, 182–212. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/chlel.xx.20wol.

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Duggan, Eddie. "Squaring the (Magic) Circle: A Brief Definition and History of Pervasive Games." In Playable Cities, 111–35. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1962-3_6.

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Haldon, John. "Cities, Provinces and Administration." In The Palgrave Atlas of Byzantine History, 33–47. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230273955_3.

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Conference papers on the topic "History of cities"

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Steinbrückner, Frank, and Claus Lewerentz. "Representing development history in software cities." In the 5th international symposium. New York, New York, USA: ACM Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1879211.1879239.

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Mills, Rebekah. "Active History: Creating Sustainable Cities Through Heritage Trails." In 2021 IEEE European Technology and Engineering Management Summit (E-TEMS). IEEE, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/e-tems51171.2021.9524899.

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Sproule, William J., and William H. Leder. "Downtown People Movers-History and Future in U.S. Cities." In 13th International Conference on Automated People Movers and Transit Systems. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/41193(424)19.

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SHestakova, E. S., and V. A. Sud'bina. "Analysis of the English version of navigation signs in the Republic of Crimea (by example Simferopol and Bakhchisaray cities)." In Scientific Trends: Philology, Culturology, Art history. LJournal, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.18411/spc-26-03-2019-06.

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Tamborrino, Rosa, and Fulvio Rinaudo. "Digital urban history as an interpretation key of cities' Cultural Heritage." In 2015 Digital Heritage. IEEE, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/digitalheritage.2015.7419503.

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Biloria, Nimish. "Smart Cities: A Socio-Technical Perspective." In International Conference on the 4th Game Set and Match (GSM4Q-2019). Qatar University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.29117/gsm4q.2019.0020.

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This research paper elaborates upon the concept of Smart Cities and the evolution of the term itself throughout history in order to outline the emergence of two distinct schools of thought: technocentric and humancentric, which have shaped smart cities. The paper also categorizes smart cities based on these two perspectives and outlines the operational tactics associated with them. After discussing and summarizing the pros and cons of both perspectives, the viewpoint of a socio-technical system-based model for conceptualizing and re-thinking the smart city narrative is presented. This People, Activity, Context and Technology (PACT) based socio-technical ecosystem model and the manner in which it can overcome the shortcomings of the technocentric and the humancentric modes of thinking is thus presented as a way to understand the city and as a laboratory for initiating an ecology of informed smart innovations.

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Wang, Di, and Jianyi Zheng. "Comparison of Urban Form based on different city walls between Quanzhou and Newcastle." In 24th ISUF 2017 - City and Territory in the Globalization Age. Valencia: Universitat Politècnica València, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/isuf2017.2017.5061.

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Quanzhou in south-eastern China was built in the Sui Dynasty, having more than 1,000 years of history. Its urban development led to the triple walls in a different period of time. Its unique landscape of multiple walls is a one of the Chinese ancient city patterns. However, the massive stone-built city wall pattern like Newcastle also has more than 1000, years of history in western cities .City walls maintain the preeminence as the city’s most powerful fixation line. The expansion of the wall in Quanzhou shows how the time-space changes, while Newcastle' s fringe belt is relatively stable, which forms a different urban form. This article mainly compares the following aspects: (1) The development of Quanzhou fringe belt; (2) Differences of fringe belts between the multiple walls city and the sole wall city; (3) Differences of land use in intramural zone between two cities. This paper analyzes the differences of fringe belts caused by city walls between Quanzhou, (China) and Newcastle, (England), and their influence on the urban form between the East and the West.

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Fedorenko, A. S. "KULTUCHNOE LAKE (KAMCHATKA PENINSULA) AS A RECREATIONAL OBJECT: PROJECT RECULTIVATION." In Prirodopol'zovanie i ohrana prirody: Ohrana pamjatnikov prirody, biologicheskogo i landshaftnogo raznoobrazija Tomskogo Priob'ja i drugih regionov Rossii. Izdatel'stvo Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/978-5-94621-954-9-2020-26.

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The article proposes a project to create a cultural space around the lake, with the aim of increasing the social and aesthetic comfort of citizens. The experience of improvement and reclamation of embankments in the cities of the Russian Far East is taken into account. The current ecological state of the lake and its history were studied in detail, and measures were proposed to preserve the biodiversity of the lake and its restoration.

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Makarova, Daria Dmitrievna. "SPACE CITIES OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION IN PERSONS." In VIII Международная научно-практическая конференция "Научные исследования и инновации". KDU, Moscow, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.31453/kdu.ru.978-5-7913-1191-7-2021-114-127.

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Tourism is important for the economy of our country and the tourist attractiveness of the cities of the Russian Federation is quite high. Combining history and tourism, several types of tourism (cultural and educational, industrial, event) can serve as a great impetus for the formation of new thematic routes and an interesting excursion program for tourists of different ages. In this article, the author of the work has formed a thematic material for the 60th anniversary of the flight of the first man into space and shows the importance of Russian cities through the prism of cosmonauts who made the first attempts to conquer outer space. This material can serve as a basis for the development of thematic brochures.

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CARDOSO, Helder, and Richard PERASSI. "Place branding: graphic design’s participation in strategic management and brand identity of the cities." In Design frontiers: territories, concepts, technologies [=ICDHS 2012 - 8th Conference of the International Committee for Design History & Design Studies]. Editora Edgard Blücher, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.5151/design-icdhs-044.

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Reports on the topic "History of cities"

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Crown, Deborah L. The World War II Ordnance Department's Government-Owned Contractor-Operated (GOCO) Industrial Facilities: Twin Cities Ordnance Plant Transcripts of Oral History Interviews. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, May 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada315713.

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Lucas, Brian. Urban Flood Risks, Impacts, and Management in Nigeria. Institute of Development Studies (IDS), January 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/k4d.2021.018.

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This summary reviews evidence on the urban flooding impact, risk factors, and management and mitigation measures in Lagos and other cities in Nigeria. Flooding is a common problem every year in many cities across Nigeria, but the impacts of flooding are poorly documented. There is no consistent set of statistics at a national or sub-national level that can be used to compare the impacts of flooding across cities, and reports that focus on particular flood events are often incomplete. The literature notes the principal factors contributing to flood risk including uncontrolled urban growth, inadequate and poorly-maintained drainage systems, solid waste management practices, weakness in institutional capacity and coordination, and warning systems and public awareness. The evidence base for flood impacts, risks, and mitigation efforts at the city level in Nigeria is limited, and much of the information available is low quality, inconsistent, or outdated. Many rely on surveys of city residents rather than objective empirical data, and some of these surveys appear to be poorly designed. A significant number of the academic publications available have been published in non-mainstream journals without the usual level of academic peer review. Recent information is scarce, and a significant amount of the available evidence dates from 2011 and 2012, which coincides with an episode of nationwide flooding that was among the worst in Nigeria’s history.

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Lipfert, F. W. Estimates of historic urban air quality trends and precipitation acidity in selected US cities (1880-1980). Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), October 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/6158723.

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Vogel, Robert C., Deborah L. Crown, and Duane E. Peter. The World War II Ordnance Department's Government-Owned Contractor-Operated (GOCO) Industrial Facilities: Twin Cities Ordnance Plant Historic Investigation. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, December 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada315679.

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Squiers, Linda, Mariam Siddiqui, Ishu Kataria, Preet K. Dhillon, Aastha Aggarwal, Carla Bann, Molly Lynch, and Laura Nyblade. Perceived, Experienced, and Internalized Cancer Stigma: Perspectives of Cancer Patients and Caregivers in India. RTI Press, April 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2021.rr.0044.2104.

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Cancer stigma may lead to delayed diagnosis and treatment, especially in low- and middle-income countries. This exploratory, pilot study was conducted in India to explore the degree to which cancer stigma is perceived, experienced, and internalized among adults living with cancer and their primary caregivers. We conducted a survey of cancer patients and their caregivers in two Indian cities. The survey assessed perceived, experienced, and internalized stigma; demographic characteristics; patient cancer history; mental health; and social support. A purposive sample of 20 cancer survivor and caregiver dyads was drawn from an ongoing population-based cohort study. Overall, 85 percent of patients and 75 percent of caregivers reported experiencing some level (i.e., yes response to at least one of the items) of perceived, experienced, or internalized stigma. Both patients (85 percent) and caregivers (65 percent) perceived that community members hold at least one stigmatizing belief or attitude toward people with cancer. About 60 percent of patients reported experiencing stigma, and over one-third of patients and caregivers had internalized stigma. The findings indicate that fatalistic beliefs about cancer are prevalent, and basic education about cancer for the general public, patients, and caregivers is required. Cancer-related stigma in India should continue to be studied to determine and address its prevalence, root causes, and influence on achieving physical and mental health-related outcomes.

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Busso, Matías, Juan Pablo Chauvin, and Nicolás Herrera L. Rural-Urban Migration at High Urbanization Levels. Inter-American Development Bank, December 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0002904.

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This study assesses the empirical relevance of the Harris-Todaro model at high levels of urbanization a feature that characterizes an increasing number of developing countries, which were largely rural when the model was created 50 years ago. Using data from Brazil, the paper compares observed and model-based predictions of the equilibrium urban employment rate of 449 cities and the rural regions that are the historic sources of their migrant populations. Little support is found in the data for the most basic version of the model. However, extensions that incorporate labor informality and housing markets have much better empirical traction. Harris-Todaro equilibrium relationships are relatively stronger among workers with primary but no high school education, and those relationships are more frequently found under certain conditions: when cities are relatively larger; and when associated rural areas are closer to the magnet city and populated to a greater degree by young adults, who are most likely to migrate.

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Kimbrell, K. D., Matthew Snellgrove, Robert C. Vogel, and Deborah L. Cown. Twin Cities Army Ammunition Plant, Supplemental Photographic Documentation of Archetypal Buildings, Structures, and Equipment for Army Materiel Command National Historic Context for World War II Ordnance Facilities. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, May 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada315682.

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Kelly, Luke. Lessons Learned on Cultural Heritage Protection in Conflict and Protracted Crisis. Institute of Development Studies (IDS), April 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/k4d.2021.068.

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Abstract:

This rapid review examines evidence on the lessons learned from initiatives aimed at embedding better understanding of cultural heritage protection within international monitoring, reporting and response efforts in conflict and protracted crisis. The report uses the terms cultural property and cultural heritage interchangeably. Since the signing of the Hague Treaty in 1954, there has bee a shift from 'cultural property' to 'cultural heritage'. Culture is seen less as 'property' and more in terms of 'ways of life'. However, in much of the literature and for the purposes of this review, cultural property and cultural heritage are used interchangeably. Tangible and intangible cultural heritage incorporates many things, from buildings of globally recognised aesthetic and historic value to places or practices important to a particular community or group. Heritage protection can be supported through a number of frameworks international humanitarian law, human rights law, and peacebuilding, in addition to being supported through networks of the cultural and heritage professions. The report briefly outlines some of the main international legal instruments and approaches involved in cultural heritage protection in section 2. Cultural heritage protection is carried out by national cultural heritage professionals, international bodies and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) as well as citizens. States and intergovernmental organisations may support cultural heritage protection, either bilaterally or by supporting international organisations. The armed forces may also include the protection of cultural heritage in some operations in line with their obligations under international law. In the third section, this report outlines broad lessons on the institutional capacity and politics underpinning cultural protection work (e.g. the strength of legal protections; institutional mandates; production and deployment of knowledge; networks of interested parties); the different approaches were taken; the efficacy of different approaches; and the interface between international and local approaches to heritage protection.

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